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| units1 = primarily [[light cavalry]]<br>[[Knights Templar]]<br>[[Crossbow]]men<br>Infantry
| units1 = primarily [[light cavalry]]<br>[[Knights Templar]]<br>[[Crossbow]]men<br>Infantry
| units2 = Cavalry, predominantly [[mounted archery|horse archers]] and [[lancers]]<ref>{{cite journal |first=Carl |last=Sverdrup |title=Numbers in Mongol Warfare |journal=Journal of Medieval Military History |publisher=Boydell Press |volume=8 |pages=109–17 [p. 115] |year=2010 |isbn=978-1-84383-596-7 |quote=The Mongols probably had a nominal force of at least 30,000 men, with the personal units of Batu and Sube'etei forming the core of the army. }}</ref><br> [[Lithobolos|Stone throwers]]<br>Possibly Chinese firearm units and other gunpowder units
| units2 = Cavalry, predominantly [[mounted archery|horse archers]] and [[lancers]]<ref>{{cite journal |first=Carl |last=Sverdrup |title=Numbers in Mongol Warfare |journal=Journal of Medieval Military History |publisher=Boydell Press |volume=8 |pages=109–17 [p. 115] |year=2010 |isbn=978-1-84383-596-7 |quote=The Mongols probably had a nominal force of at least 30,000 men, with the personal units of Batu and Sube'etei forming the core of the army. }}</ref><br> [[Lithobolos|Stone throwers]]<br>Possibly Chinese firearm units and other gunpowder units
| strength1 = ~10,000 soldiers (contemporary sources)<Ref>Sverdrup, p.115: "A near-contemporary source says the Hungarians lost 10,000 men in the Mohi battle. This is no precise number, but as most of the army was lost it may be close to what the author believed the size of the whole army was. When Mongol officer Siban spied the Hungarian camp some weeks before the battle he counted 40 units [Rashid al-Din, 2:474]. In those days the Hungarian units, the so-called banderias, were usually between 50 and 400 men strong [See Julius Bartl, "Slovak History: Chronology and Lexicon" (Bratislava 2002), p. 191]. An average size of 250 would indeed give a total of 10,000 men." [a maximum average of 400 would have given 16,000 men].</ref><br />'''Other estimations:'''<br />80,000<ref>Carey, Brian Todd, p. 124</ref><br>25,000<ref name="Markó 2000">{{citation |last=Markó |first=László |title=Great Honours of the Hungarian State |year=2000 |publisher=Magyar Könyvklub |location=Budapest |isbn=963-547-085-1 }}</ref><ref name="Liptai 1985">{{citation |last=Liptai |first=Ervin |title=Military History of Hungary |year=1985 |publisher=Zrínyi Katonai Kiadó |location=Budapest |isbn=963-326-337-9 }}</ref><br>50,000<Ref>Sverdrup, p. 115, citing Kosztolnyik.</ref>
| strength1 = 50,000<Ref>Sverdrup, p. 115, citing Kosztolnyik.</ref><br />'''Other estimations:'''<br />80,000<ref>Carey, Brian Todd, p. 124</ref><br>25,000<ref name="Markó 2000">{{citation |last=Markó |first=László |title=Great Honours of the Hungarian State |year=2000 |publisher=Magyar Könyvklub |location=Budapest |isbn=963-547-085-1 }}</ref><ref name="Liptai 1985">{{citation |last=Liptai |first=Ervin |title=Military History of Hungary |year=1985 |publisher=Zrínyi Katonai Kiadó |location=Budapest |isbn=963-326-337-9 }}</ref><<br />~10,000 soldiers (contemporary sources)<Ref>Sverdrup, p.115: "A near-contemporary source says the Hungarians lost 10,000 men in the Mohi battle. This is no precise number, but as most of the army was lost it may be close to what the author believed the size of the whole army was. When Mongol officer Siban spied the Hungarian camp some weeks before the battle he counted 40 units [Rashid al-Din, 2:474]. In those days the Hungarian units, the so-called banderias, were usually between 50 and 400 men strong [See Julius Bartl, "Slovak History: Chronology and Lexicon" (Bratislava 2002), p. 191]. An average size of 250 would indeed give a total of 10,000 men." [a maximum average of 400 would have given 16,000 men].</ref><
| strength2 = ~20,000 cavalry (contemporary sources)<ref>Sverdrup, p. 114-115, citing Rashid al-Din's chronicles, 1:198, 2:152. Rashid Al-Din's figures give Batu and Subutai about 40,000 horsemen total when they invaded Central Europe in 1241 (including Turkic auxiliaries recruited since the conquest of Rus), divided into five columns (three in Hungary, one in Transylvania, and one in Poland). He proceeds to say that while the nominal total of the Mongol force in Hungary was 30,000, the effective total on the field at Mohi would have been between that number and 15,000, close to the latter.</ref><br />'''Other estimations:'''<br>70,000<ref>Carey states on p. 128 that Batu had 40,000 in the main body and ordered Subotai to take 30,000 troops in an encircling maneuver. Batu commanded the central prong of the Mongols' three-pronged assault on eastern Europe. This number seems correct when compared with the numbers reported at the Battles of [[Battle of Legnica|Leignitz]] to the North and [[Battle of Hermannstadt|Hermannstadt]] ([[Sibiu]]) to the South. All three victories occurred in the same week.</ref><br>25,000<ref name="Markó 2000"/><ref name="Liptai 1985"/><br>50,000<Ref>Sverdrup, p. 115, citing Kosztolnyik.</ref>
| strength2 = ~20,000 cavalry (contemporary sources)<ref>Sverdrup, p. 114-115, citing Rashid al-Din's chronicles, 1:198, 2:152. Rashid Al-Din's figures give Batu and Subutai about 40,000 horsemen total when they invaded Central Europe in 1241 (including Turkic auxiliaries recruited since the conquest of Rus), divided into five columns (three in Hungary, one in Transylvania, and one in Poland). He proceeds to say that while the nominal total of the Mongol force in Hungary was 30,000, the effective total on the field at Mohi would have been between that number and 15,000, close to the latter.</ref><br />'''Other estimations:'''<br>70,000<ref>Carey states on p. 128 that Batu had 40,000 in the main body and ordered Subotai to take 30,000 troops in an encircling maneuver. Batu commanded the central prong of the Mongols' three-pronged assault on eastern Europe. This number seems correct when compared with the numbers reported at the Battles of [[Battle of Legnica|Leignitz]] to the North and [[Battle of Hermannstadt|Hermannstadt]] ([[Sibiu]]) to the South. All three victories occurred in the same week.</ref><br>25,000<ref name="Markó 2000"/><ref name="Liptai 1985"/><br>50,000<Ref>Sverdrup, p. 115, citing Kosztolnyik.</ref>
| casualties1 = 10,000 soldiers killed<ref>Sverdrup, p. 115. Citing: Gustav Strakoschd-Grassmann. Der Einfall Der Mongolen In Mitteleuropa In Den Jahren 1241 und 1242 (Innsbruck, 1893), p.183.</ref>
| casualties1 = Unknown; Most of the army killed.<ref>Thomas of Spalato, Historia, 163; </ref><br />'''Other estimations:'''<br />10,000 soldiers killed<ref>Sverdrup, p. 115. Citing: Gustav Strakoschd-Grassmann. Der Einfall Der Mongolen In Mitteleuropa In Den Jahren 1241 und 1242 (Innsbruck, 1893), p.183.</ref>
| casualties2 = Unknown, heavy
| casualties2 = Unknown, higher than normal; 30 Elites dead.<ref>Yuan Shi, Biography of Subedei, 122.2978.</ref>
| campaignbox = {{Campaignbox Mongol invasions}}
| campaignbox = {{Campaignbox Mongol invasions}}
{{Campaignbox Mongol invasion of Hungary}}
{{Campaignbox Mongol invasion of Hungary}}
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{{Main|Mongol invasion of Europe}}
{{Main|Mongol invasion of Europe}}


The Mongols attacked Hungary with three armies. One of them attacked through Poland in order to withhold possible [[Poland|Polish]] auxiliaries and defeated the army of Duke [[Henry II the Pious]] of [[Silesia]] at [[Battle of Legnica|Legnica]]. A southern army attacked [[Transylvania]], defeated the [[Voivode|voivod]] and crushed the Transylvanian Hungarian army. The main army led by [[Batu Khan|Khan Batu]] and [[Subutai]] attacked Hungary through the fortified [[Verecke Pass]] and annihilated the army led by [[Denis Tomaj]], the [[Palatine (Kingdom of Hungary)|count palatine]] on 12 March 1241.<ref>Saunders, J. J.</ref>
The Mongols attacked Eastern Europe with five distinct armies. Two of them attacked through Poland in order to protect the flank from Bela's [[Poland|Polish]] cousins, winning several victories. Most notably, they defeated the army of Duke [[Henry II the Pious]] of [[Silesia]] at [[Battle of Legnica|Legnica]]. A southern army attacked [[Transylvania]], defeated the [[Voivode|voivod]] and crushed the Transylvanian Hungarian army. The main army led by [[Batu Khan|Khan Batu]] and [[Subutai]] attacked Hungary through the fortified [[Verecke Pass]] and annihilated the army led by [[Denis Tomaj]], the [[Palatine (Kingdom of Hungary)|count palatine]] on 12 March 1241, while the final army under Batu's brother Shiban marched in an arc north of the main force.<ref>Saunders, J. J.</ref> Prior to the invasion, King Bela had personally supervised the construction of dense natural barriers along Hungary's eastern border intending to slow the Mongol advance and obstruct their movement. However, the Mongols possessed specialized units who cleared the paths with great rapidity, removing the obstacles in just 3 days.<ref>WITOLD ŚWIĘTOSŁAWSKI, The Organization of the Mongols War Expeditions, 35-6.</ref> Combined with the extreme speed of the Mongol advance, called "lightning" by a European observer, the Hungarians lacked time to properly group their forces.<ref>Matthew Paris, Chronica Majora, 339-42.</ref>


=== Warnings and Hungarian preparation ===
=== Warnings and Hungarian preparation ===
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The Mongolian threat appeared during a time of political turmoil in Hungary. Traditionally, the base of royal power consisted of vast estates owned as royal property. Under King [[Andrew II of Hungary|Andrew II]], donations of land to nobles by the crown reached a new peak: whole counties were donated. As Andrew II said, "The best measure of royal generosity is measureless". After [[Béla IV of Hungary|Béla IV]] inherited his father's throne he began to reconfiscate Andrew’s donations and to execute or expel his advisers. He also denied the nobles' right of personal hearings and accepted only written petitions to his chancellery. He even had the chairs of the council chamber taken away in order to force everybody to stand in his presence. His actions caused great disaffection among the nobles. The newly arrived and grateful Cumans gave the king more power (and increased prestige with the Church for converting them) but also caused more friction. The [[nomad]]ic Cumans did not easily integrate with the settled Hungarians and the nobles were shocked that the king supported the Cumans in quarrels between the two.
The Mongolian threat appeared during a time of political turmoil in Hungary. Traditionally, the base of royal power consisted of vast estates owned as royal property. Under King [[Andrew II of Hungary|Andrew II]], donations of land to nobles by the crown reached a new peak: whole counties were donated. As Andrew II said, "The best measure of royal generosity is measureless". After [[Béla IV of Hungary|Béla IV]] inherited his father's throne he began to reconfiscate Andrew’s donations and to execute or expel his advisers. He also denied the nobles' right of personal hearings and accepted only written petitions to his chancellery. He even had the chairs of the council chamber taken away in order to force everybody to stand in his presence. His actions caused great disaffection among the nobles. The newly arrived and grateful Cumans gave the king more power (and increased prestige with the Church for converting them) but also caused more friction. The [[nomad]]ic Cumans did not easily integrate with the settled Hungarians and the nobles were shocked that the king supported the Cumans in quarrels between the two.


King Béla began to mobilise his army and ordered all of his troops, including the Cumans, to the city of [[Pest (city)|Pest]]. [[Frederick II of Austria|Frederick II]], Duke of [[Austria]] and [[Styria]], also arrived there to help him. At this moment, the conflict between Cumans and Hungarians caused riots and the Cuman khan—who had been under the personal protection of the king—was murdered. Some sources mention the role of Duke Frederick in inciting this riot, but his true role is unknown. The Cumans believed that they had been betrayed, and left the country to the south, pillaging all the way. The full mobilisation was unsuccessful; many contingents were unable to reach Pest; some were destroyed by Mongols before they arrived, some by renegade Cumans. Many nobles refused to take part in the campaign because they hated the king and desired his downfall. Hardly anybody believed that the Mongol attack was a serious threat to the kingdom's security, and the Cuman defection was considered minor and usual. This attitude may have contributed to the death of the Cuman [[Khan Kuthen]].<ref name="Saunders">Saunders</ref>
King Béla began to mobilise his army and ordered all of his troops, including the Cumans, to the city of [[Pest (city)|Pest]]. [[Frederick II of Austria|Frederick II]], Duke of [[Austria]] and [[Styria]], also arrived there to help him. At this moment, the conflict between Cumans and Hungarians caused riots and the Cuman khan—who had been under the personal protection of the king—was murdered. Some sources mention the role of Duke Frederick in inciting this riot, but his true role is unknown. Another possibility is that Mongol spies helped spread rumors of the supposed Cuman-Mongol alliance to cause panic, similar to what the Mongols had done in the invasion of Khwarezm. The Cumans believed that they had been betrayed, and left the country to the south, pillaging all the way. The full mobilisation was unsuccessful; many contingents were unable to reach Pest; some were destroyed by Mongols before they arrived, some by renegade Cumans. Many nobles refused to take part in the campaign because they hated the king and desired his downfall. The loss of the Cumans was painful for Bela, because they were the one army in Europe who had experience fighting the Mongols.<ref>Jackson, 62.</ref>


== The battle ==
== The battle ==
=== Initial actions ===
=== Initial actions ===


The Mongol vanguard reached Pest on 15 March and began to pillage the neighbouring area. King Béla forbade his men to attack them, as the Hungarian army was still unprepared. Even so, Duke Frederick attacked and defeated a minor raiding party, so Béla came to be seen as a coward. After this "heroic" act, Duke Frederick returned home. [[Ugrin Csák, Archbishop of Kalocsa]] also tried to attack a Mongol contingent, but he was lured to a swamp and his armoured cavalry became irretrievably stuck in it. He barely escaped with his life.{{citation needed|date=September 2015}}
The Mongol vanguard reached Pest on 15 March and began to pillage the neighbouring area. King Béla forbade his men to attack them, as the Hungarian army was still unprepared. Even so, Duke Frederick attacked and defeated a minor raiding party and used this to attempt to smear Bela as a coward. After this "heroic" act, Duke Frederick returned home, abandoning his Hungarian rival. Meanwhile, the Mongols had destroyed several other Hungarian forces that were unable to link up with the main army in time.
[[Ugrin Csák, Archbishop of Kalocsa]] also tried to attack a Mongol contingent, but he was lured to a swamp and his armoured cavalry became irretrievably stuck in it. He barely escaped with his life. The army of the Count of Palatine also was annihilated, as previously mentioned. The southern Mongol army also defeated another Hungarian force at Oradea.<ref> Gustav Strakosch-Grassmann, Der Einfall der Mongolen in Mitteleuropa in den Jahren 1241 und 1242 (Innsbruck, 1893), 68-101.</ref>


Finally, the king decided to offer the Mongols battle, but they began to retreat. This affirmed the opinion of the nobles that the Mongols were not a threat and the king’s behaviour was not cautious but cowardly. After a week of forced marches and frequent Mongol attacks, the Hungarian army, a collection of varied Hungarian forces from ten to thirty thousand strong, reached the flooded River [[Sajó]]. It stopped to rest and to wait for additional supplies, but because of the wooded terrain on the far bank of the Sajó the king and the Hungarians still did not know that the main Mongol army which numbered around 20,000 was present. The cautious king ordered the building of a heavily fortified [[Wagon fort|camp of wagons]].{{citation needed|date=September 2015}}
Finally, the king decided to offer the Mongols battle, but they began to retreat. This affirmed the opinion of the nobles that the Mongols were not a threat and the king’s behaviour was not cautious but cowardly. After a week of forced marches and frequent Mongol attacks, the Hungarian army, a collection of varied Hungarian forces reached the flooded River [[Sajó]]. The size of the Hungarian army is an open question. The closest hard evidence comes from Juvaini, who reports that the Mongol reconnaissance force (10,000 men) estimated the Hungarian army was twice as numerous as the Mongol army.<ref>History of the World Conqueror, 270.</ref> Rashid al-Din, likewise drawing on Mongol sources, reports the Mongol force for the entire European invasion was 40,000 men, of which only a portion were actually at Mohi.<ref>Rashid al-Din, 2.152.</ref> The Mongols evidently judged the Hungarian army to be much stronger, as they conducted a feigned retreat like at the battle of the Kalka. These lengty maneuvers would not have been necessary unless the Hungarian army was very strong. The Hungarians stopped to rest and to wait for additional supplies, but because of the wooded terrain on the far bank of the Sajó the king and the Hungarians still did not know that the main Mongol army which numbered around 20,000 was present. The cautious king ordered the building of a heavily fortified [[Wagon fort|camp of wagons]], a battle-tested countermeasure against nomadic armies.<ref>Timothy May, the Mongol Art of War (2016), 164.</ref>


=== The Mongol plan ===
=== The Mongol plan ===
It is highly unlikely that the Mongols originally wanted to cross a wide and dangerous river to attack a fortified camp. It is more likely that their original plan was to attack the Hungarians while crossing the river, as in the [[Battle of the Kalka River]], although this is still not certain. A [[Ruthenia]]n slave of the Mongols escaped to the Hungarians and warned them that the Mongols intended a night attack over the bridge over the Sajó.<ref name="Saunders" />
It is highly unlikely that the Mongols originally wanted to cross a wide and dangerous river to attack a fortified camp. It is more likely that their original plan was to ambush the Hungarians while crossing the river, as in the [[Battle of the Kalka River]], although this is still not certain. A [[Ruthenia]]n slave of the Mongols escaped to the Hungarians and warned them that the Mongols intended a night attack over the bridge over the Sajó.<ref name="Saunders" /> The Mongols planned to bring their three contingents together if possible before engaging in battle and watched for signs that the Hungarians planned to attack. Though effective against traditional Nomadic armies, the Hungarian camp became a liability due to the Mongols advanced siege equipment.<ref>Marshall, Robert (1993) ''Storm from the East''. London: BBC Books; pp. 111–13</ref>

The Mongols planned to bring their three contingents together if possible before engaging in battle and watched for signs that the Hungarians planned to attack. The way the camp was fortified was a tactical error since this would impede moves to escape in the event of an attack.<ref>Marshall, Robert (1993) ''Storm from the East''. London: BBC Books; pp. 111–13</ref>


Subutai planned an encircling attack that required Batu's force to cross the river over the Sajó bridge and his force to cross the river separately by constructing a temporary bridge downstream. Subutai took roughly 40% of the army in this encircling operation, leaving the other 60% with Batu. The plan was not perfectly executed because multiple units of Batu's force crossed the bridge prematurely for military exploits.{{citation needed|date=September 2015}}
Subutai planned an encircling attack that required Batu's force to cross the river over the Sajó bridge and his force to cross the river separately by constructing a temporary bridge downstream. Subutai took roughly 40% of the army in this encircling operation, leaving the other 60% with Batu. The plan was not perfectly executed because multiple units of Batu's force crossed the bridge prematurely for military exploits.{{citation needed|date=September 2015}}
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A hard struggle ensued. The Hungarians outnumbered Batu's detachment, and the Mongols were unable to move quickly because the Sajó was behind their backs. In this fighting, Batu lost thirty of his [[kheshig|baaturs]] (heavily armoured bodyguards) and one of his lieutenants, Bakatu, when he personally assaulted a strong point with the vanguard.<ref>C. P. Atwood ''Encyclopaedia of Mongolia and the Mongol Empire'', see: ''Battle of Mohi''</ref> The struggle seemed to be going terribly for the Mongols; in two hours of fighting, they suffered grievous losses, and were just barely saved from being routed by a charge of Hungarian knights by the firepower of their siege engines.<ref name="Chambers">James Chambers. ''The Devil's Horsemen: The Mongol Invasion of Europe''. Atheneum. New York. 1979. {{ISBN|0-689-10942-3}}</ref> At the end of the second hour, as the Hungarians were preparing another charge to shatter the Mongol lines, [[Subutai]], who had been delayed by bridge-building, attacked the Hungarians’ rear flank. The Hungarians retreated back to their fortified camp before Subutai could complete his encirclement.<ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=tFQcwH2StsMC&pg=PA89 |title=Commanders |author=R. G. Grant|accessdate=2011-11-28 |edition= |series= |volume= |date= |year=2010 |month= |publisher=Penguin |location= |language= |isbn=0-7566-7341-0 |page=89 |pages= |quote=At Mohi on April 111, Mongols versus Christians During the invasion of central Europe, directed by Sübedei in 1241, Mongol horsemen proved superior to armoured Christian knights in both subtlety of manoeuvre and speed of movement. he drove the army of the Hungarian king, Bela IV, into confused flight with a frontal attack across a river—supported by rock-throwing catapults used as field artillery—and a simultaneous flank attack delivered from a concealed position. Sübedei's horsemen pursued and massacred the Christian troops as they fled. }}</ref> Because of the losses suffered (James Chambers describes the Mongol force as "dangerously depleted") and the size of the surviving Hungarian force, Batu suggested to retreat. He was no longer confident that his men could defeat the Hungarians if they decided to come out again, and blamed Subutai for the terrible casualties his wing took. Subutai stated that regardless of Batu's decision, he would not retreat until his force reached Pest. Batu was eventually persuaded and resumed the attack.<ref>Yuan Shi, Biography of Subutai, 122.2978.</ref>
A hard struggle ensued. The Hungarians outnumbered Batu's detachment, and the Mongols were unable to move quickly because the Sajó was behind their backs. In this fighting, Batu lost thirty of his [[kheshig|baaturs]] (heavily armoured bodyguards) and one of his lieutenants, Bakatu, when he personally assaulted a strong point with the vanguard.<ref>C. P. Atwood ''Encyclopaedia of Mongolia and the Mongol Empire'', see: ''Battle of Mohi''</ref> The struggle seemed to be going terribly for the Mongols; in two hours of fighting, they suffered grievous losses, and were just barely saved from being routed by a charge of Hungarian knights by the firepower of their siege engines.<ref name="Chambers">James Chambers. ''The Devil's Horsemen: The Mongol Invasion of Europe''. Atheneum. New York. 1979. {{ISBN|0-689-10942-3}}</ref> At the end of the second hour, as the Hungarians were preparing another charge to shatter the Mongol lines, [[Subutai]], who had been delayed by bridge-building, attacked the Hungarians’ rear flank. The Hungarians retreated back to their fortified camp before Subutai could complete his encirclement.<ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=tFQcwH2StsMC&pg=PA89 |title=Commanders |author=R. G. Grant|accessdate=2011-11-28 |edition= |series= |volume= |date= |year=2010 |month= |publisher=Penguin |location= |language= |isbn=0-7566-7341-0 |page=89 |pages= |quote=At Mohi on April 111, Mongols versus Christians During the invasion of central Europe, directed by Sübedei in 1241, Mongol horsemen proved superior to armoured Christian knights in both subtlety of manoeuvre and speed of movement. he drove the army of the Hungarian king, Bela IV, into confused flight with a frontal attack across a river—supported by rock-throwing catapults used as field artillery—and a simultaneous flank attack delivered from a concealed position. Sübedei's horsemen pursued and massacred the Christian troops as they fled. }}</ref> Because of the losses suffered (James Chambers describes the Mongol force as "dangerously depleted") and the size of the surviving Hungarian force, Batu suggested to retreat. He was no longer confident that his men could defeat the Hungarians if they decided to come out again, and blamed Subutai for the terrible casualties his wing took. Subutai stated that regardless of Batu's decision, he would not retreat until his force reached Pest. Batu was eventually persuaded and resumed the attack.<ref>Yuan Shi, Biography of Subutai, 122.2978.</ref>
==== Afternoon ====
==== Afternoon ====
It is possible that the Hungarians might have had the capability to defend the camp, but their sallies were ineffective, and they were terrified by the flaming arrows, resulting in the deaths of many soldiers by the trampling crush of their comrades. The nobles inside the camp felt little loyalty to the king, and likely would have deserted had they not already been surrounded. Bela's brother, Coloman, rallied enough men to sally out and charge the Mongols, but his attack was driven back. The Mongols used their siege equipment to pound the camp's fortifications, and set fire to the tents. Finally, the demoralized soldiers decided to flee. They tried to escape through a gap left open on purpose by the Mongols, because fleeing soldiers can be killed more easily than those who, with their backs to a wall, are forced to fight to the death. There, most of them were slaughtered.<ref>Yuan Shi, 122.2978.</ref>
Confined within the camp, mood among the Hungarians turned to panic after their sallies were ineffective and they sustained repeated bombardments by stone and gunpowder. Terrified by the flaming arrows, trampling crush of their comrades resulted in the deaths of many soldiers. The nobles inside the camp felt little loyalty to the king, and likely would have deserted had they not already been surrounded. Bela's brother, Coloman, rallied enough men to sally out and charge the Mongols, but his attack was driven back. The Mongols used their siege equipment to pound the camp's fortifications, and set fire to the tents. Finally, the demoralized soldiers decided to flee. They tried to escape through a gap left open on purpose by the Mongols, because fleeing soldiers can be killed more easily than those who, with their backs to a wall, are forced to fight to the death. There, almost of them were slaughtered.<ref>Yuan Shi, 122.2978.</ref>


Archbishop Ugrin was killed along with another Archbishop, three bishops, and numerous other high officials, but Coloman and Béla managed to escape—though Coloman's wounds were so serious that he died soon after. While the Mongols had suffered higher than normal casualties themselves, the Hungarians had lost almost their entire force.
Archbishop Ugrin was killed along with another Archbishop, three bishops, and numerous other high officials, but Coloman and Béla managed to escape—though Coloman's wounds were so serious that he died soon after. While the Mongols had suffered higher than normal casualties themselves, the Hungarians had lost almost their entire force. Thomas of Spalato, who interviewed many eyewitnesses, claimed that the route the Hungarians tried to flee along was strewn with so many corpses that the ground had become dyed red from their blood.<ref>Thomas of Spalato, Historia, 163.</ref>


=== Role of gunpowder and firearms ===
=== Role of gunpowder and firearms ===
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== Aftermath ==
== Aftermath ==
After their victory, the Mongols regrouped and began an assault on the Hungarian country, solidifying their control over the terrain they had previously blitzed through.<ref name="Saunders" /> The Hungarians' losses were such that they were unable to mount an effective defence. The city of Pest was taken and burnt down. [[Siege of Esztergom (1241)|Esztergom was attacked]] and most of its population killed, though the Mongols failed to obtain significant loot on part of the citadel holding against their attacks. The Mongols systematically occupied the Great Hungarian Plains, the slopes of the northern Carpathian Mountains, and Transylvania. Where they found local resistance, they ruthlessly killed the population. Where the locale offered no resistance, they forced the men into servitude in the Mongol army. Hungary lay in ruins, and widespread hysteria spread across all of Europe.<ref></ref> Nearly half of the inhabited places had been destroyed by the invading armies. Around 15 to 25 percent of the population was lost,<ref name=":0">The traditional figure is 25%, but László Veszprémy, taking account of recent scholarship, says "some fifteen percent". "Muhi, Battle of," in ''The Oxford Encyclopedia of Medieval Warfare and Military Technology'', ed. Clifford J. Rogers (New York: Oxford U.P., 2010), vol. 3, p. 34.</ref> mostly in lowland areas, especially in the [[Alföld]], in the southern reaches of the Hungarian plain in the area now called the [[Banat]], and in southern Transylvania.
After their victory, the Mongols did not pause to loot and instead ruthlessly pursued the remainder of the Hungarian army.<ref>Thomas of Spalato, Historia, ch. XXXVI: 163</ref> After wiping up any stragglers they could find, they began an assault on the Hungarian country, solidifying their control over the terrain they had previously blitzed through.<ref name="Saunders" /> The Hungarians' losses were such that they were unable to mount an effective defence. The city of Pest was taken and burnt down. [[Siege of Esztergom (1241)|Esztergom was attacked]] and most of its population killed, though the Mongols failed to obtain significant loot on part of the citadel holding against their attacks. The Mongols systematically occupied the Great Hungarian Plains, the slopes of the northern Carpathian Mountains, and Transylvania. Where they found local resistance, they ruthlessly killed the population. Where the locale offered no resistance, they forced the men into servitude in the Mongol army. Hungary lay in ruins, and widespread hysteria spread across all of Europe.<ref></ref> Nearly half of the inhabited places had been destroyed by the invading armies. Around 15 to 25 percent of the population was lost,<ref name=":0">The traditional figure is 25%, but László Veszprémy, taking account of recent scholarship, says "some fifteen percent". "Muhi, Battle of," in ''The Oxford Encyclopedia of Medieval Warfare and Military Technology'', ed. Clifford J. Rogers (New York: Oxford U.P., 2010), vol. 3, p. 34.</ref> mostly in lowland areas, especially in the [[Alföld]], in the southern reaches of the Hungarian plain in the area now called the [[Banat]], and in southern Transylvania.


With no safe place left in Hungary, Bela was chased down to Dalmatia. The royal family finally escaped to [[Austria]] to seek help from Bela's archenemy Duke Frederick who arrested them, extorted an enormous ransom in gold and forced the king to cede three western counties to Austria. It was at this point that King Béla and some of his retinue fled south-west, through Hungarian-controlled territory, to the [[Adriatic Sea|Adriatic]] coast and the island fortress of [[Trogir]], where they stayed until the Mongols withdrew.<ref>Jackson, p. 65</ref> The Mongols seized the Hungarian royal seal and used it to issue bogus decrees that kept many Hungarians vulnerable to be exploited.<ref>Thomas of Spalato, Historia Pontificum.</ref> Meanwhile, the rest of Europe was horrified by the defeat and subsequent devastation of Hungary, creating a wave of fear and panic that spread to the Atlantic.<ref>Matthew Paris, Chronica Majora, 339-348.</ref>
With no safe place left in Hungary, Bela was chased down to Dalmatia. The royal family finally escaped to [[Austria]] to seek help from Bela's archenemy Duke Frederick who arrested them, extorted an enormous ransom in gold and forced the king to cede three western counties to Austria.<ref>J. Gießauf, "Herzog Friedrich II. von Österreich und die Mongolengefahr 1241/42," in Forschungen zur Geschichte des Alpen-Adria-Raumes. Festgabe für em. O. Univ.-Prof. Dr. Othmar Pickl zum 70. Geburtstag, Graz 1997,173-199.</ref> It was at this point that King Béla and some of his retinue fled south-west, through Hungarian-controlled territory, to the [[Adriatic Sea|Adriatic]] coast and the island fortress of [[Trogir]], where they stayed until the Mongols withdrew.<ref>Jackson, p. 65</ref> The Mongols seized the Hungarian royal seal and used it to issue bogus decrees that kept many Hungarians vulnerable to be exploited.<ref>Thomas of Spalato, Historia Pontificum.</ref> Meanwhile, the rest of Europe was horrified by the defeat and subsequent devastation of Hungary, creating a wave of fear and panic that spread to the Atlantic.<ref>Matthew Paris, Chronica Majora, 339-348.</ref>


Surviving members of the royal retinue, being for the large part those that did not get to the battle of Mohi in time to participate, along with a number of disorganized irregulars consisting mostly of armed peasants, employed [[guerrilla]] tactics to harass the Mongol troops, occasionally engaging them in open battle. However, these attempts were met by massacres by the ruthless Subutai, which stalled any guerrilla attempts in their tracks.<ref>McLynn, 476.</ref> A portion of the civilian population fled to areas of refuge difficult for the Mongol cavalry to access: high mountains in the north and east, swamps (especially on the Puszta, around Székesfehérvár and in the west, the [[Hanság]]), and older [[Earthworks (engineering)|earthwork]] fortresses (most of which were in a [[motte-and-bailey]] form or consisted of a mud-banked enclosure on the top of a mountain, steep natural hill or man-made hill). [[Rogerius of Apulia|Rogerius]] recounts his experience in one such refuge called [[Fátra]] in his ''[[Carmen Miserable]]'' The Mongols often bypassed strong points and devastated the nearby agriculture fields and irrigation systems, which later led to a mass starvation.<ref>McLynn, 479-80;Master Roger, Carmen Miseribile.</ref>
Surviving members of the royal retinue, being for the large part those that did not get to the battle of Mohi in time to participate, along with a number of disorganized irregulars consisting mostly of armed peasants, employed [[guerrilla]] tactics to harass the Mongol troops, occasionally engaging them in open battle. However, these attempts were met by massacres by the ruthless Subutai, which stalled any guerrilla attempts in their tracks.<ref>McLynn, 476.</ref> A portion of the civilian population fled to areas of refuge difficult for the Mongol cavalry to access: high mountains in the north and east, swamps (especially on the Puszta, around Székesfehérvár and in the west, the [[Hanság]]), and older [[Earthworks (engineering)|earthwork]] fortresses (most of which were in a [[motte-and-bailey]] form or consisted of a mud-banked enclosure on the top of a mountain, steep natural hill or man-made hill). [[Rogerius of Apulia|Rogerius]] recounts his experience in one such refuge called [[Fátra]] in his ''[[Carmen Miserable]]'' The Mongols often bypassed strong points and devastated the nearby agriculture fields and irrigation systems, which later led to a mass starvation.<ref>McLynn, 479-80;Master Roger, Carmen Miseribile.</ref>


On the Mongol side, there were also internal frictions prior to their armies departure after the battle. The Mongol/Chinese sources portray Batu as being a mediocre commander-in-chief who blamed Subutai for the losses at Mohi that actually occurred due to Batu's impetuosity. Batu was notably unhappy that he had lost 30 of his 4,000 elite Mongol troops (ba`aturs) and his lieutenant, in addition to likely many hundreds of perhaps thousands of auxiliaries, an unusually high loss for the Mongols. This led to a heated post-victory banquet where Batu was forced to back down and credit their victories to Subutai. Additionally, [[Guyuk]] and [[Buri]] accused Batu of incompetence and ridding Subutai's coattails to victory, which led to Batu ejecting the two princes along with Mongke, an impartial observer, back to Karakorum to be judged by Ogedei. It is highly likely that they also took their own forces with them, further depleting the active Mongol army.<ref>Yuan Shi, 122.2978.</ref><ref> Hodong Kim, A Reappraisal of Güyüg Khan, 319-20.</ref>
On the Mongol side, there were also internal frictions prior to their armies departure after the battle. The Mongol/Chinese sources portray Batu as being a mediocre commander-in-chief who blamed Subutai for the losses at Mohi that actually occurred due to Batu's impetuosity. Batu was notably unhappy that he had lost 30 of his 4,000 elite Mongol troops (ba`aturs) and his lieutenant, in addition to likely many hundreds of perhaps a few thousands of auxiliaries, an unusually high loss for the Mongols. This led to a heated post-victory banquet where Batu was forced to back down and credit their victories to Subutai. Additionally, [[Guyuk]] and [[Buri]] accused Batu of incompetence and ridding Subutai's coattails to victory, which led to Batu ejecting the two princes along with Mongke, an impartial observer, back to Karakorum to be judged by Ogedei. It is highly likely that they also took their own forces with them, further depleting the active Mongol army.<ref>Yuan Shi, 122.2978.</ref><ref> Hodong Kim, A Reappraisal of Güyüg Khan, 319-20.</ref>


=== Reaction from other European rulers ===
=== Reaction from other European rulers ===
While the king kept himself apprised of the situation in the rest of the country, he made numerous attempts to contact other rulers of Europe, including the [[Pope Gregory IX|Pope]], the [[Frederick II, Holy Roman Emperor|Holy Roman Emperor]], and the [[Louis IX of France|King of France]]. None of them were willing to provide significant support to Hungary. Pope Gregory XI called a Crusade against the Mongols, wrote to numerous German princes telling them to gather their forces, and ordered the clergy to give refuge to the Hungarian king and his subjects should they seek refuge from the Mongols. However, he warned the Hungarian king that help was unlikely to materialize as long as the Holy Roman Emperor remained belligerent and in conflict with the church.<ref>Jackson, pp. 65–66</ref>
While the king kept himself apprised of the situation in the rest of the country, he made numerous attempts to contact other rulers of Europe, including the [[Pope Gregory IX|Pope]], the [[Frederick II, Holy Roman Emperor|Holy Roman Emperor]], and the [[Louis IX of France|King of France]]. None of them were willing to provide significant support to Hungary. Pope Gregory XI called a Crusade against the Mongols, wrote to numerous German princes telling them to gather their forces, and ordered the clergy to give refuge to the Hungarian king and his subjects should they seek refuge from the Mongols. However, he warned the Hungarian king that help was unlikely to materialize as long as the Holy Roman Emperor remained belligerent and in conflict with the church.<ref>Jackson, pp. 65–66</ref>


His prediction was ultimately correct, as the [[Holy Roman Empire]] (HRE) took little part in fighting the Mongols, bar repelling minor raids in Bohemia, Moravia, Bavaria, and Austria. However, Frederick was well aware of the threat they posed even when reduced in strength from battles in Hungary and Poland. Even before the Pope's summons, Emperor Frederick II and his son, Conrad IV, called a ''Landfrieden'' throughout Germany. Conrad ordered the magnates to levy their armies, while Frederick II ordered them to strengthen their defenses.<ref>Jackson, pp. 66–67</ref> Conrad set July 1 as the date for a large German army to assemble at [[Nuremberg]].
His prediction was ultimately correct, as the [[Holy Roman Empire]] (HRE) took little part in fighting the Mongols, bar repelling minor scouting parties in Bohemia, Moravia, Bavaria, and Austria. Emperor Frederick II, in his warning letter to Christiandom, grimly assessed the situation but also tried to use it as leverage over the Papacy.<ref>Matthew Paris, 341-344.</ref> However, Frederick was well aware of the threat they posed. Even before the Pope's summons, Emperor Frederick II and his son, Conrad IV, called a ''Landfrieden'' throughout Germany. Conrad ordered the magnates to levy their armies, while Frederick II ordered them to strengthen their defenses.<ref>Jackson, pp. 66–67</ref> Conrad set July 1 as the date for a large German army to assemble at [[Nuremberg]], but this force was instead hijacked for a crusade against the Hohenstaufen Dynasty.<ref>McLynn, 468-75.</ref>


The army assembled on schedule, and was apparently powerful enough that contemporary chroniclers thought that the Mongols opted to withdraw because of its presence. It marched 50 miles east before stopping near Weiden. The exact reason is unknown, but they most likely stopped because the Mongols had ceased any raids into the HRE, and stayed on the east side of the Danube to ravage Hungary.<ref>49 Peter Jackson, “The Crusade against the Mongols (1241),” Journal of Ecclesiastical History 42 (1991): 6–8.</ref> However, there is no reference to the army disintegrating the same year, and the border states of the HRE such as Austria continued to strengthen their defenses, so they most likely were still adopting a defensive posture until the Mongol withdrawal in early 1242.<ref>Jackson, p. 68</ref>
The army assembled on schedule, and was apparently powerful enough that contemporary chroniclers thought that the Mongols opted to withdraw because of its presence. It marched 50 miles east before stopping near Weiden. The exact reason is unknown, but they most likely stopped because the Mongols had ceased any raids into the HRE, and stayed on the east side of the Danube to ravage Hungary.<ref>49 Peter Jackson, “The Crusade against the Mongols (1241),” Journal of Ecclesiastical History 42 (1991): 6–8.</ref> However, there is no reference to the army disintegrating the same year, and the border states of the HRE such as Austria continued to strengthen their defenses, so they most likely were still adopting a defensive posture until the Mongol withdrawal in early 1242.<ref>Jackson, p. 68</ref>

Revision as of 08:20, 19 October 2017

Battle of Mohi
Part of the First Mongol invasion of Hungary
Date11 April 1241
Location
Sajó River, near Muhi, Hungary
Result Decisive Mongol victory
Belligerents

Kingdom of Hungary
Kingdom of Croatia
Knights Templar


Minor belligerent:
Duchy of Austria
Golden Horde
(Mongol Empire)
Commanders and leaders
Béla IV of Hungary
Coloman of Slavonia  (DOW)
Ugrin Csák  
Matthias Rátót  
Frederick II of Austria
Denis Tomaj  
Rembald de Voczon
Batu Khan
Subutai
Shiban
Berke
Boroldai
Units involved
primarily light cavalry
Knights Templar
Crossbowmen
Infantry
Cavalry, predominantly horse archers and lancers[1]
Stone throwers
Possibly Chinese firearm units and other gunpowder units
Strength
50,000[2]
Other estimations:
80,000[3]
25,000[4][5]<
~10,000 soldiers (contemporary sources)[6]<
~20,000 cavalry (contemporary sources)[7]
Other estimations:
70,000[8]
25,000[4][5]
50,000[9]
Casualties and losses
Unknown; Most of the army killed.[10]
Other estimations:
10,000 soldiers killed[11]
Unknown, higher than normal; 30 Elites dead.[12]

The Battle of Mohi (today Muhi), also known as Battle of the Sajó River or Battle of the Tisza River (11 April 1241), was the main battle between the Mongol Empire and the Kingdom of Hungary during the Mongol invasion of Europe. It took place at Muhi, southwest of the Sajó River. After the invasion, Hungary lay in ruins. Nearly half of the inhabited places had been destroyed by the invading armies. Around 15–25 percent of the population was lost, mostly in lowland areas, especially in the Great Hungarian Plain, the southern reaches of the Hungarian plain in the area now called the Banat and in southern Transylvania.[13]

Background

The Mongol invasion of Europe

The Mongols attacked Eastern Europe with five distinct armies. Two of them attacked through Poland in order to protect the flank from Bela's Polish cousins, winning several victories. Most notably, they defeated the army of Duke Henry II the Pious of Silesia at Legnica. A southern army attacked Transylvania, defeated the voivod and crushed the Transylvanian Hungarian army. The main army led by Khan Batu and Subutai attacked Hungary through the fortified Verecke Pass and annihilated the army led by Denis Tomaj, the count palatine on 12 March 1241, while the final army under Batu's brother Shiban marched in an arc north of the main force.[14] Prior to the invasion, King Bela had personally supervised the construction of dense natural barriers along Hungary's eastern border intending to slow the Mongol advance and obstruct their movement. However, the Mongols possessed specialized units who cleared the paths with great rapidity, removing the obstacles in just 3 days.[15] Combined with the extreme speed of the Mongol advance, called "lightning" by a European observer, the Hungarians lacked time to properly group their forces.[16]

Warnings and Hungarian preparation

In 1223, the expanding Mongol Empire defeated an allied Cuman army at the Kalka River. The defeated Cumans retreated towards Hungary. Hungary had tried to convert the Cumans to Christianity and expand its influence over them for several decades beforehand. The Hungarian King Béla IV even began to use the title "King of Cumania". When Cuman refugees (ca. 40,000 people) sought refuge in his kingdom, it seemed that at least a portion of the Cumans had accepted Hungarian rule. The Mongols saw Hungary as a rival, and the Cuman migration to Hungary as a casus belli. In their ultimatum they also blamed Hungary for "missing envoys".[17]

The Mongolian threat appeared during a time of political turmoil in Hungary. Traditionally, the base of royal power consisted of vast estates owned as royal property. Under King Andrew II, donations of land to nobles by the crown reached a new peak: whole counties were donated. As Andrew II said, "The best measure of royal generosity is measureless". After Béla IV inherited his father's throne he began to reconfiscate Andrew’s donations and to execute or expel his advisers. He also denied the nobles' right of personal hearings and accepted only written petitions to his chancellery. He even had the chairs of the council chamber taken away in order to force everybody to stand in his presence. His actions caused great disaffection among the nobles. The newly arrived and grateful Cumans gave the king more power (and increased prestige with the Church for converting them) but also caused more friction. The nomadic Cumans did not easily integrate with the settled Hungarians and the nobles were shocked that the king supported the Cumans in quarrels between the two.

King Béla began to mobilise his army and ordered all of his troops, including the Cumans, to the city of Pest. Frederick II, Duke of Austria and Styria, also arrived there to help him. At this moment, the conflict between Cumans and Hungarians caused riots and the Cuman khan—who had been under the personal protection of the king—was murdered. Some sources mention the role of Duke Frederick in inciting this riot, but his true role is unknown. Another possibility is that Mongol spies helped spread rumors of the supposed Cuman-Mongol alliance to cause panic, similar to what the Mongols had done in the invasion of Khwarezm. The Cumans believed that they had been betrayed, and left the country to the south, pillaging all the way. The full mobilisation was unsuccessful; many contingents were unable to reach Pest; some were destroyed by Mongols before they arrived, some by renegade Cumans. Many nobles refused to take part in the campaign because they hated the king and desired his downfall. The loss of the Cumans was painful for Bela, because they were the one army in Europe who had experience fighting the Mongols.[18]

The battle

Initial actions

The Mongol vanguard reached Pest on 15 March and began to pillage the neighbouring area. King Béla forbade his men to attack them, as the Hungarian army was still unprepared. Even so, Duke Frederick attacked and defeated a minor raiding party and used this to attempt to smear Bela as a coward. After this "heroic" act, Duke Frederick returned home, abandoning his Hungarian rival. Meanwhile, the Mongols had destroyed several other Hungarian forces that were unable to link up with the main army in time.

Ugrin Csák, Archbishop of Kalocsa also tried to attack a Mongol contingent, but he was lured to a swamp and his armoured cavalry became irretrievably stuck in it. He barely escaped with his life. The army of the Count of Palatine also was annihilated, as previously mentioned. The southern Mongol army also defeated another Hungarian force at Oradea.[19]

Finally, the king decided to offer the Mongols battle, but they began to retreat. This affirmed the opinion of the nobles that the Mongols were not a threat and the king’s behaviour was not cautious but cowardly. After a week of forced marches and frequent Mongol attacks, the Hungarian army, a collection of varied Hungarian forces reached the flooded River Sajó. The size of the Hungarian army is an open question. The closest hard evidence comes from Juvaini, who reports that the Mongol reconnaissance force (10,000 men) estimated the Hungarian army was twice as numerous as the Mongol army.[20] Rashid al-Din, likewise drawing on Mongol sources, reports the Mongol force for the entire European invasion was 40,000 men, of which only a portion were actually at Mohi.[21] The Mongols evidently judged the Hungarian army to be much stronger, as they conducted a feigned retreat like at the battle of the Kalka. These lengty maneuvers would not have been necessary unless the Hungarian army was very strong. The Hungarians stopped to rest and to wait for additional supplies, but because of the wooded terrain on the far bank of the Sajó the king and the Hungarians still did not know that the main Mongol army which numbered around 20,000 was present. The cautious king ordered the building of a heavily fortified camp of wagons, a battle-tested countermeasure against nomadic armies.[22]

The Mongol plan

It is highly unlikely that the Mongols originally wanted to cross a wide and dangerous river to attack a fortified camp. It is more likely that their original plan was to ambush the Hungarians while crossing the river, as in the Battle of the Kalka River, although this is still not certain. A Ruthenian slave of the Mongols escaped to the Hungarians and warned them that the Mongols intended a night attack over the bridge over the Sajó.[23] The Mongols planned to bring their three contingents together if possible before engaging in battle and watched for signs that the Hungarians planned to attack. Though effective against traditional Nomadic armies, the Hungarian camp became a liability due to the Mongols advanced siege equipment.[24]

Subutai planned an encircling attack that required Batu's force to cross the river over the Sajó bridge and his force to cross the river separately by constructing a temporary bridge downstream. Subutai took roughly 40% of the army in this encircling operation, leaving the other 60% with Batu. The plan was not perfectly executed because multiple units of Batu's force crossed the bridge prematurely for military exploits.[citation needed]

Fight at the Sajó bridge

The Hungarians still did not believe that there would be a full-scale attack, but the troops of the King's brother Coloman, Duke of Slavonia, and Archbishop Ugrin Csák with Rembald de Voczon, the Templar master, left the camp to surprise the Mongols and defend the unguarded bridge. They reached the bridge at midnight, having marched the last seven kilometres in darkness. It is very unlikely that the Mongols wanted to attack at night (horse archers avoid night battles), but they wanted to cross the river to be able to attack the Hungarian camp at dawn. When Coloman and Ugrin arrived they found the Mongols unprepared and in the middle of crossing the bridge. They successfully forced them into battle and achieved a victory there. The Mongols had been unprepared for the crossbowmen, who had inflicted considerable losses on them, helped by the size of the bridge, which was a minimum of 200 meters long. The Hungarians left some soldiers to guard the bridge and returned to the camp, unaware that the main Mongol army was nearby. Arriving at the camp at around 02:00, they celebrated their victory.[23]

Main battle

Morning

The unexpected Hungarian victory forced the Mongol generals to modify their plans. Sejban was sent north to a ford with a smaller force to cross the river and attack the rear of the bridge-guard. At about 04:00, as daylight started to break, they began the crossing. Meanwhile, Subutai went south to build a makeshift emergency bridge while the Hungarians were engaged at the main bridge, but left Batu a plan to use giant stone throwers to clear the crossbowmen opposing them. At dawn, Batu, with the help of seven stone throwers, attacked the Hungarian guards on the bridge. When Sejban and his men arrived, the Hungarians retreated to their camp. The Mongol main forces finished crossing the river around 08:00.[citation needed]

When the fleeing Hungarians arrived at the camp they woke the others. Coloman, Ugrin and the Templar master then left the camp again to deal with the attackers. Others remained there, believing this was also a minor attack and that Coloman would again be victorious. But as Coloman and Ugrin witnessed the horde of Mongols swell, they realised that this was not a minor raid but an attack by the main Mongol force. After some heavy fighting they returned to the camp hoping to mobilise the full army. They were badly disappointed, as the King had not even issued orders to prepare for the battle. Archbishop Ugrin reproached the King for his faults in public. Finally the Hungarian army sallied forth, but this delay gave Batu enough time to finish the crossing.[citation needed]

A hard struggle ensued. The Hungarians outnumbered Batu's detachment, and the Mongols were unable to move quickly because the Sajó was behind their backs. In this fighting, Batu lost thirty of his baaturs (heavily armoured bodyguards) and one of his lieutenants, Bakatu, when he personally assaulted a strong point with the vanguard.[25] The struggle seemed to be going terribly for the Mongols; in two hours of fighting, they suffered grievous losses, and were just barely saved from being routed by a charge of Hungarian knights by the firepower of their siege engines.[26] At the end of the second hour, as the Hungarians were preparing another charge to shatter the Mongol lines, Subutai, who had been delayed by bridge-building, attacked the Hungarians’ rear flank. The Hungarians retreated back to their fortified camp before Subutai could complete his encirclement.[27] Because of the losses suffered (James Chambers describes the Mongol force as "dangerously depleted") and the size of the surviving Hungarian force, Batu suggested to retreat. He was no longer confident that his men could defeat the Hungarians if they decided to come out again, and blamed Subutai for the terrible casualties his wing took. Subutai stated that regardless of Batu's decision, he would not retreat until his force reached Pest. Batu was eventually persuaded and resumed the attack.[28]

Afternoon

Confined within the camp, mood among the Hungarians turned to panic after their sallies were ineffective and they sustained repeated bombardments by stone and gunpowder. Terrified by the flaming arrows, trampling crush of their comrades resulted in the deaths of many soldiers. The nobles inside the camp felt little loyalty to the king, and likely would have deserted had they not already been surrounded. Bela's brother, Coloman, rallied enough men to sally out and charge the Mongols, but his attack was driven back. The Mongols used their siege equipment to pound the camp's fortifications, and set fire to the tents. Finally, the demoralized soldiers decided to flee. They tried to escape through a gap left open on purpose by the Mongols, because fleeing soldiers can be killed more easily than those who, with their backs to a wall, are forced to fight to the death. There, almost of them were slaughtered.[29]

Archbishop Ugrin was killed along with another Archbishop, three bishops, and numerous other high officials, but Coloman and Béla managed to escape—though Coloman's wounds were so serious that he died soon after. While the Mongols had suffered higher than normal casualties themselves, the Hungarians had lost almost their entire force. Thomas of Spalato, who interviewed many eyewitnesses, claimed that the route the Hungarians tried to flee along was strewn with so many corpses that the ground had become dyed red from their blood.[30]

Role of gunpowder and firearms

Several modern historians have speculated that Chinese firearms and gunpowder weapons were deployed by the Mongols at the Battle of Mohi.[31][32][33][34][35] According to William H. McNeill, Chinese gunpowder weapons may have been used in Hungary at that time.[36] Other sources mention weapons like "flaming arrows" and "naphtha bombs".[37][38] Professor Kenneth Warren Chase credits the Mongols with introducing gunpowder and its associated weaponry into Europe.[39]

Aftermath

After their victory, the Mongols did not pause to loot and instead ruthlessly pursued the remainder of the Hungarian army.[40] After wiping up any stragglers they could find, they began an assault on the Hungarian country, solidifying their control over the terrain they had previously blitzed through.[23] The Hungarians' losses were such that they were unable to mount an effective defence. The city of Pest was taken and burnt down. Esztergom was attacked and most of its population killed, though the Mongols failed to obtain significant loot on part of the citadel holding against their attacks. The Mongols systematically occupied the Great Hungarian Plains, the slopes of the northern Carpathian Mountains, and Transylvania. Where they found local resistance, they ruthlessly killed the population. Where the locale offered no resistance, they forced the men into servitude in the Mongol army. Hungary lay in ruins, and widespread hysteria spread across all of Europe.Cite error: There are <ref> tags on this page without content in them (see the help page). Nearly half of the inhabited places had been destroyed by the invading armies. Around 15 to 25 percent of the population was lost,[13] mostly in lowland areas, especially in the Alföld, in the southern reaches of the Hungarian plain in the area now called the Banat, and in southern Transylvania.

With no safe place left in Hungary, Bela was chased down to Dalmatia. The royal family finally escaped to Austria to seek help from Bela's archenemy Duke Frederick who arrested them, extorted an enormous ransom in gold and forced the king to cede three western counties to Austria.[41] It was at this point that King Béla and some of his retinue fled south-west, through Hungarian-controlled territory, to the Adriatic coast and the island fortress of Trogir, where they stayed until the Mongols withdrew.[42] The Mongols seized the Hungarian royal seal and used it to issue bogus decrees that kept many Hungarians vulnerable to be exploited.[43] Meanwhile, the rest of Europe was horrified by the defeat and subsequent devastation of Hungary, creating a wave of fear and panic that spread to the Atlantic.[44]

Surviving members of the royal retinue, being for the large part those that did not get to the battle of Mohi in time to participate, along with a number of disorganized irregulars consisting mostly of armed peasants, employed guerrilla tactics to harass the Mongol troops, occasionally engaging them in open battle. However, these attempts were met by massacres by the ruthless Subutai, which stalled any guerrilla attempts in their tracks.[45] A portion of the civilian population fled to areas of refuge difficult for the Mongol cavalry to access: high mountains in the north and east, swamps (especially on the Puszta, around Székesfehérvár and in the west, the Hanság), and older earthwork fortresses (most of which were in a motte-and-bailey form or consisted of a mud-banked enclosure on the top of a mountain, steep natural hill or man-made hill). Rogerius recounts his experience in one such refuge called Fátra in his Carmen Miserable The Mongols often bypassed strong points and devastated the nearby agriculture fields and irrigation systems, which later led to a mass starvation.[46]

On the Mongol side, there were also internal frictions prior to their armies departure after the battle. The Mongol/Chinese sources portray Batu as being a mediocre commander-in-chief who blamed Subutai for the losses at Mohi that actually occurred due to Batu's impetuosity. Batu was notably unhappy that he had lost 30 of his 4,000 elite Mongol troops (ba`aturs) and his lieutenant, in addition to likely many hundreds of perhaps a few thousands of auxiliaries, an unusually high loss for the Mongols. This led to a heated post-victory banquet where Batu was forced to back down and credit their victories to Subutai. Additionally, Guyuk and Buri accused Batu of incompetence and ridding Subutai's coattails to victory, which led to Batu ejecting the two princes along with Mongke, an impartial observer, back to Karakorum to be judged by Ogedei. It is highly likely that they also took their own forces with them, further depleting the active Mongol army.[47][48]

Reaction from other European rulers

While the king kept himself apprised of the situation in the rest of the country, he made numerous attempts to contact other rulers of Europe, including the Pope, the Holy Roman Emperor, and the King of France. None of them were willing to provide significant support to Hungary. Pope Gregory XI called a Crusade against the Mongols, wrote to numerous German princes telling them to gather their forces, and ordered the clergy to give refuge to the Hungarian king and his subjects should they seek refuge from the Mongols. However, he warned the Hungarian king that help was unlikely to materialize as long as the Holy Roman Emperor remained belligerent and in conflict with the church.[49]

His prediction was ultimately correct, as the Holy Roman Empire (HRE) took little part in fighting the Mongols, bar repelling minor scouting parties in Bohemia, Moravia, Bavaria, and Austria. Emperor Frederick II, in his warning letter to Christiandom, grimly assessed the situation but also tried to use it as leverage over the Papacy.[50] However, Frederick was well aware of the threat they posed. Even before the Pope's summons, Emperor Frederick II and his son, Conrad IV, called a Landfrieden throughout Germany. Conrad ordered the magnates to levy their armies, while Frederick II ordered them to strengthen their defenses.[51] Conrad set July 1 as the date for a large German army to assemble at Nuremberg, but this force was instead hijacked for a crusade against the Hohenstaufen Dynasty.[52]

The army assembled on schedule, and was apparently powerful enough that contemporary chroniclers thought that the Mongols opted to withdraw because of its presence. It marched 50 miles east before stopping near Weiden. The exact reason is unknown, but they most likely stopped because the Mongols had ceased any raids into the HRE, and stayed on the east side of the Danube to ravage Hungary.[53] However, there is no reference to the army disintegrating the same year, and the border states of the HRE such as Austria continued to strengthen their defenses, so they most likely were still adopting a defensive posture until the Mongol withdrawal in early 1242.[54]

See also

References

  1. ^ Sverdrup, Carl (2010). "Numbers in Mongol Warfare". Journal of Medieval Military History. 8. Boydell Press: 109–17 [p. 115]. ISBN 978-1-84383-596-7. The Mongols probably had a nominal force of at least 30,000 men, with the personal units of Batu and Sube'etei forming the core of the army.
  2. ^ Sverdrup, p. 115, citing Kosztolnyik.
  3. ^ Carey, Brian Todd, p. 124
  4. ^ a b Markó, László (2000), Great Honours of the Hungarian State, Budapest: Magyar Könyvklub, ISBN 963-547-085-1
  5. ^ a b Liptai, Ervin (1985), Military History of Hungary, Budapest: Zrínyi Katonai Kiadó, ISBN 963-326-337-9
  6. ^ Sverdrup, p.115: "A near-contemporary source says the Hungarians lost 10,000 men in the Mohi battle. This is no precise number, but as most of the army was lost it may be close to what the author believed the size of the whole army was. When Mongol officer Siban spied the Hungarian camp some weeks before the battle he counted 40 units [Rashid al-Din, 2:474]. In those days the Hungarian units, the so-called banderias, were usually between 50 and 400 men strong [See Julius Bartl, "Slovak History: Chronology and Lexicon" (Bratislava 2002), p. 191]. An average size of 250 would indeed give a total of 10,000 men." [a maximum average of 400 would have given 16,000 men].
  7. ^ Sverdrup, p. 114-115, citing Rashid al-Din's chronicles, 1:198, 2:152. Rashid Al-Din's figures give Batu and Subutai about 40,000 horsemen total when they invaded Central Europe in 1241 (including Turkic auxiliaries recruited since the conquest of Rus), divided into five columns (three in Hungary, one in Transylvania, and one in Poland). He proceeds to say that while the nominal total of the Mongol force in Hungary was 30,000, the effective total on the field at Mohi would have been between that number and 15,000, close to the latter.
  8. ^ Carey states on p. 128 that Batu had 40,000 in the main body and ordered Subotai to take 30,000 troops in an encircling maneuver. Batu commanded the central prong of the Mongols' three-pronged assault on eastern Europe. This number seems correct when compared with the numbers reported at the Battles of Leignitz to the North and Hermannstadt (Sibiu) to the South. All three victories occurred in the same week.
  9. ^ Sverdrup, p. 115, citing Kosztolnyik.
  10. ^ Thomas of Spalato, Historia, 163;
  11. ^ Sverdrup, p. 115. Citing: Gustav Strakoschd-Grassmann. Der Einfall Der Mongolen In Mitteleuropa In Den Jahren 1241 und 1242 (Innsbruck, 1893), p.183.
  12. ^ Yuan Shi, Biography of Subedei, 122.2978.
  13. ^ a b The traditional figure is 25%, but László Veszprémy, taking account of recent scholarship, says "some fifteen percent". "Muhi, Battle of," in The Oxford Encyclopedia of Medieval Warfare and Military Technology, ed. Clifford J. Rogers (New York: Oxford U.P., 2010), vol. 3, p. 34.
  14. ^ Saunders, J. J.
  15. ^ WITOLD ŚWIĘTOSŁAWSKI, The Organization of the Mongols War Expeditions, 35-6.
  16. ^ Matthew Paris, Chronica Majora, 339-42.
  17. ^ Nicolle, David
  18. ^ Jackson, 62.
  19. ^ Gustav Strakosch-Grassmann, Der Einfall der Mongolen in Mitteleuropa in den Jahren 1241 und 1242 (Innsbruck, 1893), 68-101.
  20. ^ History of the World Conqueror, 270.
  21. ^ Rashid al-Din, 2.152.
  22. ^ Timothy May, the Mongol Art of War (2016), 164.
  23. ^ a b c Saunders
  24. ^ Marshall, Robert (1993) Storm from the East. London: BBC Books; pp. 111–13
  25. ^ C. P. Atwood Encyclopaedia of Mongolia and the Mongol Empire, see: Battle of Mohi
  26. ^ James Chambers. The Devil's Horsemen: The Mongol Invasion of Europe. Atheneum. New York. 1979. ISBN 0-689-10942-3
  27. ^ R. G. Grant (2010). Commanders. Penguin. p. 89. ISBN 0-7566-7341-0. Retrieved 2011-11-28. At Mohi on April 111, Mongols versus Christians During the invasion of central Europe, directed by Sübedei in 1241, Mongol horsemen proved superior to armoured Christian knights in both subtlety of manoeuvre and speed of movement. he drove the army of the Hungarian king, Bela IV, into confused flight with a frontal attack across a river—supported by rock-throwing catapults used as field artillery—and a simultaneous flank attack delivered from a concealed position. Sübedei's horsemen pursued and massacred the Christian troops as they fled. {{cite book}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |month= (help)
  28. ^ Yuan Shi, Biography of Subutai, 122.2978.
  29. ^ Yuan Shi, 122.2978.
  30. ^ Thomas of Spalato, Historia, 163.
  31. ^ (the University of Michigan)John Merton Patrick (1961). Artillery and warfare during the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries. Vol. Volume 8, Issue 3 of Monograph series. Utah State University Press. p. 13. Retrieved 2011-11-28. (along, it seems, with explosive charges of gunpowder) on the massed Hungarians trapped within their defensive ring of wagons. King Bela escaped, though 70,000 Hungarians died in the massacre that resulted—a slaughter that extended over several days of the retreat from Mohi. {{cite book}}: |volume= has extra text (help); Cite has empty unknown parameter: |month= (help)
  32. ^ Michael Kohn (2006). Dateline Mongolia: An American Journalist in Nomad's Land. RDR Books. p. 28. ISBN 1-57143-155-1. Retrieved 2011-07-29.
  33. ^ Robert Cowley (1993). Robert Cowley (ed.). Experience of War (reprint ed.). Random House Inc. p. 86. ISBN 0-440-50553-4. Retrieved 2011-07-29.
  34. ^ Christopher Lloyd (2008). What on Earth Happened?: The Complete Story of the Planet, Life, and People from the Big Bang to the Present Day (illustrated ed.). Bloomsbury. p. 396. Retrieved 2011-11-28. 1 9 The Mongols are known to have used gunpowder and firearms in Europe as early as 1241 at the Battle of Mohi in Hungary. See Jacques Gernet, A History of Chinese Civilisation (Cambridge University Press, 1982). page 379 {{cite book}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |month= (help)
  35. ^ James Riddick Partington (1960). A history of Greek fire and gunpowder (reprint, illustrated ed.). JHU Press. p. 250. ISBN 0-8018-5954-9. Retrieved 2011-11-28. After defeating the Kipchak Turks (Cumans), Bulgars and Russians, the Mongol army under Subutai took Cracow and Breslau, and on 9 April 1241, defeated a German army under Duke Henry of Silesia at Liegnitz. The Mongols under Batu defeated the Hungarians under King Bela IV at Mohi on the Sajo on llth April, 1241. ... it has priority over the use of gunpowder, which the Mongols used two days later in the battle beside the Sajo. ... {{cite book}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |month= (help)
  36. ^ William H. McNeill (1992). The Rise of the West: A History of the Human Community. University of Chicago Press. p. 492. ISBN 0-226-56141-0. Retrieved 2011-07-29.
  37. ^ (the University of Michigan)John Merton Patrick (1961). Artillery and warfare during the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries. Vol. Volume 8, Issue 3 of Monograph series. Utah State University Press. p. 13. Retrieved 2011-11-28. superior mobility and combination of shock and missile tactics again won the day. As the battle developed, the Mongols broke up western cavalry charges, and placed a heavy fire of flaming arrows and naphtha fire-bombs {{cite book}}: |volume= has extra text (help); Cite has empty unknown parameter: |month= (help)
  38. ^ (the University of Michigan)John Merton Patrick (1961). Artillery and warfare during the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries. Vol. Volume 8, Issue 3 of Monograph series. Utah State University Press. p. 13. Retrieved 2011-11-28. 33 D'Ohsson's European account of these events credits the Mongols with using catapults and ballistae only in the battle of Mohi, but several Chinese sources speak of p'ao and "fire-catapults" as present. The Meng Wu Er Shih Chi states, for instance, that the Mongols attacked with the p'ao for five days before taking the city of Strigonie, to which many Hungarians had fled: "On the sixth day the city was taken. The powerful soldiers threw the Huo Kuan Vets (fire-pot) and rushed into the city, crying and shouting.34 Whether or not Batu actually used explosive powder on the Sayo, only twelve years later Mangu was requesting "naphtha-shooters" in large numbers for his invasion of Persia, according to Yule {{cite book}}: |volume= has extra text (help); Cite has empty unknown parameter: |month= (help)
  39. ^ Kenneth Warren Chase (2003). Firearms: a global history to 1700 (illustrated ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 58. ISBN 0-521-82274-2. Retrieved 2011-07-29.
  40. ^ Thomas of Spalato, Historia, ch. XXXVI: 163
  41. ^ J. Gießauf, "Herzog Friedrich II. von Österreich und die Mongolengefahr 1241/42," in Forschungen zur Geschichte des Alpen-Adria-Raumes. Festgabe für em. O. Univ.-Prof. Dr. Othmar Pickl zum 70. Geburtstag, Graz 1997,173-199.
  42. ^ Jackson, p. 65
  43. ^ Thomas of Spalato, Historia Pontificum.
  44. ^ Matthew Paris, Chronica Majora, 339-348.
  45. ^ McLynn, 476.
  46. ^ McLynn, 479-80;Master Roger, Carmen Miseribile.
  47. ^ Yuan Shi, 122.2978.
  48. ^ Hodong Kim, A Reappraisal of Güyüg Khan, 319-20.
  49. ^ Jackson, pp. 65–66
  50. ^ Matthew Paris, 341-344.
  51. ^ Jackson, pp. 66–67
  52. ^ McLynn, 468-75.
  53. ^ 49 Peter Jackson, “The Crusade against the Mongols (1241),” Journal of Ecclesiastical History 42 (1991): 6–8.
  54. ^ Jackson, p. 68

Further reading

  • [1] by Timotheus

47°58′39.89″N 20°54′47.85″E / 47.9777472°N 20.9132917°E / 47.9777472; 20.9132917