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The various descriptions of Aztlán are seemingly contradictory. While some legends describe Aztlán as a paradise, the [[Aztec codices#Aubin Codex|Aubin Codex]] says that the Aztecs were subject to a tyrannical elite called the Azteca Chicomoztoca. Guided by their priest, the Aztec fled, and, on the road, their god [[Huitzilopochtli]] forbade them to call themselves Azteca, telling them that they should be known as Mexica. Ironically, scholars of the 19th century—in particular [[Alexander von Humboldt]] and [[William H. Prescott]]—would name them Aztec. Humboldt's suggestion was widely adopted in the 19th century as a way to distance "modern" Mexicans from pre-conquest Mexicans.
The various descriptions of Aztlán are seemingly contradictory. While some legends describe Aztlán as a paradise, the [[Aztec codices#Aubin Codex|Aubin Codex]] says that the Aztecs were subject to a tyrannical elite called the Azteca Chicomoztoca. Guided by their priest, the Aztec fled, and, on the road, their god [[Huitzilopochtli]] forbade them to call themselves Azteca, telling them that they should be known as Mexica. Ironically, scholars of the 19th century—in particular [[Alexander von Humboldt]] and [[William H. Prescott]]—would name them Aztec. Humboldt's suggestion was widely adopted in the 19th century as a way to distance "modern" Mexicans from pre-conquest Mexicans.


The role of Aztlán is slightly less important to Aztec legendary histories than the [[Human migration|migration]] to [[Tenochtitlán]] itself. According to the legend, the southward migration began on May 24, 1064 CE; 1064 is also the year of a volcanic explosion at [[Sunset Crater]] in Arizona and the first Aztec solar year, beginning on May 24, after the [[Crab Nebula]] events from May to July 1054. Each of the seven groups is credited with founding a different major [[city-state]] in Central Mexico. The city-states reputed to have an Aztec foundation were:
The role of Aztlán is slightly less important to Aztec legendary histories than the [[Human migration|migration]] to [[Tenochtitlán]] itself. The city-states reputed to have an Aztec foundation were:
*[[Tepaneca]] (now [[Azcapotzalco]], a ''[[Boroughs of the Mexican Federal District|delegación]]'' of the [[Mexican Federal District]]), and
*[[Tepaneca]] (now [[Azcapotzalco]], a ''[[Boroughs of the Mexican Federal District|delegación]]'' of the [[Mexican Federal District]]), and
*[[Matlatzinca]] (whose language was [[Oto-Manguean languages|Otomian]] and not of the [[Uto-Aztecan languages|Uto-Aztecan family]]).
*[[Matlatzinca]] (whose language was [[Oto-Manguean languages|Otomian]] and not of the [[Uto-Aztecan languages|Uto-Aztecan family]]).

These city-states formed during the Late Postclassic period of [[Mesoamerican chronology]] (ca. 1300–1521 CE).
These city-states formed during the Late Postclassic period of [[Mesoamerican chronology]] (ca. 1300–1521 CE).

According to Aztec legends, the Mexica were the last tribe to emigrate. When they arrived at their ancestral homeland, the present-day [[Valley of Mexico]], all available land had been taken, and they were forced to [[Squatting|squat]] on the edge of [[Lake Texcoco]].
According to Aztec legends, the Mexica were the last tribe to emigrate. When they arrived at their ancestral homeland, the present-day [[Valley of Mexico]], all available land had been taken, and they were forced to [[Squatting|squat]] on the edge of [[Lake Texcoco]].


After the [[Spanish conquest of Mexico]], the story of Aztlán gained importance and was reported by Fray [[Diego Durán]] in 1581 and others to be a kind of [[Garden of Eden|Eden]]-like paradise, free of disease and death, which existed somewhere in the far north. These stories helped fuel Spanish expeditions to what is now the U.S. state of California.


==Places postulated as Aztlán==
==Places postulated as Aztlán==
Line 23: Line 20:
While Aztlán has many trappings of myth, similar to [[Tamoanchan]], [[Chicomoztoc]], [[Tollan]], and [[Quivira and Cíbola|Cibola]], archaeologists have nonetheless attempted to identify the geographic place of origin for the Mexica.
While Aztlán has many trappings of myth, similar to [[Tamoanchan]], [[Chicomoztoc]], [[Tollan]], and [[Quivira and Cíbola|Cibola]], archaeologists have nonetheless attempted to identify the geographic place of origin for the Mexica.


Friar [[Diego Durán]] (c. 1537–1588), who chronicled the history of the Aztecs, wrote of Aztec emperor [[Moctezuma I]]'s attempt to recover the history of the Mexica by congregating warriors and wise men on an expedition to locate Aztlán. According to Durán, the expedition was successful in finding a place that offered characteristics unique to Aztlán. However, his accounts were written shortly after the conquest of Tenochtitlan and before an accurate mapping of the American continent was made; therefore, he was unable to provide a precise location. Durán considered Aztlán, [[Pueblo Culhuacán|Colhuacan]], and [[Chicomoztoc]] to be different names for the same place of origin which he believed to be located to the north of [[New Spain]], near present-day [[Florida]].<ref>Manuel Aguilar-Moreno ''Handbook to Life in the Aztec World''. page 29.</ref>
Friar [[Diego Durán]] (c. 1537–1588), who chronicled the history of the Aztecs, wrote of Aztec emperor [[Moctezuma I]]'s attempt to recover the history of the Mexica by congregating warriors and wise men on an expedition to locate Aztlán. According to Durán, the expedition was successful in finding a place that offered characteristics unique to Aztlán. However, his accounts were written shortly after the conquest of Tenochtitlan and before an accurate mapping of the American continent was made; therefore, he was unable to provide a precise location..<ref>Manuel Aguilar-Moreno ''Handbook to Life in the Aztec World''. page 29.</ref>

In 1789, [[Francisco Javier Clavijero]], a [[Jesuit]] priest and historian, deduced that Aztlán lay north of the [[Colorado River]].<ref>Dale R. Bascoml. page 14.</ref>

The name of [[Aztalan State Park|Aztalan, Wisconsin]] (a [[Mississippian culture|Mississippian]] site), was proposed by N. F. Hyer in 1837, because he thought it might have been Aztlán, following a suggested etymology of ''Aztatlan'' by [[Alexander von Humboldt]]. This is outdated information with modern scholarship's matching of chroniclers' accounts taken in Tenochtitlan directly after the Spanish conquest.

There is a lake around Cerro Culiacan, Lake Yuriria, that makes the mountain look very much like an island when photographed from the water, and is similar to the illustration at right.

In the mid-19th century, fringe theorist [[Ignatius L. Donnelly]], in his book ''[[Atlantis: The Antediluvian World]]'' (1882), sought to establish a connection between Aztlán and the fabled "lost continent" of [[Atlantis]] of Greek mythology; Donnelly's views, however, have never been recognized as credible by mainstream scholarship.{{Citation needed|date=May 2010}}

In 1887, Mexican anthropologist [[Alfredo Chavero]] claimed that Aztlán was located on the Pacific coast in the state of [[Nayarit]]. While this was disputed by contemporary scholars, it achieved some popular acceptance. In the early 1980s, [[Mexico|Mexican]] [[President of Mexico|President]] [[José López Portillo]] suggested that [[Mexcaltitán]], also in Nayarit, was the true location of Aztlán, but this was denounced by Mexican historians as a political move.<ref>Jáuregui (2004)</ref> Even so, the state of Nayarit incorporated the symbol of Aztlán in its coat of arms with the legend "Nayarit, cradle of Mexicans". All kinds of new scholarly articles now identify this artificial claim as a political ploy for increased tourism to this coastal area.


In 1887, Mexican anthropologist [[Alfredo Chavero]] claimed that Aztlán was located on the Pacific coast in the state of [[Nayarit]].
[[Eduardo Matos Moctezuma]] presumes Aztlán to be somewhere in the modern-day states of [[Guanajuato]], [[Jalisco]], and [[Michoacán]].<ref>Matos Moctezuma (1988, p.38)</ref> Indeed, scholars are all consistent in naming the measures of "150 leagues" from Tenochtitlan that were documented by the Spanish scribes taking notes from conquered Mexica as the distance to the place of origin, coinciding in all ways at Chicomoztoc, "Cerro del Culiacan", which is indeed a humped mountain when seen from the south face.
[[Eduardo Matos Moctezuma]] presumes Aztlán to be somewhere in the modern-day states of [[Guanajuato]], [[Jalisco]], and [[Michoacán]].<ref>Matos Moctezuma (1988, p.38)</ref> Indeed, scholars are all consistent in naming the measures of "150 leagues" from Tenochtitlan that were documented by the Spanish scribes taking notes from conquered Mexica as the distance to the place of origin, coinciding in all ways at Chicomoztoc, "Cerro del Culiacan", which is indeed a humped mountain when seen from the south face.

It has also been proposed that the original site of Aztlán was the area around what is now [[Lake Powell]]. Part of the migration legend also describes a stay at Culhuacán ("leaning hill" or "curved hill"). Proponents of the Lake Powell theory equate this Culhuacán with the ancient home of the [[Anasazi]] at [[Cliff Palace]], [[Mesa Verde National Park]].<ref>Proponents of this nonstandard view include Antoon Vollemaere, a Belgian independent researcher and writer on ancient America. See Vollemaere (2000, §4 ''et. seq.''.)</ref> Researchers who believe Aztlán was located in the Lake Powell region also cite the fact that the language spoken by the Aztecs and the [[Ute people]] belong to the same [[Uto-Aztecan]] linguistic group.

Archaeologist Kelley Hays-Gilpin from [[Northern Arizona University]] acknowledges the linguistic connection between Mesoamerican and North American peoples. However, she theorizes that the Aztec's ancestors may have traveled north before returning south. Hayes-Gilpin believes Uto-Aztecan speaking people spread north to an area of the American West that could have included Utah. Out of those cultures, some groups could have migrated south to northern Mexico, and some could have, as she says, moved to the Valley of Mexico where they subjugated tribes in that region.<ref>Dale R. Bascoml. ''Following the Legends: A GPS Guide to Utah's Lost Mines and Hidden Treasures''. Page 15.</ref>


==Primary sources==
==Primary sources==
Line 54: Line 38:
The concept of Aztlán as the place of origin of the pre-Columbian Mexican civilization has become a symbol for various Mexican nationalist and indigenous movements.
The concept of Aztlán as the place of origin of the pre-Columbian Mexican civilization has become a symbol for various Mexican nationalist and indigenous movements.


The name ''Aztlán'' was first taken up by a group of Chicano independence activists led by [[Oscar Zeta Acosta]] during the Chicano movement of the 1960s and 1970s. They used the name ''Aztlán'' to refer to the lands of Northern Mexico that were annexed by the United States as a result of the [[Mexican-American War]]. Combined with the claim of some historical linguists and anthropologists that the original homeland of the Aztecan peoples was located in the [[southwestern United States]]{{Citation needed|date=November 2010}}, Aztlán, in this sense, became a symbol for mestizo activists who believe they have a legal and primordial right to the land. In order to exercise this right, some members of the Chicano movement propose that a new nation be created, a [[Republica del Norte]].<ref>[http://www.aztlan.net/homeland.htm Professor Predicts 'Hispanic Homeland'], Associated Press, 2000</ref>
The name ''Aztlán'' was first taken up by a group of Chicano independence activists led by [[Oscar Zeta Acosta]] during the Chicano movement of the 1960s and 1970s. They used the name ''Aztlán'' to refer to the lands of Northern Mexico that were annexed by the United States as a result of the [[Mexican-American War]]. Combined with the claim that the original homeland of the Aztecan peoples was located in the [[southwestern United States]]{{Citation needed|date=November 2010}}, Aztlán, in this sense, became a symbol for mestizo activists who believe they have a legal and primordial right to the land. In order to exercise this right, some members of the Chicano movement propose that a new nation be created, a [[Republica del Norte]].<ref>[http://www.aztlan.net/homeland.htm Professor Predicts 'Hispanic Homeland'], Associated Press, 2000</ref>


[[image:Aztlán in United States (US48).svg|thumb|left|Territories considered for Republica del Norte ("Aztlán")]]
[[image:Aztlán in United States (US48).svg|thumb|left|Territories considered for Republica del Norte ("Aztlán")]]
Groups who have used the name ''Aztlán'' in this manner include [[Plan Espiritual de Aztlán]], [[MEChA]] (''Movimiento Estudiantil Chicano de Aztlán'', "Chicano Student Movement of Aztlán"), and the [[Nation of Aztlán]] (NOA).
Groups who have used the name ''Aztlán'' in this manner include [[Plan Espiritual de Aztlán]], [[MEChA]] (''Movimiento Estudiantil Chicano de Aztlán'', "Chicano Student Movement of Aztlán"), and the [[Nation of Aztlán]] (NOA).
The land being "claimed" by these groups, for "aztlan", which comprises the existing southwest states of the USA, but rather the land of a myriad of native tribes, which were not "Aztec".
The Aztec (Mexica) tribe never lived in the land which is now the United States, and the land which is now the southwest USA was not "Mexico", since no place called Mexico existed.
When the Spanish came from Europe, the Spanish Conquistadores explored the continent of North America, and claimed part of the land as "New Spain". The Spanish drew the maps. No maps were drawn by an Aztec tribe. The map being used to illustrate the "Aztlan" has nothing to do with the Aztec tribe, it is a map of the Spanish land in North America, part of which became "The United Mexican States" in 1824, although the Spanish Provinces north of what is now Mexico were not Mexican "states", but rather Indian Territories, until the land was sold to the United States.
The map used to illustrate the myth "Aztlan" actually illustrates the claim Spain made on Indian lands, it has nothing to do with the Aztec tribe.


Many in the Chicano movement attribute poet [[Alurista]] for popularizing the term ''Aztlán'' in a poem presented during the Chicano Youth Liberation Conference in Denver, Colorado, in March 1969.<ref>[http://www.enotes.com/poetry-criticism/alurista Alurista biography on Enotes.com]</ref>
Many in the Chicano movement attribute poet [[Alurista]] for popularizing the term ''Aztlán'' in a poem presented during the Chicano Youth Liberation Conference in Denver, Colorado, in March 1969.<ref>[http://www.enotes.com/poetry-criticism/alurista Alurista biography on Enotes.com]</ref>

Revision as of 16:00, 27 December 2012

Template:Other uses2

The seven caves of Chicomoztoc, from Historia Tolteca-Chichimeca

Aztlán (from Nahuatl languages: Aztlān, [ˈast͡ɬaːn]) is the legendary ancestral home of the Nahua peoples, one of the main cultural groups in Mesoamerica and, by extension, is the mythical homeland of the Uto-Aztecan peoples. Aztec is the Nahuatl word for "people from Aztlan".

Legend

Nahuatl legends relate that seven tribes lived in Chicomoztoc, or "the place of the seven caves". Each cave represented a different Nahua group: the Xochimilca, Tlahuica, Acolhua, Tlaxcalan, Tepaneca, Chalca, and Mexica. Because of a common linguistic origin, those groups also are called "Nahuatlaca" (Nahua people). These tribes subsequently left the caves and settled "near" Aztlán, or Aztatlan.

The various descriptions of Aztlán are seemingly contradictory. While some legends describe Aztlán as a paradise, the Aubin Codex says that the Aztecs were subject to a tyrannical elite called the Azteca Chicomoztoca. Guided by their priest, the Aztec fled, and, on the road, their god Huitzilopochtli forbade them to call themselves Azteca, telling them that they should be known as Mexica. Ironically, scholars of the 19th century—in particular Alexander von Humboldt and William H. Prescott—would name them Aztec. Humboldt's suggestion was widely adopted in the 19th century as a way to distance "modern" Mexicans from pre-conquest Mexicans.

The role of Aztlán is slightly less important to Aztec legendary histories than the migration to Tenochtitlán itself. The city-states reputed to have an Aztec foundation were:

These city-states formed during the Late Postclassic period of Mesoamerican chronology (ca. 1300–1521 CE). According to Aztec legends, the Mexica were the last tribe to emigrate. When they arrived at their ancestral homeland, the present-day Valley of Mexico, all available land had been taken, and they were forced to squat on the edge of Lake Texcoco.


Places postulated as Aztlán

Depiction of the departure from Aztlán in the 16th-century Codex Boturini

While Aztlán has many trappings of myth, similar to Tamoanchan, Chicomoztoc, Tollan, and Cibola, archaeologists have nonetheless attempted to identify the geographic place of origin for the Mexica.

Friar Diego Durán (c. 1537–1588), who chronicled the history of the Aztecs, wrote of Aztec emperor Moctezuma I's attempt to recover the history of the Mexica by congregating warriors and wise men on an expedition to locate Aztlán. According to Durán, the expedition was successful in finding a place that offered characteristics unique to Aztlán. However, his accounts were written shortly after the conquest of Tenochtitlan and before an accurate mapping of the American continent was made; therefore, he was unable to provide a precise location..[1]

In 1887, Mexican anthropologist Alfredo Chavero claimed that Aztlán was located on the Pacific coast in the state of Nayarit. Eduardo Matos Moctezuma presumes Aztlán to be somewhere in the modern-day states of Guanajuato, Jalisco, and Michoacán.[2] Indeed, scholars are all consistent in naming the measures of "150 leagues" from Tenochtitlan that were documented by the Spanish scribes taking notes from conquered Mexica as the distance to the place of origin, coinciding in all ways at Chicomoztoc, "Cerro del Culiacan", which is indeed a humped mountain when seen from the south face.

Primary sources

The primary sources for Aztlán are the Boturini Codex, the Codex Telleriano-Remensis, and the Aubin Codex. Aztlán is also mentioned in the History of Tlaxcala (by Diego Muñoz Camargo, a Tlaxcalan mestizo from the 17th century), as well as Historia Tolteca-Chichimeca.

Etymology

The meaning of the name Aztlan is uncertain. One suggested meaning is "place of Herons" or "place of egrets"—the explanation given in the Crónica Mexicáyotl—but this is not possible under Nahuatl morphology: "place of egrets" would be Aztatlan.[3] Other proposed derivations include "place of whiteness"[3] and "at the place in the vicinity of tools", sharing the āz- element of words such as teponāztli, "drum" (from tepontli, "log").[3][4]

Aztlán [asˈtlan] is the Spanish language spelling and pronunciation of Nahuatl Aztlān [ˈas.tɬaːn]. The spelling Aztlán and its matching last-syllable stress cannot be Nahuatl, which always stresses words on the second-to-last syllable. The accent mark on the second a added in Spanish marks stress shift (from oxytone to paroxytone), typical of several Nahuatl words when lent into Mexican Spanish.

Use by the Chicano movement

Main article: Chicano movement
File:Flag of Aztlan.svg
The unofficial flag of Aztlán, used by Chicano nationalists in San Diego and Denver during the Chicano movement

The concept of Aztlán as the place of origin of the pre-Columbian Mexican civilization has become a symbol for various Mexican nationalist and indigenous movements.

The name Aztlán was first taken up by a group of Chicano independence activists led by Oscar Zeta Acosta during the Chicano movement of the 1960s and 1970s. They used the name Aztlán to refer to the lands of Northern Mexico that were annexed by the United States as a result of the Mexican-American War. Combined with the claim that the original homeland of the Aztecan peoples was located in the southwestern United States[citation needed], Aztlán, in this sense, became a symbol for mestizo activists who believe they have a legal and primordial right to the land. In order to exercise this right, some members of the Chicano movement propose that a new nation be created, a Republica del Norte.[5]

Territories considered for Republica del Norte ("Aztlán")

Groups who have used the name Aztlán in this manner include Plan Espiritual de Aztlán, MEChA (Movimiento Estudiantil Chicano de Aztlán, "Chicano Student Movement of Aztlán"), and the Nation of Aztlán (NOA). The land being "claimed" by these groups, for "aztlan", which comprises the existing southwest states of the USA, but rather the land of a myriad of native tribes, which were not "Aztec". 

The Aztec (Mexica) tribe never lived in the land which is now the United States, and the land which is now the southwest USA was not "Mexico", since no place called Mexico existed.
When the Spanish came from Europe, the Spanish Conquistadores explored the continent of North America, and claimed part of the land as "New Spain".  The Spanish drew the maps. No maps were drawn by an Aztec tribe. The map being used to illustrate the "Aztlan" has nothing to do with the Aztec tribe, it is a map of the Spanish land in North America, part of which became "The United Mexican States" in 1824, although the Spanish Provinces north of what is now Mexico were not Mexican "states", but rather Indian Territories, until the land was sold to the United States.

The map used to illustrate the myth "Aztlan" actually illustrates the claim Spain made on Indian lands, it has nothing to do with the Aztec tribe.

Many in the Chicano movement attribute poet Alurista for popularizing the term Aztlán in a poem presented during the Chicano Youth Liberation Conference in Denver, Colorado, in March 1969.[6]

Cultural references

In fiction

Aztlán has been used as the name of speculative fictional future states that emerge in the southwest US or Mexico after the central US government suffers collapse or major setback; examples appear in such works as the novels Warday (1984), by Whitley Strieber and James Kunetka; The Peace War (1984), by Vernor Vinge; The House of the Scorpion (2002), by Nancy Farmer; and World War Z (2006), by Max Brooks; as well as the role-playing game Shadowrun, in which the Mexican government was usurped by the Aztechnology Corporation (1989). In Gary Jennings' novel Aztec (1980), the protagonist resides in Aztlán for a while, later facilitating contact between Aztlán and the Aztec Triple Alliance just before Hernán Cortés' arrival.

In Michael Flynn's alternate-history story "The Forest of Time" (1987), Colorado is part of a nation-state called Nuevo Aztlán.

Thomas Pynchon refers to Aztlan as the "mythic ancestral home of the Mexican people" in his novel Against the Day (2006).

Charles de Lint, in his novel The Painted Boy (2010), refers to the ancestral spirit world as Aztlán.

In music

The Colombian heavy-metal band Kraken mentions "the old Aztlán" as the place where the Aztek governors (Uey Tlatoani) reside, in the song "Méxica", from its albums Kraken IV: Piel de Cobre and Kraken Filarmónico. American rock band Los Lobos released an album titled Good Morning Aztlán in 2002.

Los Angeles-based band Ozomatli penned a standout song on 2004's Street Signs in solidarity with the Chicano movement called "Santiago", alluding to Uncle Sam as "Santiago de Aztlán".

On his 1994 album Graciasland, Mexican-American rock and roll artist El Vez recorded "Aztlan" a version of Paul Simon's "Graceland" with lyrics such as, "For reasons I have explained/I'm not a part of Spain/I'm part of Aztlan."

See also

References

  1. ^ Manuel Aguilar-Moreno Handbook to Life in the Aztec World. page 29.
  2. ^ Matos Moctezuma (1988, p.38)
  3. ^ a b c Andrews (2003, p.496)
  4. ^ Andrews (2003, p. 616)
  5. ^ Professor Predicts 'Hispanic Homeland', Associated Press, 2000
  6. ^ Alurista biography on Enotes.com

Bibliography

Andrews, J. Richard (2003). Introduction to Classical Nahuatl (revised ed.). Norman: University of Oklahoma Press. ISBN 0-8061-3452-6. OCLC 50090230. {{cite book}}: templatestyles stripmarker in |author= at position 1 (help)CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (link)
Clavigero, Francesco Saverio (1807) [1787]. The history of Mexico. Collected from Spanish and Mexican historians, from manuscripts, and ancient paintings of the Indians. Illustrated by charts, and other copper plates. To which are added, critical dissertations on the land, the animals, and inhabitants of Mexico, 2 vols. Translated from the original Italian, by Charles Cullen, Esq. (2nd ed.). London: J. Johnson. OCLC 54014738. {{cite book}}: templatestyles stripmarker in |author= at position 1 (help)CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (link)
Jáuregui, Jesús (2004). "Mexcaltitán-Aztlán: un nuevo mito". Arqueología mexicana. 12 (67). México, D.F.: Instituto Nacional de Antropología e Historia, Editorial Raíces: 56–61. ISSN 0188-8218. OCLC 29789840. {{cite journal}}: templatestyles stripmarker in |author= at position 1 (help)CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (link) Template:Es icon
Kunstler, James Howard (2005). The Long Emergency: Surviving the Converging Catastrophes of the Twenty-First Century. New York: Atlantic Monthly Press. ISBN 0-87113-888-3. OCLC 57452547. {{cite book}}: templatestyles stripmarker in |author= at position 1 (help)CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (link)
Matos Moctezuma, Eduardo (1988). The Great Temple of the Aztecs: Treasures of Tenochtitlan. New Aspects of Antiquity series. Doris Heyden (trans.). New York: Thames & Hudson. ISBN 0-500-39024-X. OCLC 17968786. {{cite book}}: templatestyles stripmarker in |author= at position 1 (help)CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (link)
Miller, Mary (1993). The Gods and Symbols of Ancient Mexico and the Maya: An Illustrated Dictionary of Mesoamerican Religion. London: Thames & Hudson. ISBN 0-500-05068-6. OCLC 27667317. {{cite book}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help); templatestyles stripmarker in |author= at position 1 (help); templatestyles stripmarker in |coauthors= at position 5 (help)CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (link)
Prescott, William H. (1843). History of the Conquest of Mexico, with a Preliminary View of Ancient Mexican Civilization, and the Life of the Conqueror, Hernando Cortes (online reproduction, Electronic Text Center, University of Virginia Library). New York: Harper and Brothers. OCLC 2458166. {{cite book}}: templatestyles stripmarker in |author= at position 1 (help)CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (link)
Pynchon, Thomas (2006). Against the Day. New York: Penguin Press. ISBN 1-59420-120-X. OCLC 71173932. {{cite book}}: templatestyles stripmarker in |author= at position 1 (help)CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (link)
Smith, Michael E. (1984). "The Aztlan Migrations of Nahuatl Chronicles: Myth or History?" (PDF online facsimile). Ethnohistory. 31 (3). Columbus, OH: American Society for Ethnohistory: 153–186. doi:10.2307/482619. ISSN 0014-1801. JSTOR 482619. OCLC 145142543. {{cite journal}}: templatestyles stripmarker in |author= at position 1 (help)CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (link)
Smith, Michael E. (2003). The Aztecs (2nd ed.). Malden, MA: Blackwell Publishing. ISBN 0-631-23015-7. OCLC 48579073. {{cite book}}: templatestyles stripmarker in |author= at position 1 (help)CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (link)
Vollemaere, Antoon Leon (2000). "Chimalma, first lady of the Aztecan migration in 1064" (PDF online publication). Gender and Archaeology Across the Millennia: Long Vistas and Multiple Viewpoints. Sixth Gender and Archaeology Conference, October 6–7, 2000 (online collection of papers presented ed.). Flagstaff: Northern Arizona University, Department of Anthropology and Women's Studies. Retrieved 2007-12-28. {{cite conference}}: Unknown parameter |booktitle= ignored (|book-title= suggested) (help); templatestyles stripmarker in |author= at position 1 (help)CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (link)
Wilcox, David R. (2002). "The beginnings of anthropological archaeology in the North American Southwest: from Thomas Jefferson to the Pecos Conference" (unpaginated online reproduction by Gale/Cengage Learning). Journal of the Southwest. 44 (2). Tucson: University of Arizona Press, on behalf of The Southwest Center, U. of Arizona: 121–234. ISSN 0894-8410. OCLC 79456398. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help); Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help); templatestyles stripmarker in |author= at position 1 (help); templatestyles stripmarker in |coauthors= at position 5 (help)CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (link)

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