Maghrebi Jews: Difference between revisions
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[[Italian]] : This language was present in [[Lybia]] and also influenced the area. |
[[Italian]] : This language was present in [[Lybia]] and also influenced the area. |
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==North African Jews under Nazi occupation== |
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== Algeria and Vichy government== |
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==Jews of Algeria== |
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{{main|History of the Jews in Algeria}} |
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[[Vichy France|Vichy rule]] (that ruled in [[Algeria]] from 1940) cancelled the citizenship of the Jews and instituted the same restrictions that applied to the [[Jews in France|Jews of France]] (and forbid them to work for the government, to be bankers, teachers and students, and also the number of Jews permitted to work in [[free professions]] was limited). In 1941 the property of the Jews was confiscated. However, in a sign of the solidarity in suffering, not a single Muslim Algerian took advantage of Jewish confiscated property; on a Friday in 1941, religious leaders throughout Algiers delivered sermons warning Muslims against participation in schemes to strip Jews of their property |
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<ref>[http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2006/12/07/AR2006120701877.html The Schindlers of the Middle East<!--Bot-generated title-->]</ref>. The suffering of the [[Jews in Algeria|Jews of Algeria]] was difficult because of their previous high position in society. In 1941 some Jews joined the anti-Nazi underground. Many Jews were caught and were sent to [[labor camp]]s or were executed. The [[Judenrat|Judenräte]] required assistance in preparation of war materiel. In November 1942 Algeria was liberated by the [[United States]] and [[Great Britain]]. In 1943 the restraints on the Jews of Algeria were cancelled. |
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=='''Algeria'''== |
=='''Algeria'''== |
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Revision as of 16:20, 6 April 2010
 | This article needs additional citations for verification. (February 2008) |
| Regions with significant populations | |
|---|---|
 Israel | 1,425,000 |
 United States | 90,000 |
 France | 490,000 |
 Canada | 30,000 |
 Morocco | 40,000 |
 Tunisia | 10,000 |
| Languages | |
| Judeo-Arabic, Hebrew, Aramaic. | |
| Religion | |
| Judaism | |
| Related ethnic groups | |
| Jews • Maghrebim
• Mizrahi Jews | |
Maghrebim (Template:Hebrew or Template:Hebrew) are Jews who traditionally lived in the Maghreb region of North Africa (al-Maghrib, Arabic for "the west"), established Jewish communities long before the arrival of Jews expelled from Spain. See Alhambra decree. They were present in Lybia (Cyrenaic) as well as Punic colonies (Carthage).
The term Maghrebim is formed analogously to Ashkenazim and Sephardim. The Sephardi population in Maghreb was urbanised and wealthier, so most Maghrebim chose to assimilate into the Sephardic Jewish community. Today most of Moroccan Jews consider themselves to be Sephardi. on the other hand "Cave-dwelling Jews" of southern Tripolitania, whose fate is uncertain after 1960, were probably an early and isolated offshoot of Maghrebim. .
The relationship with the Sunni Muslim majority has suffered in recent years as Arab hostilities engendered by the Arab-Israeli conflict have worsened relations between Arabs and Jews throughout the Arab and Muslim world.
Maghrebim Jews have lived with Arab and Berber communities of North Africa for centuries , they also have been strongly influenced by the French nation* , and are now living for most of them outside their traditional region. Their religion : Judaism which they kept from their first settlements to their own exile . Maghrebim follow the Sephardi rite , and they have their own cultures in each of their countries , with some common aspects (such as Mimouna , Couscous and other food and feasts). Maghrebim surnames are most of the times of Arabic , Hebrew , Berber and Spanish origins , common names are usually Arabic/Hebrew such as Elfassy , Nakache , Arfi , Boujenah , Lévy or Cohen , a minority are Spanish : Perez , Grenada or Berber : Timsit. However , the names are usually either French or Hebrew , and more rarely Arabic.
Maghrebim Jews make up a large part of both Mizrahi and Sephardi groups.
Different names
In France: Maghrebim are largely called "Séfarades" because of religious affliations. However , "Séfarade" means "coming from Spain" and most of modern Maghrebim don't take their roots in Spain , that is why they are called "Maghrebim" or "Maaravim" , meaning "these of the west".
in Northern African societies , there were two groups : Megaroshim (Sephardi Jews expelled out of Spain and who took refuge in Muslim lands) and Toshavim (Mizrahi Jews the indigenous Jews present since long times ago) , both groups tend to mix up in Algeria but it was not usually the case in Morocco or Tunisia.
In Israel , Maghrebim and almost all Mizrahi Jews are classified as Sephardi Jews. In the country , both terms are equal and all non-ashkenazi Jews are called Sfardim (based mostly on their religious affliations , since Sephardi rite is widely used in the Mizrahi Jewry).
Maghrebim Jews fit under both groups : Sephardi Jews and Mizrahi Jews.
.
Jewish history in North Africa
1. First Jewish settlements :
During Antiquity , North Africa had been openned to the Jewish diaspora : there were three important places of this diaspora : Carthage a Punic-Phoenician colony in Tunisia, The Cyrenaic a vast region of Lybia and Alexandria the big harbour of Egypt. North Africa was becoming a kind of "New Palestinae" , however , several rebellions started by the Jews against the Romans , in the Vth century , large part of the Jewish communities of Cyrenaic and Alexandria migrated to Tunisia and Algeria , they followed the long migration of Berber tribes from the west to the east , alot of them settled on the Algerian coasts and inlands , some others spread as far as south of Morocco , several Hebrew tablets were found there and the Jews made up a commercial traffic and opened a road from the east to the west of Northern Africa. Jews largely settled in the Punic ruines* which were the traces of a long Canaanite past in the region , Arabs did the same things after their invasion in the 7th century AD.
Maghrebim had spoken several languages : Punic (a Phoenician dialect) , Judeo-Berber , Hebrew; Ladino; Aramaic at the beginning of the diaspora and Arabic , which was the language of 90% of Maghrebim before 1950's.
Short story : Maghrebi traders in Jewish history
In the tenth century, as the social and political environment in Baghdad became increasingly hostile to Jews, many Jewish traders emigrated to the Maghreb, especially Tunisia. Over the following two or three centuries, such Jewish traders became known as the Maghribis, a distinctive social group who traveled throughout the Mediterranean World. They passed this identification on from father to son.
2. Sephardim refugees.
In 1492 , another Jewish community came to add the already high number of Jews in the region. in fact , Morocco has welcomed a Sephardi Jew community who was expelled out of Spain by the Christian Inquisition. Many other countries did as well (Algeria , Tunisia , Syria , Turkey , Greece , Netherlands etc..)This new community was called 'Megaroshim' (the foreigners) and they settled in large cities , where they made contacts with Toshavim (indegenous) Jews already present there. Ladino language was less spoken , most of Sephardi jews adopted the Judeo-Arabic language of their Jewish cousins. However , they influenced alot the rite of these ones , in the 1950's , all North African Jews followed the Sephardic rite*.
3. French colonization.
North Africa had been colonized by the French empire for a while , both Morocco and Tunisia were "French protectorat" while Algeria became completely a French department. Maghrebim Jews were quickly part of the upper-class in this French society , they enjoyed jobs* and several privilages , they even were allowed to ask the French citizenship (however , after the décret de Crémieux , this french citizeship was given , automatically , to all Algerian Jews). The situation became worst , with the German invasion of France , Maghrebim Jews were forbidden of any rights* by the Vichy government. Actually , some Maghrebim Jews died during the German invasion (as Alfred Nakache), the situation became even worst when the Germans invaded Tunisia , however , most of Tunisian Jews survived untill the liberation of the country by the American armies*. The situation became better after the WW2 , North Africa was inhabitted by Muslims (Arabs and Berbers)and Maghrebim Jews as well as by Italian , French , Spaniard settlers . After 1962 and the indepandance of Algeria as well as the statization of Tunisia and Morocco , begun a massive emigration of Maghrebim Jews to France and Israel , the ones who had the French citizenship went to France , while these who were influenced by "L'agence Juive" went to Israel.
Famous persons of Maghrebim Jewish diaspora
As it was said , Maghrebim Jews mostly emigrated to France and Israel. In both countries , they make up important communities , in France Jews of Maghrebim descent are a majority* and in Israel they represent a big part of Mizrahi part like Moroccan Jews. There are also Maghrebim Jew communities mostly in Canada , U.S.A and some everywhere (South America , Belgium , Spain etc..). Morocco and Tunisia still have both a Jewish community* , however , all Jews from Algeria are in diaspora* mostly in France. Lybian Jews mostly live nowadays in Israel.
In Israel , Moroccan Jews have introduced Mimouna (Hebrew: מימונה Arabic: ميمونة) which is a colorful traditional North African Jewish celebration held the day after Passover. It marks the start of spring and the return to eating chametz, i.e., leavened bread and bread by-products, which are forbidden throughout the week of Passover. Some believe the source of the name is Maimon, the father of the Rambam, Rabbi Moshe Ben Maimon, and the Mimouna marks the date of his birth or death. . This feast is nowadays widely known in the country.
In France : Maghrebim have introduced Sephardi rite as a dominant one. Jewish history of France was marked by the German invasion , a part of Ashkenazi community of France (originated from Alsace) died. Judaism in France was diying , until the massive migration of Algerian Jews , and then the one of Moroccan and Tunisian Jews. Maghrebim Jews communities are mostly found in Marseilles , Lyon , Paris , Lille and Nice as well as Toulon.
Languages
Several languages were spoken by Maghrebim Jewish communities through the times :
Aramaic : spoken by oldest Jewish settlements , and died after had been in contact with Punic and Berber languages.
Hebrew : Traditional and Religious language of the Maghreb Jew communities. This language and its alphabet has never been forgotten and was kept through centuries . it was taught to children along with religious stories.
Punic : spread by Carthage Empire and spoken from Tunisia to Lybia and East-Algeria. Punic was the last alive dialect of the Phoenician language , however , this dialect died , somewhere between the VIth century and the VIIth century AD after the Arab invasion.
Judeo-Berber : way of speaking the language by Berber-speaking Jew communities of the mountains*.
Judeo-Arabic : Jewish way of speaking Arabic , It was for centuries and untill 1963 , the language spoken by most of Maghrebim Jews. it was intelligible with Muslim-Arabic dialects , and vary from each cities.Arabic was the native language of everyday and between neighbours
Ladino spoken by a minority of proud-Sephardi-descent Jews. This language was diying out because of the arabization of the Sephardi Jews who settled in Northern Africa. However , one of its dialects was still alive in a city of Morocco untill 1900's.
French : This language was widely understood , learned and taught in the Maghrebim jewish community during the colonization and is still spoken by a big part of them. Almost all Algerian Jews are French-speakers.
Italian : This language was present in Lybia and also influenced the area.
North African Jews under Nazi occupation
Algeria and Vichy government
Jews of Algeria
Vichy rule (that ruled in Algeria from 1940) cancelled the citizenship of the Jews and instituted the same restrictions that applied to the Jews of France (and forbid them to work for the government, to be bankers, teachers and students, and also the number of Jews permitted to work in free professions was limited). In 1941 the property of the Jews was confiscated. However, in a sign of the solidarity in suffering, not a single Muslim Algerian took advantage of Jewish confiscated property; on a Friday in 1941, religious leaders throughout Algiers delivered sermons warning Muslims against participation in schemes to strip Jews of their property [1]. The suffering of the Jews of Algeria was difficult because of their previous high position in society. In 1941 some Jews joined the anti-Nazi underground. Many Jews were caught and were sent to labor camps or were executed. The Judenräte required assistance in preparation of war materiel. In November 1942 Algeria was liberated by the United States and Great Britain. In 1943 the restraints on the Jews of Algeria were cancelled.
Algeria
Almost all Jews in Algeria left upon independence in 1962. Algeria's 140,000 Jews had French citizenship since 1870 (briefly revoked by Vichy France in 1940), and they mainly went to France, with some going to Israel.[2]
Following the brutal Algerian Civil War of 1990s there– in particular, the rebel Armed Islamic Group's 1994 declaration of war on all non-Muslims in the country– most of the thousand-odd Jews previously there, living mainly in Algiers and to a lesser extent Blida, Constantine, and Oran, emigrated. The Algiers synagogue was abandoned after 1994. These Jews themselves represented the remainder of only about 10,000 who had chosen to stay there in 1962.
Jewish migration from North Africa to France has the led to the rejuvenation of the French Jewish community (25% were killed during the Holocaust) which is now the third largest in the world.
In recent years there has been significant migration of Jews from France to Israel.
Libya
In 1948, about 38,000 Jews lived there.[3][4] A series of pogroms started in Tripoli in November 1945; over a period of several days more than 130 Jews (including 36 children) were killed, hundreds were injured, 4,000 were left homeless, and 2,400 were reduced to poverty. Five synagogues in Tripoli and four in provincial towns were destroyed, and over 1,000 Jewish residences and commercial buildings were plundered in Tripoli alone.[5] The pogroms continued in June 1948, when 15 Jews were killed and 280 Jewish homes destroyed.[6]
Between the establishment of the State of Israel in 1948 and Libyan independence in December 1951 over 30,000 Libyan Jews emigrated to Israel. In 1967, during the Six-Day War, the Jewish population of 4,000 was again subjected to pogroms in which 18 were killed, and many more injured. The Libyan government "urged the Jews to leave the country temporarily", permitting them each to take one suitcase and the equivalent of $50. In June and July over 4,000 traveled to Italy, where they were assisted by the Jewish Agency. 1,300 went on to Israel, 2,200 remained in Italy, and most of the rest went to the United States. A few scores remained in Libya.[7][8]
In 1970 the Libyan government issued new laws which confiscated all the assets of Libya's Jews, issuing in their stead 15 year bonds. However, when the bonds matured no compensation was paid. Libyan leader Muammar al-Gaddafi justified this on the grounds that "the alignment of the Jews with Israel, the Arab nations' enemy, has forfeited their right to compensation."[9]
Although the main synagogue in Tripoli was renovated in 1999, it has not reopened for services. The last Jew in Libya, Esmeralda Meghnagi died in February, 2002. Israel is home to about 40,000 Jews of Libyan descent, who maintain unique traditions.[10]
Morocco
In Morocco the Vichy regime during World War II passed discriminatory laws against Jews; for example, Jews were no longer able to get any form of credit, Jews who had homes or businesses in European neighborhoods were expelled, and quotas were imposed limiting the percentage of Jews allowed to practice professions such as law and medicine to two percent.[11] King Muhammad V expressed his personal distaste for these laws, and assured Moroccan Jewish leaders that he would never lay a hand "upon either their persons or property". While there is no concrete evidence of him actually taking any actions to defend Morocco's Jews, it has been argued that he may have worked behind the scenes on their behalf.[12]
In June 1948, soon after Israel was established and in the midst of the first Arab-Israeli war, riots against Jews broke out in Oujda and Djerada, killing 44 Jews. In 1948-9, 18,000 Jews left the country for Israel. After this, Jewish emigration continued (to Israel and elsewhere), but slowed to a few thousand a year. Through the early fifties, Zionist organizations encouraged emigration, particularly in the poorer south of the country, seeing Moroccan Jews as valuable contributors to the Jewish State:
...These Jews constitute the best and most suitable human element for settlement in Israel's absorption centers. There were many positive aspects which I found among them: first and foremost, they all know (their agricultural) tasks, and their transfer to agricultural work in Israel will not involve physical and mental difficulties. They are satisfied with few (material needs), which will enable them to confront their early economic problems.
— Yehuda Grinker, The Emigration of Atlas Jews to Israel[13]
In 1956, Morocco attained independence. Jews occupied several political positions, including three parliamentary seats and the cabinet position of Minister of Posts and Telegraphs. However, that minister, Leon Benzaquen, did not survive the first cabinet reshuffling, and no Jews was appointed again to a cabinet position.[14] Although the relations with the Jewish community at the highest levels of government were cordial, these attitudes were not shared by the lower ranks of officialdom, which exhibited attitudes that ranged from traditional contempt to outright hostility.[15] Morocco's increasing identification with the Arab world, and pressure on Jewish educational institutions to arabize and conform culturally added to the fears of Moroccan Jews.[15] Emigration to Israel jumped from 8,171 in 1954 to 24,994 in 1955, increasing further in 1956. Beginning in 1956, emigration to Israel was prohibited until 1961; during that time, however, clandestine emigration continued, and a further 18,000 Jews left Morocco. On January 10, 1961, a boat carrying Jews attempting to flee the country sank off the northern coast of the country; the negative publicity associated with this prompted King Muhammad V to again allow emigration, and over the three following years, more than 70,000 Moroccan Jews left the country.[16] By 1967, only 50,000 Jews remained.[17]
The Six-Day War in 1967 led to increased Arab-Jewish tensions worldwide, including Morocco, and Jewish emigration continued. By the early 1970s the Jewish population was reduced to 25,000; however, most of this wave of emigration went to France, Belgium, Spain, and Canada, rather than Israel.[17]
Despite their current small numbers, Jews continue to play a notable role in Morocco; the king retains a Jewish senior adviser, André Azoulay, and Jewish schools and synagogues receive government subsidies. However, Jewish targets have sometimes been attacked (notably in the bombing of a Jewish community center in Casablanca, see Casablanca Attacks), and there is sporadic anti-Semitic rhetoric from radical Islamist groups. The late King Hassan II's invitations for Jews to return have not been taken up by the people who emigrated; in 1948, over 250,000[18]-265,000[3] Jews lived in Morocco. By 2001 an estimated 5,230 remained.[19]
According to Esther Benbassa, the migration of Jews from the Maghreb countries was prompted by uncertainty about the future.[20]
Tunisia
In 1948, approximately 105,000 Jews lived in Tunisia. About 1,500 remain today, mostly in Djerba, Tunis, and Zarzis. Following Tunisia's independence from France in 1956, a number of anti-Jewish policies led to emigration, of which half went to Israel and the other half to France. After attacks in 1967, Jewish emigration both to Israel and France accelerated. There were also attacks in 1982, 1985, and most recently in 2002 when a bomb in Djerba took 21 lives (most of them German tourists) near the local synagogue, in a terrorist attack claimed by Al-Qaeda. (See Ghriba synagogue bombing).
See also
- History of the Jews in Algeria
- History of the Jews of Bilad el-Sudan
- History of the Jews in Libya
- History of the Jews in Morocco
- History of the Jews in Tunisia
- Jews and Judaism in Africa
- Jewish ethnic divisions
- Mizrahi Jews
- Berber Jews
- El Ghriba synagogue
- Djerba
References
- ^ The Schindlers of the Middle East
- ^ "The Forgotten Refugees - Historical Timeline".
- ^ a b Avneri, 1984, p. 276.
- ^ Stillman, 2003, p. 155-156.
- ^ Stillman, 2003, p. 145.
- ^ Harris, 2001, pp. 149-150.
- ^ Harris, 2001, pp. 155-156.
- ^ Simon, 1999, pp. 3-4.
- ^ Harris, 2001, p. 157.
- ^ [1] [2]
- ^ Stillman, 2003, p. 127-128.
- ^ Stillman, 2003, pp. 128-129.
- ^ Yehuda Grinker (an organizer of Jewish emigration from the Atlas), The Emigration of Atlas Jews to Israel, Tel Aviv, The Association of Moroccan Immigrants in Israel, 1973.[3]
- ^ Stillman, 2003, pp. 172-173.
- ^ a b Stillman, 2003, p. 173.
- ^ Stillman, 2003, p. 174.
- ^ a b Stillman, 2003, p. 175.
- ^ Stearns, 2001, p. 966.
- ^ Shields, Jacqueline. "Jewish Refugees from Arab Countries". Jewish Virtual Library. Retrieved 2006-05-22.
- ^ Esther Benbassa, The Jews of France: A History from Antiquity to the Present.