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This article is about a Hindu philosophical concept: the original or absolute manifestation of God. For other meanings, see Krishna (disambiguation) and Bhagavan (disambiguation).
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Svayam bhagavan (svayam bhagavān in IAST) is a Sanskrit term that refers to the absolute representation of God/Bhagavan (in the monotheistic sense), within the Hindu religon. It is often used to refer to Krishna, since certain Sampradayas of Vaishnavism consider him to be the source of all avatars, and the source of Vishnu himself. As such, he is therefore regarded as Svayam bhagavan.[1][2] The term has also been used to refer to other forms of Krishna and/or Vishnu within the context of certain religious texts such as the Bhagavata Purana, and also within other sects of Vaishnavism.

Though Krishna is recognized as Svayam bhagavam by many, he is also perceived and understood in an eclectic assortment of perspectives and viewpoints. [3] When Krishna is recognized to be Svayam bhagavan, it can be understood that this is the belief of Gaudiya Vaishnavism,[4] the Vallabha Sampradaya,[5] and the Nimbarka Sampradaya, where Krishna is accepted to be the source of all other avatars, and the source of Vishnu himself. This belief is supported by verse 1.3.28 of the Bhagavata Purana:[6]

"All of the above-mentioned incarnations are either plenary portions or portions of the plenary portions of the Lord, but Lord Sri Krishna is the original Personality of Godhead"

Another distinguishing feature of the Vaishnava teachings is that God (whether it be Krishna and/or Vishnu) "is a real person and His variegated creation is also real". [7]

Meaning

Though the spirit of the term svayam bhagavan (svayam bhagavān in IAST) is widely understood, the literal translation of the term has been understood in several distinct ways. For example, the Gaudiya Vaishnava tradition considers the terms Supreme Personality of Godhead and/or Supreme God as no different from the term Svayam bhagavan, and may also choose to apply these terms not only to Krishna and/or Vishnu, but to any of their associated avatars. [8][9]

Earlier commentators such as Madhva translated the term Svayam bhagavan as "he who has bhagavatta"; meaning "he who has the quality of possessing all good qualities".[10] Others have translated it simply as "the Lord Himself".[11]

Sources

The Vallabha Sampradaya, Nimbarka Sampradaya, and the Gaudiya Vaishnavas (followers of Caitanya Mahaprabhu use the Gopala Tapani Upanishad, Vedanta Sutras[12] and other Hindu scriptures such as the Bhagavata Purana and the Brahma Vaivarta Purana (among others) to support their view that Krishna is indeed the Svayam bhagavan. This belief was summarized by the 16th century author Jiva Goswami in some of his works, such as Krishna-sandarbha. [13][12]

In the sixth book of the Hindu epic Mahābhārata, the Bhishma Parva (better known as the Bhagavad Gita), Krishna offers numerous quotations that reaffirm the belief that he himself is the Svayam bhagavan. Verse 7.7 of the Bhagavad Gita, is often used to reaffirm that Krishna himself is the Svayam bhagavan, and that no impersonal form of Brahman supercedes his existence.

Comparision of views

The exact relationship between Krishna and Vishnu, particularly regarding which of the two is primary to the other, and which of the two is the summum bonum, is one of the most frequently debated issues in Vaishnavism. Some schools of thought, such as Pancaratra in particular, refer to Vasudeva-Krishna (Krishna, the son of Vasudeva) as the source of all incarnations and as no different from the ultimate and absolute reality, and as non-distinct from Vasudeva and any other manifestations of the supreme self.

In other Vaishnava traditions, such as the Ramanuja tradition, Vishnu, not Krishna, is regarded as the Svayam bhagavan. Followers of these traditions strongly disagree with the belief that Krishna is the Svayam bhagavan. However, it should be noted that though these Vaishnavas regard Vishnu to be the Svayam bhagavan, they also have a high degree of reverence for Krishna, as he is seen as an avatar of their Svayam bhagavan.[14]

Similar to the Pancharaya system of thought, the Gaudiya Vaishnava tradition offers a coherent and systematic classification regarding the divinity of the original or avatara features, which is sometimes summarized in three categories.[15][16] This notion was also propounded by Caitanya Mahaprabhu as follows:

  1. svayam-rupam (bhagavan svayam),
  2. tad-ekatma rupam
  3. avesa

According to a 16th century biography, when Chaitanya first met Sanatana Goswami,[17] he made sure that the principle of Krishna being the svayam bhagavan and the overview of the theory of avatara is transmitted in detail. Some Gaudiya concluded that is of a critical importance. To Hinduism in general and Vaishnava sampradayas previous to Caitanya and Vallabhacarya, Krishna is often considered to be an avatara of Vishnu, or a full avatara of Narayana, as the case with Madhva. This exclusive definition of avatara was presented differently to Sanatana Goswami based on Gaudiya interpretations of the Upanishads and specifically Bhagavatam. Svayam in Svayam rupa does not imply one and only, and all conceptions by previous Vaishnava traditions, according to the Gaudiya Vaishnavas beliefs, fall under a second category, tad ekatma rupa (meaning: one that one and not different).[18] 'Svayam' as a term means not depending on others or being himself.

Concept of svayaṁ-rūpa is a new view that is believed by the Gaudiya Vaishnavas and generally not upheld in previous Vaishnava traditions and with greater Hinduism at present. Rūpa Gosvāmī has described the svayaṁ-rūpa in his Laghu-bhāgavatāmṛta, Pūrva-khaṇḍa, verse 12: ananyāpekṣi yad rūpaṁ svayaṁ-rūpaḥ sa ucyate. "The form of the Supreme Personality of Godhead that does not depend on other forms is called svayaṁ-rūpa, the original form."

The tad-ekātma-rūpa forms are also described in the Laghu-bhāgavatāmṛta (Pūrva-khaṇḍa, verse 14)[19][20]

yad rūpaṁ tad-abhedena svarūpeṇa virājate
ākṛtyādibhir anyādṛk sa tad-ekātma-rūpakaḥ
The deity of Tulasi Krishna at Udupi. Krishna is the main deity worshipped by the followers of Madhvacharya.

"The tad-ekātma-rūpa forms simultaneous to svayaṁ-rūpa form and are nondifferent. At the same time by their bodily features and specific activities they appear to be different." While referring to a huge topic in itself, acintya-bheda-abheda, non-difference, its important to note that this concept is mainly referring however to relation of the saktiman and the sakti, not relation between tad-ekātma-rūpas, as there is no implication of differences. The tad-ekātma-rūpa forms are divided into two categories—svāṁśa and vilāsa – in this essay, comparing Narayana forms with forms of Krishna, we are concerned mainly with the svāṁśa[21] but without going into further separating categories.[22][23]

To the beliefs of Gaudiya Vaishnavas, the Visvakarma Sukta of Rig Veda (10.82) refers to Garbhodakasayi Viṣṇu as the Supreme: The waters verily first retained the embryo in which all the gods were aggregated, single deposited on the navel of the unborn (ajah), in which all beings abide.[24] and according to the Gaudiyas, falls under category of tad-ekātma-rūpa,

According to the Gaudiya Vaishnava interpretation, it is also confirmed in the Bhagavad-gītā (7.7), which says, mattaḥ parataraṁ nānyat: "There is no truth superior to Me." Some consider it to be the reference to tad-ekatma rupa and thus not contradicting views of Ramanujacharya or Madhvacharya. [25]

To the views of the Gaudiya Sampradaya, the Bhagavad-gita[26] states that this bhakti-yoga is secretive:[23] sarva-guhyatamaṁ bhūyaḥ śṛṇu me paramaṁ vacaḥ - "Just hear from Me again about the most confidential part of the instructions in Bhagavad-gītā." It is also described as such in Bhagavata Purana[27] Vashnavas of ISKCON often stress their view that in both cases Krishna is speaking about himself, aham and me in Sanskrit mean, I am and Me respectively. While some commentators derive secondary meanings,[28] all major Sanskrit dictionary accept that the direct meaning of aham and me, refers to Krishna himself. [29]

Krishna and Balarama meet their father and mother - Vasudeva and Devaki. Thus a personal name of Krishna as Vaasudeva or son of Vasudeva, and Devakinandana, son of Devaki. Painting by Raja Ravi Varma

Creation perspective

In Hinduism and previous Vaishnava groups, sarga, or subtle creation, is based upon scriptural adherence to Narayana or Vishnu being the cause of creation[30] expanding into Viraja and then Maha-Viṣṇu glancing over pradhana[31], and that is the start of actual function of creation.

It is a view of Gaudiya Vaishnavas that the Brihad Bhagavatamrita, by Sanatana Goswami has illustrated this principle, not just in terms of comparative cosmology, but also in terms of cosmology of adi-rasa.[32][33] The cosmological principle of the four dhamas is the key of the graphical presentation, but it is also the answer to the dilemma often presented by the followers of other sampradyas, such as Sri Vaisnavas, who uphold that there is no factual scriptural basis for the claim that Krishna is the source of avataras.[34] However some groups maintain that its only Gaudiya Vaishnavas who are in existence only since the 16th century and created this notion, svayam according to some Sri Vaishnavas refers that is he is Narayana 'himself' in all qualities as Krishna, unlike all the other avataras.[35] In accordance with the cosmology of the Brihad Bhagavatamrita Krishna is believed being the original and most complete in all rasas or tastes is in fact not engaged and non engaging, is his independence, he does not even, at least in this his original form, carry symbols of Viṣṇu, he only carries his own flute, and that is the pleasure of his devotees.[36]

Original Purusha of the Vedas

Traditional Vaishnava beliefs are based solely on the statements of the Vedas where the demigods are looking up to the feet of the Viṣṇu, who is referred in the passage as Supreme.[37] It is fact that this verse of the Rig Veda is the foundation of Vaisnava tradition. Vishnu or Purusha is also presented in Upanishads in the context of philosophical presentation of the all-pervading oneness. In the Gopala Tapani Upanishad; written in the 17th century, this Rig Veda verse(1.22.20) was re-written differently, paraphrasing the original of the Vedic hymn in accordance with the beliefs of the Gaudiya Vaishnava: etad visnoh paramam padam ye nityodyuktah samyajante na kaman / tesam asau gopa-rupah prayatnat prakasayad atma-padam tadaiva. - "To they who always diligently worship Lord Viṣṇu's transcendental form, the Lord, in His original form as a cowherd boy, shows His lotus feet." It outlines a specific view held only by the Gaudiya Vaishnava and Vallabha Sampradaya, that the conclusion of Vishnu worship is meditation on gopa-rupah or form of Krishna as a cowboy.[38]

The Krishna Upanishad supports this view and refers to the original, saksad, Hari as gopa-rüpa. (1.10-12):

gopa-rūpo hariḥ sakṣan maya-vigraha-dharaṇaḥ
durbodhaṁ kuhakaṁ tasya mayayā mohitaṁ jagat
durjayā sa suraiḥ sarvair dhṛṣṭi-rūpo bhaved dvijaḥ
rudro yena kṛto vaṁsas tasya māyā jagat katham
balaṁ janaṁ suraṇaṁ vai teṣāṁ janaṁ hṛtaṁ kṣaṇat
śeṣa-nago bhaved ramaḥ kṛṣṇo brahmaiva sasvatam

"The Supreme Personality of Godhead appeared in His original form as a cowherd boy. Cheated and bewildered by His illusory potency, the world could not understand His true identity.

"Even all the demigods cannot defeat the Lord's Maya potency. By the Lord's Yogamaya potency Brahma became a stick and Siva became a flute. How did the Lord's Maya potency manifest the entire universe?

"Knowledge is the strength of the demigods. The Lord's Maya potency steals away that knowledge in a single moment. Lord Sesanaga appeared in His original form as Lord Balarama. The eternal Supreme Personality of Godhead appeared in His original form as Lord Krishna."

Vishnu forms are believed to be "eka-atma", one and the same, the same self and refer to Purusa of the Veda. Both Krishna and Vishnu Narayana forms are believed to be transcendent and non-different.[39] However Gaudiya Vaishnava argue that Krishna possesses qualities that are absent in other forms and they relate to his sweetness in Vrindavana lila.

Main evidence from Bhagavata Purana

Jiva Gosvami’s Bhajan Kutir at Radha-kunda. Jiva Goswamis Sandarbhas summarize Vedic evidence on the Supremacy of Kṛṣṇa as bhagavān svayam
[40]

Only within the Gaudiya Vaishnava and Vallabha Sampradaya, is Krishna believed to be fully represented in his original form in the Bhagavata Purana and at the end of the list of avataras text concludes:

ete cāṁśa-kalāḥ puṁsaḥ kṛṣṇas tu bhagavān svayam indrāri-vyākulaṁ lokaṁ mṛḍayanti yuge yuge

"In every millennium, whenever there is any trouble for the obedient rulers, the Lord appears. He also appears for the sake of His pure unalloyed devotees. The surrendered rulers and the pure devotees are always strictly under the control of the Lord, and they are never disobedient to the desires of the Lord. The Lord is therefore always attentive to them." Here it is believed that in accordance with direct interpretation Krishna as svayam-bhagavān means svayam rupa. Not all of the commentators of the Bhagavata provide this distinction. However a majority of contemporary commentaries highlight this verse as significant.[41]

One verse of the Gita (avajānanti māṁ mūḍhā) is often used as rhetoric by the Gaudiya Vaishnavas apologists.[42][43] A view that is only specific to the followers of Caitanya or Vallabhacharya and not upheld by the older Vaishnava and Hindu groups, are the three kinds of misunderstandings of Krishna. First is common man may mistake Krishna to be just a regular historic personality, second one (in relation to mayavadi) may consider that he is Brahman covered in gross matter and the third (in relation to misra-bhakti followers of the older Vaishnava Sampradayas or groups) one may consider Him to be incarnation of Viṣṇu, subordinate to Viṣṇu or Narayana. Its usually disputed but Gaudiya Vaishnavas and followers of Valabhacharya are the only groups to base this on the following quote from Brahma Sutras: visesam ca darsayati "The Supreme Personality of Godhead reveals Himself to His pure devotees." Some say that one of the distinguishing characteristics of such devotees is absence of pride.[42] compassion to others and presence of the intense feeling of separation.

"He regretted everyone's misfortune, including his own. The pure devotee of the Lord thinks himself most unfortunate. That is due to excessive love for the Lord and is one of the transcendental perceptions of viraha, the suffering of separation."[44]

Source of Para-Vasudeva

File:Heliodoruspillar.gif
The first inscription of the Heliodorus pillar that was made by Heliodorus 110 BCE.
This Garuda-standard of Vasudeva, the God of Gods was erected here by the devotee Heliodoros,

Baladeva Vidyabhusana in his commentary on The Gopala Tapani Upanishads states:

gopala-tapanim naumi ya krsnam svayam isvaram
kara-stharava-sankasam sandarsayati sad-dhiyah

Translation: Glory to the Gopala Tapani Upanishad, which to the pious reveals Lord Krishna, the original Personality of Godhead, the Supersoul near to all moving and unmoving creatures.[45]

The word used is krsna svayam isvaram, the paraphrase of the Bhagavatam verse 1.3.28 that Jiva Goswami has called a key sutra[46], not only to the Bhagavatam but to Vedanta and thus all the Vedas.[47] [48]

According to the Upanishads its believed that when Brahma, who is said to be original created being, was approached by the sages Four Kumaras he was presented with critical question: kah paramo devah – Who is Supreme God? kuto mrtyur bibheti – Who does death fears? kasya jnanenakhilam vijnatam bhavati – By knowing Whom, does everything else gets realised? kenedam visvam samsaratiti – Who is that person, who is behind the repetition of creation of this Universe? [49]His own original or sweet form, Sva-bimbaṁ to the is not manifested very often in the Universe, loka-locanam.[50] Gaudiya Vaishnavas quote sources that claim that it happens only ones in a universal day of Brahma, and its only at that time its believed, once every fourteen manvantaras, each seventy one divya-yugas duration.[51] Some religions do not even consider it possible to see the God. To answer four Kumaras Brahma needed to relate this secret word of the seed mantra.[52] And this is believed to be the answer to the question, who is supreme god and how he creates this world.

krsno vai paramam daivatam govindan mrtyur bibheti
gopijanavallabha-jnanena taj jnatam bhavati svahayedam samsarati

Brahma replied to the sages: "Krisna is the Supreme Personality of Godhead. Death fears Govinda. By knowing Gopijanavallabha everything becomes realized. By pronouncing the word "svaha" the Personality of Godhead created the world.[53]

Used as another scriptural evidence, Sanat-Kumara Samhita confirms that this Kama Gayatri is the foundational structure of the Goloka, believed to be the above of Krishna, who is the original Vaasudeva[54]:

karnikayam likhed vahni-
putitam mandala-dvayam
tasya madhye likhed bijam
sadhyakhyam karma samyutam

"In the whorl of the lotus flower which is Lord Krishna's transcendental abode, the Gopala mantra is written."[55] [56][57]

Difference to other sampradayas

The Sri Sampradaya and the followers of Madhvacharya, because of adherence to Shruti or the original scriptures such as the four Vedas and the main Upanishads, uphold that Vishnu/Narayana is the original form of Godhead. Where as the Gaudiya Vaishnava, Rudra Sampradaya and the Kumara Sampradaya, accept the new concept that Krishna is the Supreme personality of Godhead.[32] [58]

While some sampradayas considers moksa to be the ultimate goal, groups like the Gaudiya Sampradaya accept the prayer of Uddhava where he states the basis of the understanding, that bhakti is above and is superior to even moksa.[59][60] Tattvavadis and advaitins on the other hand often stress that bhakti leads to moksa, liberation. [61]

Historical records

Krishna images were worshipped at many places. Quoting Curtius, Dr DC Sircar says that an image of Herakles (ie Vasudeva-Krishna) was being carried in front of the Paurava army, as it advanced agains the greeks led by Alexander the Great (The Cultural Heritage of India, vol. 4. p. 115) An interesting terracotta palgue showing Vasudeva carrying the infant Krishna over his head across the flooded Yamuna river, belonging to c. first century is housed in the Mathura Museum. A Mora stone insciption of about the same time refers to some images of Bhagavata Vrshni Panchaviras, Sankarshana, Vasudeva, Pradyumna, Samba and Aniruddha - whch were very beutifully carved in stone.[62]A Gupta period research makes a "clear mention of Vasudeva as the exclusive object of worship of a group of people," who are referred as bhagavatas.[63]

According to an opinion of some scholars in Patanjali's time identification of Krishna with Vasudeva is an established fact as is surmised from a passage of the Mahabhasya - (jaghana kamsam kila vasudevah).[64] This "supposed earliest phase is though to have been established from the sixth to the fifth centuries BCE at the time of Panini, who in his Astadhyayi explained the word vasudevaka as a bhakta, devotee, of Vasudeva and its believed that Bhagavata religion with the worship od Vasudeva Krishna were at the root of the Vaishnavism in Indian history."[65] [66] Not just indian Gupta period but also some historical records of the Greeks show existence of the bhakti tradition to Krishna-Vaasudeva,[67] it needs to be noted that, even Panini gives some evidence to the ancient root of Krishna-Vaasudeva bhakti - (vāsudeva arjunābhyāṁ, or related to Arjuna),[68] its is however only much later (2nd century BC) Patanjali who refer in his definition of the devotee or bhakta as "the follower of Vasudeva, God of gods."[69][64]

Western Academic study

Main article: Krishnology

Vaishnava theology based on the principles of monotheism in different tradtions, including Gaudiya Vaishnavism has been a subject of study for many devotees, philosophers and scholars within India for centuries. In recent decades this study has also been taken on by a number of academic institutions in Europe, such as the Oxford Centre for Hindu Studies and Bhaktivedanta College. The Vaishnava scholars instrumental in this western discourse include Tamala Krishna Goswami, Hridayananda dasa Goswami, Graham Schweig, Kenneth R. Valpey, Ravindra Svarupa dasa, Sivarama Swami, Satyaraja Dasa, and Guy Beck, among others.

See also

Wikimedia Commons has media related to Krishna.

Notes

  1. ^ Delmonico, N. (2004). "The History Of Indic Monotheism And Modern Chaitanya Vaishnavism". The Hare Krishna Movement: The Postcharismatic Fate of a Religious Transplant. Retrieved 2008-04-12.
  2. ^ Elkman, S.M. (1986). Jiva Gosvamin's Tattvasandarbha: A Study on the Philosophical and Sectarian Development of the Gaudiya Vaishnava Movement. Motilal Banarsidass Pub. {{cite book}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
  3. ^ Mahony, W.K. (1987). "Perspectives on Krishna's Various Personalities". History of Religions. 26 (3): 333–335. Retrieved 2008-04-12.
  4. ^ Kennedy, M.T. (1925). The Chaitanya Movement: A Study of the Vaishnavism of Bengal. H. Milford, Oxford university press.
  5. ^ Flood, Gavin D. (1996). An introduction to Hinduism (in Engl.). Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. p. 341. ISBN 0-521-43878-0. Retrieved 2008-04-21. {{cite book}}: Check |authorlink= value (help); External link in |authorlink= (help)CS1 maint: unrecognized language (link)"Early Vaishnava worship focuses on three deities who become fused together, namely Vasudeva-Krishna, Krishna-Gopala and Narayana, who in turn all become identified with Vishnu. Put simply, Vasudeva-Krishna and Krishna-Gopala were worshiped by groups generally refered to as Bhagavatas, while Narayana was worshipped by the Pancaratra sect."
  6. ^ Essential Hinduism S. Rosen 2006 [http://books.google.com/books?q=inpublisher:%22Greenwood+Publishing+Group%22&client=firefox-a&source=gbs_summary_r&cad=0 Greenwood Publishing Group] p.124 ISBN 0275990060
  7. ^ Richard Thompson, Ph. D. (December 1994). "Reflections on the Relation Between Religion and Modern Rationalism". Retrieved 2008-04-12. {{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help)CS1 maint: year (link)
  8. ^ Knapp, S. (2005). The Heart of Hinduism: The Eastern Path to Freedom, Empowerment and Illumination -. iUniverse. "Krishna is the primeval Lord, the original Personality of Godhead, so He can expand Himself into unlimited forms with all potencies." page 161
  9. ^ Dr. Kim Knott, (1993). "Contemporary Theological Trends In The Hare Krishna Movement: A Theology of Religions". Retrieved 2008-04-12. {{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help)CS1 maint: extra punctuation (link)..."Bhakti, the highest path, was that of surrender to Lord Krishna, the way of pure devotional service to the Supreme Personality of Godhead".
  10. ^ Dimock Jr, E.C. (1989). The Place of the Hidden Moon: Erotic Mysticism in the Vaisnava-Sahajiya Cult of Bengal. University Of Chicago Press. {{cite book}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help) page 132
  11. ^ Klaus Klostermaier translates it simply as "the Lord Himself"
  12. ^ a b Gupta, Ravi M. (2007). Caitanya Vaisnava Vedanta of Jiva Gosvami's Catursutri tika. Routledge. ISBN 0415405483. {{cite book}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help)
  13. ^ Gupta, Ravi M. (2004). Caitanya Vaisnava Vedanta: Acintyabhedabheda in Jiva Gosvami's Catursutri tika. University Of Oxford. {{cite book}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help)
  14. ^ Tapasyananda, S. (1982). Śrīmadbhāgavatam-Srimad Bhagavata, the Holy Book of God. Sri Ramakrishna Math, Madras.Page xxvi
  15. ^ "In his essence svarupa of the Lord has no comparison. Yet while the self depends on the transcendent theistic reality of Para-Vasudeva, it remains distinct." Flood, 2006, p.105
  16. ^ Beck 2005, p. 39, page 39: 'According to Ortodox Gaudiya.. Krishnas svarupa, or true form manifests in three ways. His svayam-rupa or transcendent form is self-existent, not dependent on anything. His tadekatma rupa is identical in essence to his true form, though it differs in appearance (and would include such forms of Krishna as Narayana and Vasudeva). His avesa form has Krishna appearing though in varying degrees of possession'
  17. ^ Sen, D. (1917). Chaitanya and His Companions: Being Lectures Delivered at the University of Calcutta as Ramtanu Lahiri Research Fellow for 1913-14. University of Calcutta. {{cite book}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
  18. ^ Chaitanya Charitamrita Madhya 20.165
  19. ^ Laghu-bhāgavatāmṛta Introduction
  20. ^ Srila Rupa Gosvami's Sri Laghu-Bhagavatamrta, 1990, ISBN 156130008X
  21. ^ SB. 1.15.6 purp. Taking it as an identical to the svāṁśa-kalayā that “also indicates an indirect expansion that the Lord would appear as the son of Devahūti and Kardama Muni as Kapiladeva” SB 3.21.32
  22. ^ Varāha Purāṇa describes a difference between souls as svāṁśa-vibhinnāṁśa. Prabhupada specifies in his purport SB 3.21.32 “Ordinary living entities are called vibhinnāṁśa expansions, and the unlimited expansions of viṣṇu-tattva, such as Vāmana, Govinda, Nārāyaṇa, Pradyumna, Vāsudeva and Ananta, are called svāṁśa-kalā.”.
  23. ^ a b Klostermaier, K. (1974). "The Bhaktirasamrtasindhubindu of Visvanatha Cakravartin". Journal of the American Oriental Society. 94 (1): 96–107. Retrieved 2008-04-12.
  24. ^ Rg.10.082.06
  25. ^ Gosvami, J. (1986). Srikrsnasandarbha and its critical study. Jadavpur University. {{cite book}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
  26. ^ BG 18.64
  27. ^ SB 2.9.35: yathā mahānti bhūtāni bhūteṣūccāvaceṣv anu praviṣṭāny apraviṣṭāni tathā teṣu na teṣv aham
  28. ^ Hiltebeitel, A. (1984). "The Two Krishnas on One Chariot: Upanisadic Imagery and Epic Mythology". History of Religions. 24 (1): 1–26. Retrieved 2008-04-19.
  29. ^ Sivananda, S. (1958). God Exists. Yoga-Vedanta Forest University.“Aham” means “I” in Sanskrit. “Idam” means “this.”
  30. ^ The Eleventh Canto of Śrīmad-Bhāgavatam (11.4.3-4) describes Lord Mahāpuruṣa: bhūtair yadā pañcabhir ātma-sṛṣṭaiḥ puraṁ virājaṁ viracayya tasmin svāṁśena viṣṭaḥ puruṣābhidhānam avāpa nārāyaṇa ādi-devaḥ "When the primeval Lord Nārāyaṇa created His universal body out of the five elements produced from Himself, and then entered within that universal body by His own plenary portion, He thus became known as the Puruṣa.
  31. ^ tasmad virat ajayata virajo adhi purusah - From him was born Viraja and from Viraja – Purusha. Rg. 10.90
  32. ^ a b G.G. Swami, A.C. Bhaktivedanta (2001, Fortnightly email mini-magazine from Gopal Jiu Publications). "Krishna OR Vishnu?" (PDF). Retrieved 2008-04-12. {{cite journal}}: Check date values in: |year= (help); Cite journal requires |journal= (help)CS1 maint: year (link)...Similarly, if you love Krishna, that’s all right. If you love Vishnu, that is also all right. But you cannot derive the same result by loving Krishna and by Vishnu. Therefore it is your selection, whom should you love. Krishna is cent percent and Vishnu is ninety-four percent. So if you want to worship or love ninety-four percent, that is also almost Krishna. But Krishna is cent percent, pūrnam.
  33. ^ K Dasa, (2006). "The Life and Teachings of Krishna dasa Baba" (PDF). Retrieved 2008-04-13. {{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help)CS1 maint: extra punctuation (link)
  34. ^ "self-authenticating validity as the Veda, but their authenticity is nevertheless assured because the Veda bear witness to the omniscience of Vasudeva." p. 54, Flood. 2006
  35. ^ Anand Karalapakkam, Bhakti List : Archives Wed Apr 19 2000. "krushNAstu bhagavAn swayam". www.ramanuja.org. Retrieved 2008-04-29.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (link)
  36. ^ Dāsa, Gopīparāṇadhana; Sanātana Gosvāmī (2002). Śrī Brhad Bhāgavatāmrta of Śrīla Sanātana Gosvāmī: translated from the original Sanskrit, with a summary of the author's Dig-darśinī commentary. Los Angeles: Bhaktivedanta Book Trust. p. 920. ISBN 0-89213-345-7. {{cite book}}: |access-date= requires |url= (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  37. ^ Rg 1.22.20 oṃ tad viṣṇoḥ paramam padam sadā paśyanti sūrayaḥ: "All the suras look always toward the feet of Lord Viṣṇu."
  38. ^ Krishna, the Lord of Love. Bábá Premánand Bhárati, 1904]]
  39. ^ This is also a position of the Madhvas – one should avoid such superficial `nava-vidha dveshha' - the nine forms of hatred of the Supreme Being, outline by Tattvavadi line, as in this instance by denying His unique greatness and freedom from all defects and limitations.
  40. ^ Gupta, Ravi M. (2007). Caitanya Vaisnava Vedanta of Jiva Gosvami. Routledge. ISBN 0415405483. {{cite book}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help)
  41. ^ "Sri Krishna". www.stephen-knapp.com. Retrieved 2008-04-30.
  42. ^ a b Valpey, K. (2004). "Krishna In Mleccha Desh". The Hare Krishna Movement: The Postcharismatic Fate of a Religious Transplant. Retrieved 2008-04-12.
  43. ^ SB 3.2.8 purp. - The Bhagavad-gītā (9.11) confirms such foolish persons to be most unfortunate: avajānanti māṁ mūḍhā mānuṣīṁ tanum āśritam.
  44. ^ SB. 3.2.8 purp.
  45. ^ Śrī Gopāla Tapanī bhāśya 1.1
  46. ^ Kṛṣṇa sandarbha 29.4-5
  47. ^ Kṛṣṇa sandarbha 29.104
  48. ^ Gosvami, J. (1995). Śri Tattva-sandarbha: The First Book of the Śri Bhagavata-Sandarbha Also Known as Śri-sandarbha. Jiva Institute for Vaisnava Studies. {{cite book}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
  49. ^ alternative translation of Gopala-tapani Upanisad
  50. ^ SB 3.2.11
  51. ^ Chaitanya Charitamrita Adi 3.10
  52. ^ Rosen, S.J. (2006). Essential Hinduism. Praeger Publishers.
  53. ^ Svähä is the mantra by which offerings are made into the sacrificial fire.5 It is derived from the root ä(hu with the prefix su meaning “well-done,” meaning “according to the vidhi.” This etymology is tentatively accepted by Monier-Williams. The verb root vah is only used in the perfect tense. “to say, speak, state.” Monier-Williams gives the following meanings for svähä: “hail! hail to! May a blessing rest on” As a noun: “an oblation, oblation personified.” Both svähuti and svähväna are found in Rg.
  54. ^ om namo bhagavate sarva-bhutatmane vasudevaya sarvatma-samyoga-yoga-padma-pithatmane namah - "I offer my respectful obeisances unto Lord Vasudeva, the all-pervading Supreme Personality of Godhead who resides in His own transcendental abode, which resembles a lotus flower."
  55. ^ Cult, P.C.S. (1927). "An Introduction To The Post-chaitanya Sahajia Cult". Journal. - refers to Kama Gayatri in the practice of Post-chaitanya Sahajia Cult and ortodox Gaudiya.
  56. ^ Mukherjee, P. (1979). History of the Chaitanya Faith in Orissa. Manohar. refers to practice of Gopal mantra and its significance
  57. ^ Rosen, S.J. (2004). "Who Is Shri Chaitanya Mahaprabhu?". The Hare Krishna Movement: The Postcharismatic Fate of a Religious Transplant. Retrieved 2008-04-19."he was given the ten-syllable Gopala mantra, a confidential incantation"
  58. ^ "Srimad Bhagavatam Canto 4 Chapter 1 Verse 15". vedabase.net. Retrieved 2008-04-30.
  59. ^ But such a pure devotee as Uddhava refuses to accept all such facilities. A pure devotee wants simply to engage in the service of the Lord and does not consider his own personal benefit. S.B 4.3.15 purp.
  60. ^ Jaiswal, S. (2000). "Change and Continuity in Brahmanical Religion with Particular Reference to" Vaisnava Bhakti"". Social Scientist. 28 (5/6): 3–23. Retrieved 2008-04-19.
  61. ^ ,. "The Vaisnava Contemplative Tradition" (PDF). Retrieved 2008-04-19. {{cite journal}}: |author= has numeric name (help); Cite journal requires |journal= (help)CS1 maint: extra punctuation (link)"the growth of bhakti, which in turn results in enlightenment. This leads to a very ripe devotion which, in turn, leads to liberation."
  62. ^ Chapter: Krishna and His Cult. Krishna Theatre in India By M.L. Varalpande, p.6; 2002. ISBN:8170171512
  63. ^ Banerjea, 1966, page 20
  64. ^ a b A Corpus of Indian Studies: Essays in Honour of Professor Gaurinath Sastri, Page 150, 1980 - 416 pages.
  65. ^ Page 76 of 386 pages: The Bhagavata religion with the worship of Vasudeva Krishna as the ... of Vasudeva Krishna and they are the direct forerunners of Vaisnavism in India.Ehrenfels, U.R. (1953). "The University Of Gauhati". Dr. B. Kakati Commemoration Volume.
  66. ^ Page 98: In the Mahabharata, Vasudeva-Krishna is identified with the highest God.Mishra, Y.K. (1977). Socio-economic and Political History of Eastern India. Distributed by DK Publishers' Distributors.
  67. ^ Vaidisa, B. (1987). "The Impact Of Vaisnavism—excavated Remains From Vidisha (mp)". Vaisnavism in Indian Arts and Culture: Collected Papers of the University Grants Commission National Seminar on" Impact of Vaisnavism on the Indian Arts". {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)CS1 maint: extra punctuation (link)
  68. ^ bhaktiḥ | 4.3.96 acittāt adeśakālāt ṭhak | 4.3.97 mahārājāt ṭhañ | 4.3.98 vāsudeva arjunābhyāṁ vun | Panini 4.3.95
  69. ^ Singh, R.R. (2007). Bhakti And Philosophy. Lexington Books. ISBN 0739114247. p. 10: "[Panini's] term Vaasudevaka, explained by the second century B.C commentator Patanjali, as referring to "the follower of Vasudeva, God of gods."

Primary and Secondary References

  • Elkman, S.M. (1986). Jiva Gosvamin's Tattvasandarbha: A Study on the Philosophical and Sectarian Development of the Gaudiya Vaisnava Movement. Motilal Banarsidass Pub. {{cite book}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
  • Flood, G.D. (2006). The Tantric Body: The Secret Tradition of Hindu Religion. IB Tauris. ISBN 1845110129.
  • Kennedy, M.T. (1925). The Chaitanya Movement: A Study of the Vaishnavism of Bengal. H. Milford, Oxford university press.
  • Richard Thompson, Ph. D. (December 1994). "Reflections on the Relation Between Religion and Modern Rationalism". Retrieved 2008-04-12. {{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help)CS1 maint: year (link)
  • Gupta, Ravi M. (2004). Caitanya Vaisnava Vedanta: Acintyabhedabheda in Jiva Gosvami's Catursutri tika. University Of Oxford. {{cite book}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help)
  • Gupta, Ravi M. (2007). Caitanya Vaisnava Vedanta of Jiva Gosvami's Catursutri tika. Routledge. ISBN 0415405483. {{cite book}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help)
  • Ganguli, K.M. (1883 -1896). The Mahabharata of Krishna Dwaipayana Vyasa. Kessinger Publishing. {{cite book}}: Check date values in: |year= (help)CS1 maint: year (link)
  • Ganguli, K.M. (1896). Bhagavad-Gita (Chapter V). The Mahabharata, Book 6. Calcutta: Bharata Press.
  • Wilson, H.H. (1840). The Vishnu Purana, a System of Hindu Mythology and Tradition: Translated from the Original Sanscrit and Illustrated by Notes Derived Chiefly from Other Puranas. Printed for the Oriental Translation Fund of Great Britain and Ireland.
  • Prabhupada, A.C. (1988). Srimad Bhagavatam. Bhaktivedanta Book Trust.
  • Kaviraja, K. (1974). Sri Caitanya-Caritamrta of Krsnadasa Kaviraja. Imprint unknown. {{cite book}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
  • S.D. Goswami (1998), The Qualities of Sri Krsna, GNPress, pp. 152 pages, ISBN 0911233644
  • Garuda Pillar of Besnagar, Archaeological Survey of India, Annual Report (1908-1909). Calcutta: Superintendent of Government Printing, 1912, 129.
  • Rowland Jr, B. (1935). "Notes on Ionic Architecture in the East". American Journal of Archaeology. 39 (4): 489–496. Retrieved 2008-04-12.
  • Delmonico, N. (2004). "The History Of Indic Monotheism And Modern Chaitanya Vaishnavism". The Hare Krishna Movement: The Postcharismatic Fate of a Religious Transplant. Retrieved 2008-04-12.</ref>
  • Mahony, W.K. (1987). "Perspectives on Krsna's Various Personalities". History of Religions. 26 (3): 333–335. Retrieved 2008-04-12.
  • D Hudson (1993). "Vasudeva Krsna in Theology and Architecture: A Background to Srivaisnavism". Journal of Vaisnava Studies (2). {{cite journal}}: |access-date= requires |url= (help)
  • Beck, Guy L. (Ed.) (2005), Alternative Krishnas: Regional and Vernacular Variations on a Hindu Deity, SUNY Press, ISBN 0791464156


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