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{{Main|Epidemiology of bedbugs}}
{{Main|Epidemiology of bedbugs}}
[[Bedbugs]] occur around the world.<ref name=Heu09>{{cite |title = Bed bugs, leeches and hookworm larvae in the skin.
[[Bedbugs]] occur around the world.<ref name=Heu09>{{cite |title = Bed bugs, leeches and hookworm larvae in the skin.
|url =http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19362691| accessdate = 15 Nov 2010}} pmid 19362691</ref> Rates of infestations in [[developed countries]], while decreasing from the 1930s to the 1980s, have increased dramatically since the 1980s.<ref name="JAMA2009"/><ref name="Kolb2009"/><ref name=Heu09/> Previous to this they were common in the [[developing world]] but rare in the developed world.<ref name=Kolb2009/> The increase in the developed world may have been caused by increased international travel, resistance to [[insecticides]], and the use of new pest-control methods that do not affect bedbugs.<ref name="Romero_et_al"/><ref name="owen">{{cite web |last = Owen | first = James |title = Bloodthirsty Bedbugs Stage Comeback in U.S., Europe |work = National Geographic News |publisher = National Geographic |date = 13 May 2004 |url = http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2004/05/0513_040513_bedbugs.html |accessdate = 31 May 2010 }}</ref> The fall in bedbug populations after the 1930s in the developed world is believed to be partly due to the usage of [[DDT]] to kill [[cockroaches]].<ref name=Nurse09>PMID 19233933</ref> The invention of the [[vacuum cleaner]] and simplification of furniture design may have also played a role.<ref name=Nurse09/> Others believe it might simply be the cyclical nature of the organism.<ref>[http://www.euro.who.int/__data/assets/pdf_file/0011/98426/E91435.pdf] p.131</ref>
|url =http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19362691| accessdate = 15 Nov 2010}} pmid 19362691</ref> Rates of infestations in [[developed countries]], while decreasing from the 1930s to the 1980s, have increased dramatically since the 1980s.<ref name="JAMA2009"/><ref name="Kolb2009"/><ref name=Heu09/> Previous to this they were common in the [[developing world]] but rare in the developed world.<ref name=Kolb2009/> The increase in the developed world may have been caused by increased international travel, resistance to [[insecticides]], and the use of new pest-control methods that do not affect bedbugs.<ref name="Romero_et_al"/><ref name="owen">{{cite web |last = Owen | first = James |title = Bloodthirsty Bedbugs Stage Comeback in U.S., Europe |work = National Geographic News |publisher = National Geographic |date = 13 May 2004 |url = http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2004/05/0513_040513_bedbugs.html |accessdate = 31 May 2010 }}</ref> The fall in bedbug populations after the 1930s in the developed world is believed to be partly due to the usage of [[DDT]] to kill [[cockroaches]].<ref name=Nurse09>PMID 19233933</ref> The invention of the [[vacuum cleaner]] and simplification of furniture design may have also played a role.<ref name=Nurse09/> One attractive theory is based on the persistence of DDT, which was banned in the US starting in 1972. Given that DDT persists in the environment for about 20 years (which was a major argument for banning it) you would expect bed bugs to start reappearing about 1992, which they did. Another fact supports this hypothesis: Current practice teaches us that the most effective pesticides against bed bugs are the ones that persist for a while, because their eggs are very long lasting. Others believe it might simply be the cyclical nature of the organism.<ref>[http://www.euro.who.int/__data/assets/pdf_file/0011/98426/E91435.pdf] p.131</ref>


The common bedbug (''[[Cimex lectularius]]'') is the species best adapted to human environments. It is found in [[temperate]] climates throughout the world. Other species include ''[[Cimex hemipterus]]'', found in [[tropics|tropical regions]], which also infests [[poultry]] and [[bat]]s, and ''[[Leptocimex boueti]]'', found in the tropics of [[West Africa]] and South America, which infests bats and humans. ''[[Cimex pilosellus]]'' and ''[[Cimex pipistrella]]'' primarily infest [[bat]]s, while ''[[Haematosiphon inodora]]'', a species of North America, primarily infests poultry.<ref>{{cite web |last1 = Cranshaw | first1 = W.S. |last2 = Camper | first2 = M. |last3 = Peairs | first3 = F.B. |title = Bat Bugs and Bed Bugs |publisher = Colorado State University Extension | year = 2009 | month = Feb |url = http://www.ext.colostate.edu/PUBS/INSECT/05574.html |accessdate = 27 May 2010 }}
The common bedbug (''[[Cimex lectularius]]'') is the species best adapted to human environments. It is found in [[temperate]] climates throughout the world. Other species include ''[[Cimex hemipterus]]'', found in [[tropics|tropical regions]], which also infests [[poultry]] and [[bat]]s, and ''[[Leptocimex boueti]]'', found in the tropics of [[West Africa]] and South America, which infests bats and humans. ''[[Cimex pilosellus]]'' and ''[[Cimex pipistrella]]'' primarily infest [[bat]]s, while ''[[Haematosiphon inodora]]'', a species of North America, primarily infests poultry.<ref>{{cite web |last1 = Cranshaw | first1 = W.S. |last2 = Camper | first2 = M. |last3 = Peairs | first3 = F.B. |title = Bat Bugs and Bed Bugs |publisher = Colorado State University Extension | year = 2009 | month = Feb |url = http://www.ext.colostate.edu/PUBS/INSECT/05574.html |accessdate = 27 May 2010 }}

Revision as of 18:22, 26 November 2010

Bedbug
Cimex lectularius
Scientific classification
Kingdom:
Animalia
Phylum:
Arthropoda
Class:
Insecta
Order:
Hemiptera
Suborder:
Heteroptera
Infraorder:
Cimicomorpha
Superfamily:
Cimicoidea
Family:
Cimicidae

Latreille, 1802
Subfamilies, Genera & Species

Subfamily Afrociminae

Subfamily Cimicinae

Subfamily Cacodminae

Subfamily Haematosiphoninae

Subfamily Latrocimicinae

Subfamily Primicimicinae

Bedbugs or bed bugs are small parasitic insects of the family Cimicidae (most commonly Cimex lectularius).[2] The term usually refers to species that prefer to feed on human blood. All insects in this family live by feeding exclusively on the blood of warm-blooded animals.[3][4] The name "bedbug" is derived from the insect's preferred habitat of houses and especially beds or other areas where people sleep. Bedbugs, though not strictly nocturnal, are mainly active at night and are capable of feeding unnoticed on their hosts.

A number of health effects may occur due to bed bugs including skin rashes, psychological effects and allergic symptoms. Diagnosis involves both finding bed bugs and the occurrence of compatible symptoms. Treatment is otherwise symptomatic.

Bedbugs have been known by a variety of names including wall louse, mahogany flat, crimson rambler, heavy dragoon, chinche, and redcoat.[5] In the developed world, bedbugs were largely eradicated as pests in the early 1940s, but they have seen a resurgence since about 1995.[6]

Description

Physical

Adult bedbugs are reddish-brown, flattened, oval, and wingless. Bedbugs have microscopic hairs that give them a banded appearance. Adults grow to 4–5 mm in length and 1.5–3 mm wide. Newly hatched nymphs are translucent, lighter in color and become browner as they moult and reach maturity. Bedbugs may be mistaken for other insects such as booklice and carpet beetles, or vice-versa.

Bedbugs use pheromones and kairomones to communicate regarding nesting locations, attacks, and reproduction.

The life span of bedbugs varies by species and is also dependent on feeding.

Bedbugs can survive a wide range of temperatures and atmospheric compositions. Below 16.1 °C (61.0 °F), adults enter semi-hibernation and can survive longer.[7] Bedbugs can survive for at least five days at −10 °C (14 °F) but will die after 15 minutes of exposure to −32 °C (−26 °F).[8] They show high desiccation tolerance, surviving low humidity and a 35–40 °C range even with loss of one-third of body weight; earlier life stages are more susceptible to drying out than later ones.[9] The thermal death point for C. lectularius is high: 45 °C (113 °F), and all stages of life are killed by 7 minutes of exposure to 46 °C (115 °F).[8] Bedbugs apparently cannot survive high concentrations of carbon dioxide for very long; exposure to nearly-pure nitrogen atmospheres, however, appears to have relatively little effect even after 72 hours.[10]

Feeding habits

Scanning electron micrograph (SEM) of Cimex lectularius, digitally colorized with the insect’s skin-piercing mouthparts highlighted in purple and red.

Bedbugs are obligatory hematophagous (bloodsucking) insects. Most species feed on humans only when other prey are unavailable.[11][12][13] Bedbugs are attracted to their hosts primarily by carbon dioxide, secondarily by warmth, and also by certain chemicals.[14]

A bedbug pierces the skin of its host with two hollow feeding tubes. With one tube it injects its saliva, which contains anticoagulants and anesthetics, while with the other it withdraws the blood of its host. After feeding for about five minutes, the bug returns to its hiding place.[4]

Although bedbugs can live for a year without feeding,[15] they normally try to feed every five to ten days. In cold weather, bedbugs can live for about a year; at temperatures more conducive to activity and feeding, about 5 months.[16]

At the 57th Annual Meeting of the Entomological Society of America in 2009, it was reported that newer generations of pesticide-resistant bedbugs in Virginia could survive only two months without feeding.[17]

DNA from human blood meals from bed bugs can be recovered for up to 90 days, which may allow bed bugs to be used for forensic purposes for identifying who the bed bugs have been feeding on.[18][19]

Reproduction

A bedbug (Cimex lectularius) traumatically inseminates another

All bedbugs mate by traumatic insemination.[3][20] Because the female has no genital opening, the male pierces her abdomen with his hypodermic genitalia and ejaculates into the body cavity. Male bedbugs sometimes attempt to mate with other males and pierce the latter in the abdomen.[21]

The "bedbug alarm pheromone" consists of (E)-2-octenal and (E)-2-hexenal. It is released when a bedbug is disturbed, as during an attack by a predator. A 2009 study demonstrated that the alarm pheromone is also released by male bedbugs to repel other males who attempt to mate with them.[22]

C. lectularius and C. hemipterus will mate with each other given the opportunity, but the eggs then produced are usually sterile. In a 1988 study, 1 egg out of 479 was fertile and resulted in a hybrid, C. hemipterus × lectularius.[23][24]

Life stages

Bedbugs have six life stages (5 immature and an adult stage).[25] They will shed their skins through a molting process (ecdysis) throughout multiple stages of their lives. The discarded outer-shells look like clear, empty exoskeletons of the bugs themselves. Bedbugs must molt six times before becoming fertile adults.

  • Slide of Cimex lectularius
    Slide of Cimex lectularius
  • Bedbug (4 mm length; 2.5 mm width), shown in a film roll plastic container. On the right is the recently sloughed skin from its nymph stage.
    Bedbug (4 mm length; 2.5 mm width), shown in a film roll plastic container. On the right is the recently sloughed skin from its nymph stage.
  • A bedbug nymph feeding on host
    A bedbug nymph feeding on host
  • Blood-fed Cimex lectularius (Note the differences in color with respect to digestion of blood meal)
    Blood-fed Cimex lectularius (Note the differences in color with respect to digestion of blood meal)

Health effects and infestations

A side of a face showing red blotchy marks covering much of it.
Main article: Health effects of bedbugs

A number of health effects may occur due to bedbugs including skin rashes, psychological effects and allergic symptoms.[26] Bedbug bites or cimicosis may lead to a range of skin manifestations from no visible effects to prominent blisters.[27]: 446  Diagnosis involves both finding bedbugs and the occurrence of compatible symptoms.[26] Treatment involves the elimination of the insect but is otherwise symptomatic.[26]

Because infestation of human habitats has been on the increase in developed countries, bedbug bites and related conditions have been on the rise as well, since the 1980s-1990s.[28][29] The exact causes of this resurgence remain unclear; it is variously ascribed to greater foreign travel, more frequent exchange of second-hand furnishings among homes, a greater focus on control of other pests resulting in neglect of bedbug countermeasures, and increasing resistance to pesticides.[29][30] Bedbugs have been known human parasites for thousands of years.[28]

Cause

Dwellings can become infested with bedbugs in a variety of ways, from:

  • Bugs and eggs that "hitchhiked in" on pets,[31] or on clothing and luggage
  • Infested items (such as furniture or clothing) brought in
  • Nearby dwellings or infested items, if there are easy routes
  • Wild animals (such as bats or birds)[32][33]
  • People visiting from a source of infestation; bedbugs, like roaches, are transferred by clothing, luggage, or a person's body.

Locations

Bedbugs can be found on their own but often congregate once established. They usually remain close to hosts, commonly in or near beds or couches. Nesting locations can vary greatly, however, including luggage, vehicles, furniture and bedside clutter. Bedbugs may also nest near animals that have nested within a dwelling, such as bats, birds,[33] or rodents.

Detection

An engorged female bedbug (Cimex lectularius) with eggs, discovered in the screw hole of a wooden bed frame

Bedbugs are elusive and usually nocturnal, which can make them hard to spot. Bedbugs often lodge unnoticed in dark crevices, and eggs can be nestled in fabric seams. Aside from bite symptoms, signs include fecal spots, blood smears on sheets, and moults.

Attractant devices for detection use heat and/or carbon dioxide.[17]

Bed bug detection dogs are trained to pinpoint infestations, with a possible accuracy rate of 97.5%, though that figure is based upon tests conducted under controlled conditions by researchers.[8][34] The success rates in these tests may not reflect real world success rates of a pest companies’ dogs, operating with many more variables in the field.[35] Dog detection can often occur in minutes where a pest control practitioner might need an hour. In the United States, about 100 dogs are used to find bedbugs as of mid-2009.[36]

Management

Eradication of bedbugs frequently requires a combination of pesticide and non-pesticide approaches.[28][29] Pesticides that have historically been found to be effective include: pyrethroids, dichlorvos and malathion.[29] Resistance to pesticides has increased significantly over time and there are concerns of negative health effects from their use.[28] Mechanical approaches such as vacuuming up the insects and heat treating or wrapping mattresses have been recommended.[28]

The carbamate insecticide propoxur is highly toxic to bedbugs, but the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) has been reluctant to approve such an indoor use because of its potential toxicity to children after chronic exposure.[37]

Pesticide resistance

Bedbugs are developing resistance to various pesticides including DDT, and organophosphates.[38][39]

Some populations have developed a resistance to pyrethroid insecticides, so there is growing interest in both synthetic pyrethroid and the pyrrole insecticide chlorfenapyr. Insect growth regulators such as hydroprene (Gentrol) are also sometimes used.[40]

Populations in Arkansas have been found to be highly resistant to DDT, with an LD50 of more than 100,000 PPM [41] DDT was seen to make bedbugs more active in studies done in Africa.[42]

Bedbug pesticide-resistance appears to be increasing dramatically. Bedbug populations sampled across the U.S. showed a tolerance for pyrethroids several thousands of times greater than laboratory bedbugs.[43] New York City bed bugs have been found to be 264 times more resistant to deltamethrin than Florida bedbugs due to nerve cell mutations.[44]

A population genetics study of bed bugs in the United States, Canada, and Australia using a mitochondrial DNA marker found high levels of genetic variation.[45] This suggests that the studied bed bug populations did not undergo a genetic bottleneck as one would expect from insecticide control during the 1940s and 1950s, but instead, that populations may have been maintained on other hosts such as birds and bats. In contrast to the high amount of genetic variation observed with the mitochondrial DNA marker, no genetic variation in a nuclear RNA marker was observed. This suggests increased gene flow of previously isolated bed bug populations, and given the absence of barriers to gene flow, the spread of insecticide resistance may be rapid.

Predators

Natural enemies of bedbugs include the masked hunter (also known as "masked bedbug hunter"),[46] cockroaches,[47] ants, spiders (particularly Thanatus flavidus), mites, and centipedes. The Pharaoh ant's (Monomorium pharaonis) venom is lethal to bedbugs. Biological pest control is not very practical for eliminating bedbugs from human dwellings.[8]

Epidemiology

Main article: Epidemiology of bedbugs

Bedbugs occur around the world.[48] Rates of infestations in developed countries, while decreasing from the 1930s to the 1980s, have increased dramatically since the 1980s.[28][29][48] Previous to this they were common in the developing world but rare in the developed world.[29] The increase in the developed world may have been caused by increased international travel, resistance to insecticides, and the use of new pest-control methods that do not affect bedbugs.[30][49] The fall in bedbug populations after the 1930s in the developed world is believed to be partly due to the usage of DDT to kill cockroaches.[50] The invention of the vacuum cleaner and simplification of furniture design may have also played a role.[50] One attractive theory is based on the persistence of DDT, which was banned in the US starting in 1972. Given that DDT persists in the environment for about 20 years (which was a major argument for banning it) you would expect bed bugs to start reappearing about 1992, which they did. Another fact supports this hypothesis: Current practice teaches us that the most effective pesticides against bed bugs are the ones that persist for a while, because their eggs are very long lasting. Others believe it might simply be the cyclical nature of the organism.[51]

The common bedbug (Cimex lectularius) is the species best adapted to human environments. It is found in temperate climates throughout the world. Other species include Cimex hemipterus, found in tropical regions, which also infests poultry and bats, and Leptocimex boueti, found in the tropics of West Africa and South America, which infests bats and humans. Cimex pilosellus and Cimex pipistrella primarily infest bats, while Haematosiphon inodora, a species of North America, primarily infests poultry.[52]

History

An 1860 engraving of parts of a bedbug. A. Intestines.—B. Antenna of the Male.—C Eye.—D. Haustellum, or Sucker, closed.—E. Side view of Sucker.—F. Under Part of Head.—G. Under Lip.—GG. Hair of the Tube, and outside Cases.—H. Egg-Bag.—I. Worm emerging from the Eggs

C. lectularius may have originated in the Middle East, in caves inhabited by bats and humans.[12]

Bedbugs were mentioned in ancient Greece as early as 400 BC (later mentioned by Aristotle). Pliny's Natural History, first published c. 77 AD in Rome, claimed that bedbugs had medicinal value in treating ailments such as snake bites and ear infections. (Belief in the medicinal use of bedbugs persisted until at least the 18th century, when Guettard recommended their use in the treatment of hysteria.[53]) Bedbugs were first mentioned in Germany in the 11th century, in France in the 13th century, and in England in 1583,[12] though they remained rare in England until 1670. It was believed by some in the 18th century that bedbugs had been brought to London with supplies of wood to rebuild the city after the Great Fire of London (1666). Giovanni Antonio Scopoli noted their presence in Carniola (roughly equivalent to present-day Slovenia) in the 18th century.[54][55]

Prior to the mid-twentieth century, bedbugs were very common. According to a report by the UK Ministry of Health, in 1933 there were many areas where all the houses had some degree of bedbug infestation.[56]

Bedbugs were a serious problem during World War II. General McArthur commented that bedbugs are the "greatest nuisance insect problem ... at bases in the U.S"[57]

With the arrival of potent pesticides, famously DDT in the 1940s, bedbugs almost disappeared in western countries.[58] However, in recent years bedbug infestations have resurged the cause of which not clear, but complacency, increased resistance, and increased international travel being seen as contributing factors.[58] The current wave of bed bug infestations across America has spawned an industry for bed bug prevention, eradication and the reporting of infestations.[citation needed]

See also

References

  1. ^ [No authors listed] (1996). "Oeciacus hirundinis (Lamarck, 1816)". Integrated Taxonomic Information System. Retrieved 2010-09-15.
  2. ^ Goddard J, deShazo R (2009). "Bed bugs (Cimex lectularius) and clinical consequences of their bites". JAMA. 301 (13): 1358–66. doi:10.1001/jama.2009.405. PMID 19336711. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
  3. ^ a b Reinhardt, Klaus; Siva-Jothy, Michael T. (2007). "Biology of the Bed Bugs (Cimicidae)" (PDF). Annual Review of Entomology. 52: 351–374. doi:10.1146/annurev.ento.52.040306.133913. PMID 16968204. Retrieved 26 May 2010. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
  4. ^ a b "What Are Bed Bugs? How To Kill Bed Bugs". Medical News Today. MediLexicon International Ltd. 20 Jul 2009. Retrieved May 27, 2010.
  5. ^ Capinera, John L. (17 Sep 2008). Encyclopedia of Entomology, Volume 1 (2nd ed.). Springer. pp. 405–417. ISBN 1402062427. (Article: "Bed Bugs (Hemiptera: Cimicidae: Cimex spp.", Dini Miller, Virginia Tech University, VA
  6. ^ Kilpenen, O.; Vagn Jensen, K-M.; Kristensen, M. "Bed Bug Problems in Denmark, with a European Perspective" (PDF): 395–399. Retrieved 27 May 2010. {{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help) In Robinson, WH; Bajomi, D. (eds) (2008). Proceedings of the Sixth International Conference on Urban Pests. Hungary: OOK-Press Kft. {{cite book}}: |first2= has generic name (help)
  7. ^ "Augustine Exterminators". Augustine Exterminators. Retrieved 2010-09-01.
  8. ^ a b c d IPM Practitioner, XXIX(3/4), March/April 2007 http://www.birc.org/MarApril2007.pdf Cite error: The named reference "birc.org" was defined multiple times with different content (see the help page).
  9. ^ Benoit, J. B.; del Grosso, N.; Yoder, J. A.; Denlinger, D. L. (2007). "Resistance to dehydration between bouts of blood feeding in the bedbug, Cimex lectularius, is enhanced by water conservation, aggregation, and quiescence". American Journal of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene. 76 (5): 987–993. ISSN 0002-9637. PMID 17488928. Retrieved 27 May 2010.
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  13. ^ "Family CIMICIDAE". Australian Biological Resources Study: Australian Faunal Directory. Department of the Environment, Water, Heritage and the Arts (Australia). 2008. Retrieved 27 May 2010.
  14. ^ Anderson, J.F.; Ferrandino, F.J.; McKnight, S.; Nolen, J.; Miller, J. (2009). "A carbon dioxide, heat and chemical lure trap for the bedbug, Cimex lectularius" (PDF). Medical and Veterinary Entomology. 23 (2): 99–105. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2915.2008.00790.x. Retrieved 2010-05-27. [dead link]
  15. ^ Loye, Jenella E. (1985). "The life history and ecology of the cliff swallow bug, Oeciacus vicarius (Hemiptera : Cimicidae)" (PDF). Ent med. et Parasitol. 32 (2). Cah. OSTROM: 133–139. ISSN 0029-7224. Retrieved 26 May 2010. N.B. This paper reports an abandoned swallow colony with Oeciacus vicarius surviving three consecutive years. However, that does not preclude the availability of other species (e.g., bats, other mammals, other birds) to fall back on for occasional feeding.
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  18. ^ Szalanski, A.L., J.W. Austin, J.A. McKern, C.D. Steelman and D. Miller. 2006. Time course analysis of bed bug, Cimex lectularius L., (Hemiptera: Cimicidae) blood meals using PCR. Journal of Agricultural and Urban Entomology 23: 237-241.
  19. ^ Szalanski, A.L., J.W. Austin, J.A. McKern, D. Miller, C.D. Steelman, and R.E. Gold. 2006. Isolation and characterization of human DNA from the bed bug, Cimex lectularius L. (Heteroptera: Cimicidae). Journal of Agricultural and Urban Entomology 23: 189-194.[1]
  20. ^ Carayon, J. 1959 Insémination par “spermalège” et cordon conducteur de spermatozoids chez Stricticimex brevispinosus Usinger (Heteroptera, Cimicidae). Rev. Zool. Bot. Afr. 60, 81–104.
  21. ^ "This Bedbug's Life", The New York Times, 7 August 2010.
  22. ^ Ryne, C. In press. "Homosexual interactions in bed bugs: Alarm pheromones as male recognition signals." Animal Behaviour. doi: 10.1016/j.anbehav.2009.09.033 Cited in Cited in Science News, November 21st, 2009; Vol.176 #11 (p. 13) "Scent of alarm identifies male bed bugs" by Susan Milius. http://www.sciencenews.org/view/generic/id/48927/title/Scent_of_alarm_identifies_male__bed_bugs
  23. ^ Newberry, K. (1988). "Production of a hybrid between the bedbugs Cimex hemipterus and Cimex lectularius". Medical and Veterinary Entomology. 2 (3). The Royal Entomological Society: 297–300. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2915.1988.tb00199.x. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
  24. ^ Walpole, Debra E.; Newberry, K. (1988). "A field study of mating between two species of bedbug in northern KwaZulu, South Africa". Medical and Veterinary Entomology. 2 (3). The Royal Entomological Society: 293–296. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2915.1988.tb00198.x. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
  25. ^ [2] p.136
  26. ^ a b c Doggett SL, Russell R (2009). "Bed bugs — What the GP needs to know". Aust Fam Physician. 38 (11): 880–4. PMID 19893834. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
  27. ^ James, William D.; Berger, Timothy G.; et al. (2006). Andrews' Diseases of the Skin: clinical Dermatology. Saunders Elsevier. ISBN 0-7216-2921-0. {{cite book}}: Explicit use of et al. in: |author= (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  28. ^ a b c d e f Jerome Goddard & Richard deShazo (2009). "Bed bugs (Cimex lectularius) and clinical consequences of their bites". Journal of the American Medical Association. 301 (13): 1358–1366. doi:10.1001/jama.2009.405. PMID 19336711.
  29. ^ a b c d e f Kolb A, Needham GR, Neyman KM, High WA (2009). "Bedbugs". Dermatol Ther. 22 (4): 347–52. doi:10.1111/j.1529-8019.2009.01246.x. PMID 19580578.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  30. ^ a b A Romero, MF Potter, DA Potter, KF Haynes (2007). "Insecticide Resistance in the Bed Bug: A Factor in the Pest's Sudden Resurgence?" (PDF). Journal of medical entomology. 22 (2): 175–178. doi:10.1603/0022-2585(2007)44[175:IRITBB]2.0.CO;2. Retrieved 2010-09-17.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  31. ^ Waldvogel, M., C Apperson. 2006 " Bed Bugs." http://www.ces.ncsu.edu/depts/ent/notes/Urban/bedbugs.htm 21 November 2008
  32. ^ Potter, Michael F. "BED BUGS". University of Kentucy College of Agriculture. Retrieved 27 June2010. {{cite web}}: Check date values in: |accessdate= (help)
  33. ^ a b Steelman, C.D. 2000. Biology and control of bed bugs, Cimex lectularius, in poultry houses. Avian Advice 2: 10,15. [3]
  34. ^ Pfiester, Margie; Koehler, Philip G.; Pereira, Roberto M. (2008). "Ability of Bed Bug-Detecting Canines to Locate Live Bed Bugs and Viable Bed Bug Eggs". Entomological Society of America. Retrieved 26 Aug 2010. {{cite web}}: Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
  35. ^ Buckley, Cara, "Doubts Rise on Bedbug-Sniffing Dogs", The New York Times of New York, New York, p 1, November 12, 2010
  36. ^ {{Juliano, Michael C., "Dogs don't let the bed bugs bite", The Advocate of Stamford, Connecticut, p 1, August 21, 2009}}
  37. ^ New York Times. In Search of a Bedbug Solution. Published: September 4, 2010.
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  41. ^ C. Dayton Steelman, Allen L. Szalanski, Rebecca Trout, Jackie A. McKern, Cesar Solorzano & James W. Austin (2008). "Susceptibility of the bed bug Cimex lectularius L. (Hemiptera: Cimicidae) to selected insecticides". Journal of Agricultural and Urban Entomology. 25 (1): 45–51. doi:10.3954/1523-5475-25.1.41.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)[4]
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  47. ^ Encyclopedia Americana, 1996 ed., v. 3, p. 413
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  53. ^ William Smith and Charles Anthon, A dictionary of Greek and Roman antiquities, 1847, pp. 252-253 http://books.google.com/books?id=41oMAAAAYAAJ&dq=cimex&source=gbs_navlinks_s
  54. ^ "That soon after the Fire of London, in some of the new-built Houses they were observ'd to appear, and were never noted to have been seen in the old, tho' they were then so few, as to be little taken notice of; yet as they were only seen in Firr-Timber, 'twas conjectured they were then first brought to England in them; of which most of the new Houses were partly built, instead of the good Oak destroy'd in the old." John Southall, A Treatise of Buggs [sic], pp. 16-17. http://www.archive.org/details/atreatisebuggss00soutgoog
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Further reading

  • Stephen Doggett. A Code of Practice for the Control of Bed Bugs in Australia. 3rd edition, ICPMR & AEPMA, Sydney Australia, May 2010. ISBN 1-74080-122-9. This is free from www.bedbug.org.au.
  • Stephen Doggett. A Bed Bug Management Policy for Accommodation Providers. Draft first ed, ICPMR, Sydney Australia, May 2010. This is free from www.bedbug.org.au.
  • David Cain, Richard Strand. Bed Bug Beware: An easy to understand guide to bed bugs, their prevention and control. Loughborough, United Kingdom: Foxhill Publishing, March 2009. ISBN 978-0-9562617-0-0
  • Larry Pinto, Richard Cooper, Sandy Kraft. Bed Bug Handbook: The Complete Guide to Bed Bugs and Their Control. Mechanicsville, Maryland: Pinto & Associates, December 2007. ISBN 978-0-9788878-1-0
  • Forsyth, Adrian. A Natural History of Sex: The Ecology and Evolution of Mating Behavior. Richmond Hill, Ontario: Firefly Books, 2001. ISBN 1-55209-481-2.
  • MacQuitty, Miranda, and Lawrence Mound. Megabugs: The Natural History Museum Book of Insects. New York: Random House Children's Books, 1995. ISBN 1-898304-37-8, ISBN 1-85868-045-X.
  • Goddard, Jerome A. The Physician’s Guide to Arthropods of Medical Importance (second edition).
Wikisource has the text of the 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica article "Bug (insect)".

Generic information

Health and control aspects

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