Captivity of Mangalorean Catholics at Seringapatam

Template:Muslims and controversies Tippu Sultan, the de facto ruler of the Kingdom of Mysore, imposed a 15-year captivity on Mangalorean Catholics and the other Christians in Canara from 24 February 1784 to 4 May 1799 at Seringapatam. The account of the number of captives differ ranging from 30000 to 80,000. However the generally accepted figure is 60,000, as per Tippu's own records. The captivity was the most disconsolate period in the community's history.

The cause of the captivity is believed to be of political considerations, owing to the alliance of the Mangalorean Catholics with the British in the Second Anglo-Mysore War, and not of religious motives. During Tippu's father Hyder Ali's regime, the Mangalorean Catholic community had flourished. Soon after Tippu gained possession of Mangalore in January 1784, he issued orders to seize the Christians in Canara, confiscate their estates, and deport them to Seringapatam. 20,000 Christians died during the journey from Mangalore to Seringapatam. They had to suffer extreme hardships, torture, death, and persecutions during the captivity. Many Christians were forcibly converted to Islam.

The captivity ended when Tippu was killed by the British in the Battle of Seringapatam on 4 May 1799 during the Fourth Anglo-Mysore War. The captivity led to a near disintegration of the community. Of the 60,000-80,000 Christians taken captive, only 15,000-20,000 made it out alive as Christians. It was a stupendous task for the British officers and the Roman Catholic priests to re-establish the community in South Canara. They gradually prospered under the British. Tippu has been widely criticized for his policies and treatment towards the Christians. Some priests have also criticized the captives for their lack of zeal in professing their faith. The captivity had a deep impact on the Literature of Mangalorean Catholics. The bi-centennial anniversary of the release from captivity was widely celebrated on 4 May 1999.

The Mangalorean Catholic community

St Mary's Islands in South Canara, where the Portuguese explorer Vasco Da Gama landed in 1498

Main article: History of Mangalorean Catholics

The Roman Catholics from the South Canara district on the south-western coast of India, under the jurisdiction of the Mangalore Diocese, are generally known as Mangalorean Catholics. They are Konkani people and speak the Konkani language.

All records of an early existence of Christians in South Canara were lost at the time of their deportation by Tippu Sultan in 1784. Hence, it is not known when exactly Christianity was introduced in South Canara, although it is possible that Syrian Christians settled in South Canara just as they did in Malabar, a region south of Canara. The Italian traveler Marco Polo recorded that there were considerable trading activities between the Red Sea and the Canara coast in the 13th century. It can be surmised that foreign Christian merchants were visiting the coastal towns of South Canara during that period for commerce and possibly some Christian priests might have accompanied them for evangelistic work. In 1321, the French Dominican friar Jordanus Catalani of Severac (in south-western France) had arrived in Bhatkal in North Canara. According to Mangalorean historian Severine Silva, the author of History of Christianity in Canara (1961), no concrete evidence has yet been found that there were any permanent settlements of Christians in South Canara before the 16th century. It was only after the advent of the Portuguese in the region that Christianity began to be propagated. In 1498, the Portuguese explorer Vasco Da Gama landed on St Mary's Islands in South Canara on his voyage from Portugal to India, and planted a cross there. In 1500, Pedro Álvares Cabral, a Portuguese explorer, arrived at Anjediva in North Canara with eight Franciscan missionaries. These missionaries under the leadership of Henrique Soares de Coimbra converted 22 or 23 natives to Christianity in the Mangalore region. In 1526, under the viceroyship of Lopo Vaz de Sampaio, the Portuguese took possession of Mangalore. The Portuguese Franciscans slowly started propagating Christianity in Mangalore

However, contemporary Mangalorean Catholics are descended mainly from the Goan Catholic settlers, who had migrated to Canara from Goa, a state north of Canara, between 1560 and 1763, in two major waves. The first wave occurred during the Goa Inquisition of 1560, to escape the trials of the Inquisition. These migrants were welcomed by the native Bednore rulers of Canara for their agricultural skills. The second major wave occurred during the Portuguese-Maratha wars in Goa during the late 17th and the early 18th century. According to Mangalorean historian Alan Machado Prabhu, the author of Sarasvati's Children: A History of the Mangalorean Christians (1999), the Mangalorean Catholics numbered about 58,000 by 1765, during the capture of Canara by Hyder Ali.

Mangalorean Catholics under Hyder Ali

Hyder Ali had very good relations with the Mangalorean Catholics

Hyder Ali was born in 1721 or 1722 at Budikote in the northern part of Mysore State (present Kolar district of Karnataka). He had joined the Mysore Army and distinguished himself in the Siege of Devanahalli in 1749. He had participated in the Carnatic wars (1751-1755) and had gained a rich experience of warfare. He rose to power in the Mysore court in a very short time, and soon became the Prime minister and general of the King. From 1761 onwards, he took de facto control of the throne of the Mysore Kingdom through the Wodeyar dynasty.

Hyder Ali occupied Mangalore and Canara in 1763. Hyder had amicable relations with the Christians. Historian Severine Silva states, "the general relations between Hyder and Christians form a chapter which has been entirely lost." Hyder had a very close friendship with two Goan Catholic priests, Bishop Noronha, and Joachim Miranda. Sehwarts, a Protestant missionary, also lived at the court of Hyder. Hyder's army also consisted of several Catholic soldiers. Hyder also allowed Christians to build a church within the Seringapatam Fort, where French generals used to offer prayers, and priests used to visit the fort. Mangalorean historian A. L. P. D'Souza mentions that Hyder had also used Canara Christians for his administrative purposes. As per the two treaties concluded with the Portuguese, he allowed the Portuguese priests to settle disputes among the Christians. However, the Christians in general hated him for they had to pay heavy tax for king’s treasury.

In February 1768, the British captured Mangalore and Canara from Hyder. Toward the end of 1768, Hyder along with his son Tippu Sultan defeated the British and recaptured Mangalore. After the conquest, Hyder was informed that the Mangalorean Catholics had helped the British in their conquest of Mangalore. Hyder believed that this behaviour of the Christians amounted to treachery against the sovereign. He summoned the Portuguese priests to suggest the punishment for the Mangalorean Catholics for treachery. The priests suggested death penalty for the Christians, because it was the punishment to be awarded to the people who betray the sovereign. But Hyder exhibited a diplomatic stance and imprisoned the Christians who were condemned for treachery, rather than killing them. Later, he opened negotiations with the Portuguese. As a result of the agreement, the suspicion against the clergy and the Christians was removed. The Christians were no longer chastised. During Hyder's regime, Roman Catholicism in Mangalore and the Mangalorean Catholic community continued to flourish.

The Second Anglo-Mysore War began in 1780. After Hyder's death in the Second Anglo-Mysore War on 7 December 1782 at Arcot, the British captured the fort again. Historians claim that towards the Christians, he was extremely tolerant. According to historian Severine Silva, Hyder followed the same policy of religious tolerance towards the Christians, which he had followed right from the beginning, though the Christians revolted against him.

Causes of captivity

Tipu Sultan

After Hyder's death, Tippu Sultan succeeded his father at the age of 31. Tippu had also participated in the conquest of Mangalore along with Hyder in 1768, and was aware of the treachery of the Mangalorean Catholics towards the sovereign, and their help to the British. He was also aware of the treatment of the Canara Muslims by the Portuguese clergy. He had always resented his father's favourable policy towards the Mangalorean Catholics.

The British army under Commander-in-Chief, Brigadier-General Richard Matthews landed in Canara on 9 March 1783, and captured the Mangalore fort, by the orders of the Bombay Government. Many Christians were also recruited in the army of General Matthews. Tippu was infuriated with the Christians of Canara for two reasons. Firstly, when the French soldiers laid down their arms because of the Peace of Paris (1783) treaty, the Christians also refused to fight for Tippu. Secondly, the Christians lent a sum of Rs. 3,30,000 to General Matthews, which made Tippu believe that the Mangalorean Catholics were helping the British. In May 1783, General Matthews was accused of procrastination and suspended by the Bombay Government, and John Campbell received provisional command of the strategic fort of Mangalore on 5 May 1783. Tippu laid several assaults on the Mangalore fort till January 1784, which resulted in failures. Looking at the wounded embattled garrison, Colonel Campbell considered it useless to hold out any longer. The Mangalore fort was finally delivered to Tippu when the British capitulated it on 30 January 1784. The Treaty of Mangalore was signed between between Tippu and the British East India Company on 11 March 1784, which brought an end to the Second Anglo-Mysore War.

Historian Ahmad Saeed states that the Christians acted as spies and guided the British. Historian Praxy Fernandes points out that the Christians helped Colonel Campbell in the Mangalore fort and adjoining towns by providing them rice, vegetables, meat, men, and money. Fernandes also points out that the Christians had entered into a league with the Mysore traitors Kasim Ali and Mohammed Ali, who were enemies of Tippu, and had formed a plot with the English for Tippu's overthrow. He further records that the Head of the Congregation of Monte Mariano Church at Farangipet, near Mangalore, provided the British garrison with 1,000 bags of rice. Severine Silva points out that the Christians of Canara were eager to get rid of Tippu's rule over the region. The History of the Diocese of Mangalore also purports to show that the Christians of Canara were charged with having assisted the English in their operations in the Second Anglo-Mysore War. However, the premise that the Mangalorean Catholics had helped the English during the Second Mangalore War has been disputed by Alan Machado Prabhu, a historian and author of Saraswati's children, a historical book on the Mangalorean Catholic community. He dismisses it as a myth and has devoted an entire chapter in his book into debunking this claim.

Tippu received highly exaggerated reports about the role of the Christians and their help to the British in the Second Anglo-Mysore War. To minimize the threat from the British to his kingdom, Tippu decided to banish the Christians of Canara from his kingdom. According to Severine Silva, this decision was the logical sequence of the plans he had in his mind all along at the time of the conquest of Mangalore with his father Hyder in 1768. On a whole, it can be said that due to the propaganda of the Goan priests and the alliance of the Christians with the English, Tippu banished the community from Canara. He thought that by banishing the Christians, he could keep the English at bay. This was the main political reason which induced Tippu to take the decision.

Execution of orders

"We instantly directed the Divan of the Havur Kutchery to prepare a list of houses occupied by Christians, taking care not to omit a single habitation. After a detailed plan was made, we stationed an officer and soldiers in every place inhabited by Christians, signifying to them that at certain time they would receive orders that they would carry out in full effect…. On the morning of a specific day, (Ash Wednesday Feb 24, 1784) at the hour of Morning Prayer, let all Christians be made prisoner and dispatched to our presence. Accordingly all orders were everywhere opened at the same moment and at the same hour, namely that of the Morning Prayer."

– Letter of an officer to Tippu Sultan (Kirkpatrick's Collection of Letters)

Soon after Tippu gained possession of Mangalore in January 1784, he issued orders to seize the Christians in Canara, confiscate their estates, and deport them to Seringapatam, the capital of his empire, through the Jamalabad fort route. First, he expelled the 13 Goan priests from his kingdom (21 as per the Memorial to the Holy See of 1860, kept in Rome). The priests were issued orders of expulsion to Goa, fined Rs. 2 lakhs, and threatened death by hanging if they ever returned. He also banished Joachim Miranda, a close friend of his father Hyder Ali. He wrote to the Portuguese Government that he had pardoned the priests of capital punishment and a fine of 3 crore rupees. According to the report of 1784, Tippu had driven 26 missionaries out of his state. Three of them secretly joined the captives. Later, two died on the way, and one was killed by the soldier. The missionaries were warned that they would face death penalty if they entered Tippu's kingdom.

On Ash Wednesday (24 February 1784), as is popularly believed, (22 February 1784 according to Goan Catholic priest Joachim Miranda, and March 1784 for Christians of North Canara), in a secret and well planned move, Tippu arrested large numbers of Christians in the entire province of Canara and other parts in his kingdom. The account of the number of captives differ ranging from 30000 to 80,000. According to Mangalorean Catholic historian Kranti Farias, all the captives might not have been arrested on a single day, but the arrests might have been carried out in stages. When Tippu issued the orders to capture the Christians, The British who had entered into a treaty with him on 11 March 1784 were helpless. The captives also included the Malayali Christians, and the Tamil Christians from the Tamil-countries. The Portuguese who were the guardians of the Christian faith in Canara interfered and requested Tippu not to imprison the priests and to let the Christians live peacefully as his father Hyder Ali had done. But Tippu did not heed to their request. Estimates suggest that about 7,000 people were still left in hiding. Many were actively assisted by the Hindus. The few Christians in Canara who escaped Tippu's initial captivity fled to Coorg and Malabar, where they were protected by the native rulers.

Account of the number of captives
Source	Number
British officer James Scurry	30,000
Tippu Sultan	60,000
Scottish officer Thomas Munro	60,000
Scottish physician Francis Buchanan	80,000
British general Kirkpatrick	70,000
Asiatic Register of 1799	70,000
The Memorial of 15 May 1860[c]	60,000
The Memorial of Rosario Parishioners	80000
Barkur Manuscript	80,000 (60,000 from South Canara and 20,000 from North Canara)
Goan Catholic priest Joachim Miranda	40,000
French priest Abbe Dubois	60,000
British Colonel Mark Wilks	60,000
British general James Bristow	40,000
Mangalorean Historian S.N. Saldanha	80,000 (60,000 from South Canara and 20,000 from North Canara)

Confiscation of property and destruction of churches

St. Lawrence Church in Karkala was destroyed by Tippu

File:Hospet.jpg

Igreja da Santa Cruz Hospet ( Hospet Church) along with the Monte Mariano Church was the only church in South Canara that escaped the demolition drive by Tippu Sultan during the early 1790s.

As per Tippu's orders, all estates and properties of the Christians were seized, and distributed among Tippu's soldiers. Churches and historical records were also destroyed. Their seizure was so sudden that the Christians had no time to make the least preparation for their departure or to dispose of the little property they had. The amount of property confiscated is estimated by Angelus Francis Xavier Maffei, an Italian Jesuit, at five lakhs of rupees. Tippu ordered the destruction of all the 27 churches in Canara. He spared the Monte Mariano church at Farangipet in deference to his father Hyder Ali's friendship with Fr. Joachim Miranda. The Idgah mosque in Mangalore, is believed to have been constructed, according to oral tradition, with stones from the destroyed Milagres Church. Other Christian establishments that were spared were converted to storehouses, offices, or homes for wealthy Muslims.

Churches destroyed by Tippu
Original Portuguese name	Common English name	Sub-district	District
Nossa Senhora do Rosário de Mangalore	Our Lady of Rosary (Mangalore)	Mangalore	South Canara
Nossa Senhora do Melagres de Mangalore	Our Lady of Miracles (Mangalore)	Mangalore	South Canara
Nossa Senhora de Mercês de Velala	Our Lady of Mercy (Ullal)	Mangalore	South Canara
Jesus Maria Joze de Omzur	Holy Family Church (Omzoor)	Mangalore	South Canara
Senhora Sao. Joze de Pezar	St. Joseph (Pezar)	Mangalore	South Canara
	St. Joesph Convent and seminary built by Joachim Miranda	Mangalore	South Canara
Menino Jesus de Bantwal	Infant Jesus (Bantwal)	Bantwal	South Canara
Santa Cruz de Bedrim	Santa Cruz of Bidre	Bantwal	South Canara
Senhor Salvador de Agrar	Most Holy Saviour Church (Agrar)	Bantwal	South Canara
Sao. Lourenço de Carcoal	St. Lawrence Church (Karkala)	Moolki	South Canara
Nossa Senhora de Conçuçao de Mulquim	Our Lady of Immaculate Conception (Mulki)	Moolki	South Canara
Nossa Senhora de Remedios de Quirim	Our Lady of Remedies (Kirem)	Moolki	South Canara
Nossa Senhora de Saude de Sirvam	Our Lady of Health (Shirva)	Moolki	South Canara
De Nossa Senhora do Rosário de Cundapoor	Our Lady of the Rosary (Kundapur)	Cundapore	South Canara
De Nossa Senhora de Conçuçao de Gangollim	Immaculate Conception of the Blesses Virgin Mary (Gangolli)	Cundapore	South Canara
De Nossa Senhora do Melagres de Calliampoor	Holy Rosary (Kallianpur)	Barcoor	South Canara
De Nossa Senhora do Rosário de Onore	Our Lady of Rosary (Honavar)	Onore	North Canara
De Senhor Sao. Francisco Xavier de Chandor	St. Francis Xavier Church (Chandavar)	Onore	North Canara
De Nossa Senhora de Remedios de Gulmona	Our Lady of Remedies (Gulmona)	Onore	North Canara
Imaculada Conceição de Sunquerim	Immaculate Conception (Sunkery)	Sunquerim	North Canara
Source: History of the Catholic Community of South Kanara (1983)

Journey from Mangalore to Seringapatam

The Jamalabad fort passage. Rebel Christian leaders were thrown down from the fort

According to the Barkur Manuscrpt, written in Canarese by a Mangalorean Catholic from Barkur after his return from Seringapatam, the Christians were interned at holding camps at Mangalore, Manjeshwar, Kundapura, Honavar, Ankola, and Sunkery. The more rebellious Christians were also brought in chains. They were forced to climb nearly 4,000 feet (1,200 m) through the dense jungles and gorges of the Western Ghat mountain ranges along two routes, one along the Bantwal-Belthangadi-Kulshekar-Virajpet-Coorg-Mysore route, and the other along the Gersoppa falls (Shimoga) route. The Christians were accompanied by three priests, who had secretly joined them, even after facing expulsion from Tippu. It was 200 miles (320 km) from Mangalore to Seringapatam. Trouble arose when the captives halted at their first camp at Bantwal, where the guards began molesting the women. The able bodied captives were able to resist the guards. At the next camp at Jamalabad fort, the rebel Christian leaders were thrown down from the fort.

According to a captive from Barkur, while travelling pregnant women were often confined on the road, and the babies had to be borne bundled about them, to be suspended in cradles from the branches of trees when they rested. If anyone happened to die, the deceased was buried on the spot. They were not given any rations, and when the time to march came to another village, those who had not finished cooking had to leave behind their rice and the cooking pots as they stood over the fire. According to the Barkur Manuscrpt and several other British Government records and sources, 20,000 of them (one-third) died on the march to Seringapatam due to hunger, disease, and ill treatment by the soldiers. The journey took six weeks to reach Seringapatam.

The 15 year captivity

The British officer James Scurry, who was detained a prisoner for 10 years by Tipu Sultan along with Mangalorean Catholics

After arriving at Seringapatam, the Christian captives were made to forcibly embrace Islam. All those who embraced Islam were freed. Those captives who refused to proselytize to Islam, Tippu ordered them to be tied to the feet of the elephants to be dragged and trampled upon them and to be mutilated in the most barbarous manner. An English prisoner relates that, two risalas were sent daily to Seringapatam to select girls that they could take as prizes to join their harems. Often, when they seized the girls, their young men would offer resistance and smash their dhoolies. The officers would capture the men and administer five hundred strokes with whips and canes, from the effects of which many men died. Historian Lewin Bentham Bowring reports that, "Tipu demanded the surrender of the daughters of some of these Christians in order to have them placed in his seraglio, and that, on the refusal of their parents, the latter had their noses, ears and upper lips cut off, and were paraded through the streets on asses, with their faces towards the tails of the animals." Such treatments towards the Christians for the refusal of girls is also confirmed in the accounts of the British officer James Scurry , who was held captive along with Mangalorean Catholics. In his book The Captivity, Sufferings, and Escape of James Scurry, who was Detained a Prisoner During Ten Years, in the Dominions of Hyder Ali and Tippoo Saib (1824), Scurry also reports that Tippu relented the demand of the captive girls, when one captive fell from his beast and expired on the spot through loss of blood. About 200 young women, the prettiest and fairest of them, were selected for Tippu's seraglio. The rest of the women were distributed as wives to Muslim officers and favourite's living there. The future Christian progeny of these young girls and women were lost forever in the harems of the Sultan's officers and minions, and their descendants are fully Islamic as of today.

A dungeon at Seringapatam. Many Christians who refused to embrace Islam were imprisoned in such dungeons

The Jemadars, Subedars, and Havildars meted out more ignominious punishment by slitting off their ears and noses, who refused to accept Islam. They were seated on asses, paraded through the city, and thrown into the dungeons of Seringapatam. The able-bodied young Christian men were drafted into the army after being circumcised and converted to Islam. The Bakur Manuscript records, "On four occasions the young able-bodied Christian men were thus drafted for the Army. Some of them were appointed jemadars, subedars, and havildars. The Sircar supplied them with ghee, butter, curds, firewood, etc. One hundred men were formed into one company, four companies into a risala, four risalas into a sufedar, and four sufedars were placed under a bakshi. Out of every company twenty-five men were taken and circumcised at the end of every month. When the wounds were healed, another twenty-five were taken and circumcised, and so on, until the whole company was initiated into Islamism." British general Kirkpatrick arrives at a figure of 15,000, who have been capable of bearing arms, forming 30 risalas. Some Christian captives like Salu (Salvadore) Pinto was appointed Tippu's Deputy Vizier, and Anthony Saldanha as his House Vhamberlain. The risalas (army companies) of the captives were formed as the Ahmedy Corps in 1785. They were employed in the campaigns of the Marathas, Nizam, and the British during 1786 and 1787. They suffered heavy casualties, and very few returned back. Those who remained, such as the lame, the blind and the aged, employed themselves in cultivating the land and in doing various manual works. Many were made to carry baskets filled with gobra (cowdung) for three days as a public display of warning to others. The stubborn Christians were given the most menial tasks, and made to work in the paddy fields, They were underfed, and whenever they got into a fight were immediately imprisoned. The men were completely isolated from any women, the idea being that they would die of old age without creating any new progeny.

In 1785, after declaring the Coorgis guilty of polyandry, Tippu seized nearly 70,000 Hindus of Coorg along with the King of Coorg, Dodda Vira-Rajendra, and held them captive at Seringapatam. They were also subjected to forcible conversions to Islam and the same treatment as the Mangalorean Catholics. From 1786-1789, even the Nairs of Malabar were captured and deported to Seringapatam. In 1787, when half the number of Christians had perished by disease and starvation, Tippu attempted to proselytize the remaining Christians in Canara, and took them into custody. As the Christians settled down in Seringapatam, they slowly reorganised themselves with the elders forming a secret group named "Council of Ten", to help keep their faith alive. According to Balthazar of Belthangady, a Mangalorean Catholic captive, in the "Coucil of Ten", the Christians used to meet together from time to time to deliberate on issues concerning the community. In 1789, Tippu came to know of the group through an officer, and he specifically banned any political gathering of the existing Christians. The Christians believing that this tribulation came upon them for their neglect of the Law of God and their religious duties, began to read the Krista Purana with fervor. Some Muslims coming to know of this, destroyed the books, but the Christians constructed subterranean refuges to perform religious duties, read the books, and strengthened their faith. According to Mr. Silva of Gangolim, a survivor of the captivity, if a person who had escaped from Seringapatam was found, the punishment under the orders of Tipu was the cutting off of the ears, nose, the feet and one hand.

"Several thousand Christians in the dominion of Tippu Sultan had often in past years represented to him the discomfort attending the due exercise of their religion. He had hitherto paid no manner of regard to their supplications. Nevertheless, the present state of affairs in his extensive empire had inclined his heart to mercy and not to harshness. Wherefore he had dispatched these his trusty messengers who might convey the words of his mouth in all variety, begging the Governor and the Archbishop not to refuse every needful exertion towards succoring their brethren Christians according to the obligations of their religion. And he would as soon as might be convenient rebuild at his own expense the Churches that the fate decreed agents of destruction had leveled to the ground."

– Letter sent by Tippu to the Archbishop of Goa)

Reports of Joachim Miranda and the Portuguese Government confirm that the Christians were forcibly circumcised and converted to Islam. These Christians openly practiced Islam. Some writers hold the view that the Christians did not voluntary submit to the conversions. Some Christian missionaries had also been appealing to the Roman Catholic Church to intervene on behalf of the captive Christians. A priest had also written a letter to the Holy See to put pressure on Tippu to allow the priests. When Tippu's embassy visited the court of the French King Louis XVI, Pope Clement XIV's representative conveyed the appeal to the embassy. In the Third Anglo-Mysore War (1789–92), English and their allies defeated Tippu. Desperate to break the alliance of powers surrounding him on all sides, he sought to make peace with Portugal, the Marathas, and other powers. According to Severine Silva, Tippu consequently gave up the persecution of Christians, opened negotiations with the Portuguese Government and with the Archbishop of Goa, with a promise that he would no more molest the Christians, and asserted that he would build all destroyed churches at his own cost. The Christians found the supervision over them relaxed and Tippu was more conciliatory in his attitude. The Christians now escaped from the camps of Seringapatam and gradually began to enter the neighboring kingdoms of Coorg, Malabar. At this time many Christians performed daring feats in rescuing the captives from Seringapatnam and taking them to places of safety. A captive named Domingo Pinto (brother of Salvador Pinto, who rose to high rank in the services of Tippu) excelled himself particularly in this. He rescued many people and took them secretly to Mangalore or Tellichery. He proposed that those who were anxious to regain their liberty will be rescued, provided they paid him a certain sum of money. He fixed the price of rescuing the captives at 8 hoons (Rs. 32) for a male, and 4 hoons (Rs. 16) for a female respectively.

In 1792, the King of Coorg, Dodda Vira-Rajendra, had managed to escape from captivity at Seringapatnam, and with the aid of the English armies under Lord Cornwallis, was able to recover Coorg for himself in the treaty of 1792 between the English and their allies and Tippu. Anxious to repopulate his kingdom which had been depopulated by Tippu, he welcomed the fugitive Konkani Christians. As an inducement to remain permanently in his territory, he granted them several privileges, obtained a priest from them at Goa, and built a chapel for them. After the relaxation of policies from 1792 onwards, the Christians began to resettle in Canara. Many Mangalorean Catholic students, who had studying for the priesthood in Goa, also returned back to Mangalore. After full consideration of the changed circumstances, the Archbishop of Goa, by a provision on 20 February 1795, appointed Minguel José Louis Mendes interim vicar of all the four sub-districts of Mangalore, Barcoor, Onore and Moolki. With him some other priests also came to Canara. The Goan priests who came to Canara had kept their old prejudices. They could not accept the rule of Tippu. They openly advocated rebellion against Tippu, and made themselves offensive to him by their letters and even by their speeches. As a result, in 1797, the brief relaxation ceased and persecution of the Christians commenced again.

End of captivity and re-establishment

Main article: Battle of Seringapatam

David Baird discovering the body of Tippu Sultan on 4 May 1799

In the Battle of Seringapatam on 4 May 1799, the British army under officers George Harris, David Baird, and Arthur Wellesley stormed the fortress, breached the town of Seringapatam, and killed Tippu. After Tippu's death in the Fourth Anglo-Mysore War, the Mangalorean Catholics were freed from his captivity. Of the 60,000-80,000 Christians taken captive, only 15,000-20,000 made it out as Christians. British general Arthur Wellesley helped 10,000 of them return to Canara. According to Francis Buchanan, 15,000 of them returned to Mangalore and its vicinity, while 10,000 of them migrated to Malabar. Of the remaining Christians freed, about a thousand went to Malabar, and some hundreds settled in Coorg. The Gazetteer of the Bombay Presidency‎ (1883) mentions that 15,000 persons returned, of which 12,000 were from South Canara, and 3,000 from North Canara. According to the Mangalorean Catholic genealogist Michael Lobo, the present Mangalorean Catholic community is descended almost entirely from this small group of survivors, who returned to South Canara.

Thomas Munro helped the Mangalorean Catholics recover their lands after their return from captivity

After the death of Tippu, soon a detachment from the Bombay army under Lieutenant-Colonel Wiseman took possession of Mangalore on 4 June 1799, along with the entire province of Canara, with the exception of the fortress of Jamalabad. Thomas Munro was appointed the first collector of Canara in June 1799. He remained till October 1800. He was accompanied by officers John Goldsborough Ravenshaw and Alexander Reade to take control of the administration and reorganize it. Munro passed three orders in respect of the estates of the Christians, which were taken over by non-Christians during the captivity. For the purpose of finding the ownership of the lands, he sent two Mangalorean Hindus Muthsuddy Vencappah and Saly Purvoe Dur Shetty, and other Christians to investigate and inform him about these estates. Through the assistance of the Church, and with the support of Munro, the Christians were able to recover their lands and estates. In 1800, the British took a census of the region. Of the 396,672 people living in South Canara, 10,877 were Christians residing in 2,545 houses. According to the same census, in the entire province of Canara, out of the 5,92,000 people, the Christian population was recorded as 10,877 in South Canara, and 2,380 in North Canara. Padre José Miguel Luis de Mendes, a Goan Catholic priest, was appointed Vicar of Our Lady of Rosary at Mangalore on 7 December 1799. He took a lot of interest in the re-establishment of the community from 1799 to 1808. Later, John Goldsborough Ravenshaw was appointed collector of South Canara, while Alexander Reade was appointed collector of North Canara. Ravenshaw took active part in the re-establishment of their former possessions and recovery of their estates. He constructed a church for them, which was completed in 1806. The churches which were earlier destroyed by Tippu were rebuilt by the Christians.

After relocation, the jurisdiction of the Archbishop of Goa commenced again. Their population almost doubled in 1818. The total Christian population in North and South Canara was estimated to be 21,280 out of a total population of 670,355. According to various parish books existing that time, Mangalorean Catholics numbered 19,068 in South Canara (12,877 in Mangalore and Bantwal, 3,918 in Moolki, 2,273 in Cundapore and Barcoor), while the Christians in North Canara numbered 2,749 (1,878 in Onore, 599 in Ancola, and 272 in Sunkery). Soon, the Mangalorean Catholics became a prosperous and influential community consisting mainly of planters, tile manufacturers, and agriculturists. They also competed for offices in the services of the British. They gradually prospered under the British.

Criticism of Tippu

Main article: Tippu Sultan (Religious policy)

Mark Wilks has described Tippu as an Islamic fanatic

Many Roman Catholic and British writers have severely criticized Tippu for his policies and treatment towards the Christians. British general Kirkpatrick has called Tippu as, "the intolerant bigot and the furious fanatic." British Colonel Mark Wilks in his Historical Sketches of the South of India, cites an account of Tippu, in which Tippu mentions that, "the cause arose from the rage of Islam began to boil in his breast when informed of the circumstances of the spread of Christianity in Goa and Canara." According to historian Thomas Paul, Tippu directed his hatred for the British over the Mangalorean Catholics and other South Indian Christian communities. Sitaram Goel mentions that Tippu's justification for the conversion was that during the Portuguese domination, many Muslims were forcibly converted to Christianity. Tippu proclaimed his action as a sort of punishment for the conversion of Muslims to Christianity.

Contemporary scholars like Surendranath Sen, Mohibul Hasan, N. K. Sinha, and B. Sheik Ali, who have elaborately analyzed Tippu's religious policies on Christians, have concluded that he was not a religious bigot. They argue that the forcible conversions to Islam were purely for political reasons and not for religious ones. It was done to punish the Christians who supported the British against their own native suzerain. The conversions came after much warnings by Tippu. Irrespective of the views, the Mangalorean Catholic community still considers Tippu as a bitter religious bigot and a ferocious conquistadore, and is a hated personality among the community.

Criticism of the Christians

Thirty years after the event the apparent lack of resistance from the Christian captives found criticism from the French priest Abbe Dubois in one of his letters dated 1815. In his letter, Dubois mentioned, "not a single individual among so many thousands had courage enough to confess his faith under this trying circumstance, and become a martyr to his religion." Various writers have concluded that the acceptance and practise of Islam by the Christians amounted to partial apostasy.

Remembrance of captivity

During the mid-19th century, Victor Fernandes, Bishop of Mangalore (1931-1955), erected a large cross at former outskirts of Mangalore in Nanthoor near Padav hills to honour the memory of the Mangalorean Catholic martyrs who died on the march during the captivity. The bicentenary anniversary of the release from captivity was widely celebrated on 4 May 1999 by the Mangalorean Catholic community. Five Catholics walked from Seringapatam to Mangalore to retrace the 278 km route that Tippu Sultan forced the Christians to take in 1784. The commemorative march ended on May 11 at the Rosario Cathedral, Mangalore.

Accounts of the Captivity

James Scurry

Now followed the fate of the poor Malabar Christians,^[a] of which I shall consider myself the innocent cause, in reading what was written by General Mathews, as stated in the preceding note. Their country was invested by Tippu's army, and they were driven men, women and children to the number of 30,000 to Sirangapatam where all who were fit to carry arms were circumcised and forwarded into four battalions. The sufferings of these poor creatures were most excruciating: one circumstance which came under my immediate notice, I will attempt to describe: when recovered they were armed and drilled, and ordered to Mysore, nine miles from the capital, but for what purpose we could not learn. Their daughters were many of them beautiful girls; and Tippu was determined to have them for his seraglio; but this they refused; and Mysore was invested by his orders, and the four battalions were disarmed and brought prisoners to Sirangapatam. This being done, the officers tied their hands behind them. The Chambars or Sandalmakers were then sent for and their noses ears and upper lips were cut off. They were then mounted on asses, their faces towards the tail and led through Patan, with a wretch before them proclaming their crime. One fell from his beast and expired on the spot through loss of blood. Such a mangled and bloody scene excited the compassion of numbers and our hearts were ready to burst at the inhuman sight. It was reported that Tippu relented in this case, and I rather think it true, as he never gave any further orders respecting their women. The twenty-six that survived were sent to his different arsenals where after the lapse of a few years I saw several of them lingering out a most miserable existence.

• No doubt many of them survived the downfall of Tippu and I should have been proud to hear that the Company had done something for those brave unfortunate men, and particularly so as all their miseries originated from an English general. The prison from whence the Malabar Christians were brought to have their noses and ears cut off for refusing their daughters when Tippu demanded them for his seraglio was a horrid dismal hole which we named the Bull, as there was a image, considerably larger than life, of that animal on that building, which was originally designed for a Hindoo place of worship, but by Tippu converted into a dungeon. This prison we frequently passed and expected sooner or later to occupy some part of it. Very few who were so unfortunate to be confined here, escaped with less punishment than the loss of their nose and ears. The Chambars by whom the operation was performed are held in abhorrence by the Mahomedans, and, on that account they were consigned to this office; and such was their brutality that they frequently cut, (or sawed rather), the upper lip off with the nose leaving the poor unfortunate wretch a pitiable object, to spin out a most miserable existence, being always sent to Tippu's arsenals to hard labor on a scanty allowance.

— The Captivity, Sufferings And Escape of James Scurry Who Was Detained a Prisoner During Ten Years In The Dominions of Hyder Ali and Tippu Saheb (1824), pp. 102-106

Mr. Silva of Gangolim, a survivor of the captivity

November 22, 1904.

My dear Sister,

Though you are so old, I have not yet told you what our beloved grandfather did and what he suffered. I am now narrating to you what he told me in almost the same words. They were seven brothers and one sister. The sister died at an early age. She was buried by putting on the clothes which are seen on pictures of angels. All the brothers were much grieved at the sad loss.... After this, a rakshasa^[b] by name Tippu Sultan seized all the Christians from Sadashivgad to Coorg and marched them to Pattana. My grandfather and all his brothers also were taken by the sepoys. Only because grandfather's father and mother were too old and weak, they were left behind. All these seven were imprisoned. For many days they were confined to different rooms separated from one another. Sometimes they were taken out. They suffered much because they were not given food. If they were given one handful of ragi flour, they were not given salt or anything else. Even this ragi flour was given occasionally. There was nothing to dress and nothing to cover in the night. With such afflictions, six brothers died. My grandfather, while he was allowed to go out for a while, used to eat leaves or pieces of leather if available, because he could not sustain the pangs of hunger. But he used to recite the Rosary daily, with the rosary in hand. One day when the grandfather was brought out along with or by (illegible) he disappeared without the knowledge of anybody into a bamboo bush. The sepoys had not seen him. There were thousands of people; and there were the solemnities of the Moharrum festival. Taking this opportunity, grandfather concealed himself. Then the sepoys took all the people inside and closed the gates of the town. At that time my grandfather was eight years old. If a person who had escaped was found, the punishment under the orders of Tippu was the cutting off of the ears, nose, the feet and one hand. The meting out of this punishment was seen by him; and he was much afraid that if he was caught he would be punished similarly. He began reciting the Rosary and praying that he should not be a victim to such punishment, this boy of eight years got out of the bush and began to run. To come home was a question of many days. He looked to and from on the road and very carefully too. The sight of any man even at a great distance was enough to drive him into the dense jungle to take shelter in some bush. He suffered much for want of rice. He lived on leaves and whatever he found in the jungle. While he was in this weak and lingering condition, one day he met a sepoy, who caught him and took him with him. There was no other alternative but to follow the sepoy. While he was in this plight and waling on the road of a place known as Asthari, he was given a severe blow on the head by the sepoy. Immediately, grandfather fell down senseless. The sepoy left him there thinking that he was dead, and walked away. After a long time, he recovered his senses. Yet his head was reeling and was very weak. Then the fright that if caught again, he would be taken back, forced him to remain in a jungle. Days and nights he passed in jungles. One day, he met two cartmen of his acquaintance going to the house of their relations. They recognized grandfather and treated him affectionately and took him to their relations and gave him food. The food consisted of bakri, curry of eggs and rice. Praising the Lord, he took the food which he craved for a long time. Later, by the grace of God, this boy returned to the house of his parents. 'Out of the seven brothers, this was the only one who returned alive,' so saying, his aged parents clasped him. After this he was educated and later he became an important man; he rendered assistance to several priests who loved him. He remained amidst them assisting them in all their needs. He was engaged to a girl in Goa. The girl belonged to a good family and was given a large dowry. Her name was Anna Maria Rodricks. The marriage was duly celebrated. There are many priests in that family.

— Account of a Surviving Captive, A Mr. Silva of Gangolim (Letter of a Mr. L.R. Silva to his sister, copy of which was given by an advocate, M.M. Shanbhag, to the author, Severino da Silva, and reproduced as Appendix No. 74: History of Christianity in Canara (1961))

See also

• Captivity of Coorgis at Seringapatam
• Captivity of Nairs at Seringapatam

Notes

a ^{^} "Malabar Christians" is a possible misinterpretation by James Scurry. The term actually refers to the Christians of Canara.
b ^{^} demon or monster
c ^{^} The Memorial of 15 May 1860 was addressed by the Catholics of Mangalore to Monsignor Bonnand of Pondicherry, who had then been appointed as the Apostolic visitator by the Holy See.

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External links

• Accounts of the Captivity from Various Sources by Lúcio Mascarenhas
• The Babylonian Captivity At Seringapatnam by Lúcio Mascarenhas
• Christian Missionaries under Hyder Ali and Tippu Sultan
• Sarasvati's Children by Joe Lobo
• M. V. Kamath. "Tipu Sultan: Coming to terms with the past". The News Today. {{cite web}}: Italic or bold markup not allowed in: |publisher= (help)