Rail transport
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Rail transport is the conveyance of passengers and goods by means of wheeled vehicles running on rail tracks. In contrast to road transport, where vehicles merely run on a prepared surface, rail vehicles are also directionally guided by the tracks they run on.
Track usually consists of steel rails running on sleepers/ties and ballast, on which the rolling stock, usually fitted with metal wheels, moves. However, variants are also possible, such as rubber-wheeled stock moving on concrete tracks, particularly for light rail and monorail systems.
Rolling stock in rail transport generally has low frictional resistance when compared with road vehicles, and can be coupled into long trains.
The operation is carried out by a railway company, providing transport between train stations or freight customer facilities. Power is provided by locomotives which either draw electrical power from a railway electrification system or produce their own power, usually by diesel engines. Most trackage is accompanied by a signalling system.
Rail is the safest land transport when compared to other forms of transport.[1] Rail transport is capable of high levels of capacity and energy efficiency, but is often less flexible and more capital intensive than road transport when lower traffic levels are considered.
The oldest, man-hauled railways date to the 6th century BC. With the development of the steam engine, it was possible to construct mainline railways, that were a key component of the industrial revolution. Also, railroads reduced the costs of shipping, and allowed for fewer lost goods. The change from canals to railroads allowed for "national markets" in which prices varied very little from city to city. Studies have shown that the development of the railroad was one of the most important technological inventions of the late 19th century in the United States, without which, GDP would have been lower by 7% in 1890. In the 1880s, electric trains were launched, and the first tramways and rapid transit systems came into use. Following the 1940s, unelectrified railways in developed countries replaced steam with diesel. In the 1960s, high-speed rail was launched. Trains have since become more accessible, and some are now driverless. Other forms of rail transport outside the traditional definition such as maglev trains have also emerged.
History
Pre-steam
The earliest evidence of a railway was a 6-kilometre (3.7 mi) Diolkos wagonway, which transported boats across the Corinth isthmus in Greece during the 6th century BC Trucks pushed by slaves ran in grooves in limestone, which provided the track element. The Diolkos ran for over 1300 years.[2]
Railways began reappearing in Europe after the Dark Ages. The earliest known record of a railway in Europe from this period is a stained-glass window in the Minster of Freiburg im Breisgau in Germany, dating from around 1350.[3] In 1515, Cardinal Matthäus Lang wrote a description of the Reisszug, a funicular railway at the Hohensalzburg Castle in Austria. The line originally used wooden rails and a hemp haulage rope, and was operated by human or animal power. The line still exists, albeit in updated form, and is probably the oldest railway still to operate.[4][5]
By 1550, narrow gauge railways with wooden rails were common in mines in Europe.[6] By the 17th century, wooden wagonways were common in the United Kingdom for transporting coal from mines to canal wharfs for transshipment to boats. The world's oldest continually working railway, built in 1758, is the Middleton Railway in Leeds. In 1764, the first gravity railroad in the United States was built in Lewiston, New York.[7] The first permanent was the 1810 Leiper Railroad.[8]
The first iron plate rail way made with cast iron plats on top of wooden rails, was taken into use in 1768. This allowed a variation of gauge to be used. At first only balloon loops could be used for turning, but later movable pointers were taken into use, that allowed for switching.[9] From the 1790s, iron edge rails began to appear in the United Kingdom.[10] In 1803, William Jessop opened the Surrey Iron Railway in south London, arguably the world's first horse-drawn public railway.[11] Hot rolling iron allowed the brittle, and thus often uneven, cast iron to be replaced by wrought iron in 1805. These were succeeded by steel in 1857.[10]
Age of Steam
The development of the steam engine spurred ideas for mobile steam locomotives that could haul trains on tracks. The first was patented by James Watt in 1794.[12] In 1804, Richard Trevithick demonstrated the first locomotive-hauled train in Merthyr Tydfil, United Kingdom.[13][14] Accompanied with Andrew Vivian, it ran with mixed success,[15] breaking some of the brittle cast-iron plates.[16] Two years later, the first passenger horse-drawn railway was opened nearby between Swansea and Mumbles.[17] In 1811, John Blenkinsop designed the first successful and practical railway locomotive[18]—a rack railway worked by a steam locomotive between Middleton Colliery and Leeds on the Middleton Railway. The locomotive, The Salamanca, was built the following year.[19] In 1825 George Stephenson built the Locomotion for the Stockton and Darlington Railway, north east England, which was the first public steam railway in the world. In 1829 he built The Rocket which was entered in and won the Rainhill Trials. This success led to Stephenson establishing his company as the pre-eminent builder of steam locomotives used on railways in the United Kingdom, the United States and much of Europe.[20] In 1830, the first intercity railway, the Liverpool and Manchester Railway, opened. The gauge was that used for the early wagonways, and had been adopted for the Stockton and Darlington Railway.[21] The 1,435 mm (4 ft 8+1⁄2 in) width became known as the international standard gauge, used by about 60% of the world's railways. This spurred the spread of rail transport outside the UK. The Baltimore and Ohio that opened in 1830 was the first to evolve from a single line to a network in the United States.[citation needed] By 1831 there was a steam railroad operating between Albany, NY and Schenectady, a distance of 16 miles, which was covered in 40 minutes, for an average speed of 24 mph.[22] In 1867, the first elevated railroad was built in New York. In 1869, the symbolically important First Transcontinental Railroad was completed.[23]
Electrification and dieselisation
Experiments with electrical railways were started by Robert Davidson in 1838. He completed a battery-powered carriage capable of 6.4 kilometres per hour (4.0 mph). The Giant's Causeway Tramway was the first to use electricity fed to the trains en-route, using a third rail, when it opened in 1883. Overhead wires were taken into use in 1888. At first this was taken into use on tramways, that until then had been horse-hauled horsecars. The first conventional electrified railway was the Roslag Line in Sweden. During the 1890s, many large cities, such as London, Paris and New York used the new technology to build rapid transit for urban commuting. In smaller cities, tramways became common, and were often the only mode of public transport until the introduction of buses in the 1920s. In North America, interurbans became a common mode to reach suburban areas. At first all electric railways used direct current, but in 1904, the Spubeital Line in Austria opened with alternating current.[24]
Steam locomotives require large pools of labour to clean, load, maintain and run. After World War II, dramatically increased labour costs in developed countries made steam an increasingly costly form of motive power. At the same time, the war had forced improvements in internal combustion engine technology that made diesel locomotives cheaper and more powerful. This caused many railway companies to initiate programs to convert all unelectrified sections from steam to diesel locomotion—a process named dieselisation.
Following the large-scale construction of motorways after the war, rail transport became less popular for commuting, and air transport started taking large market shares from long-haul passenger trains. Most tramways were either replaced by rapid transits or buses, while high transshipment costs caused short-haul freight trains to become uncompetitive. The 1973 oil crisis led to a change of mind set, and most tram systems that had survived into the 1970s remain today. At the same time, containerization allowed freight trains to become more competitive and participate in intermodal freight transport. With the 1962 introduction of the Shinkansen high-speed rail in Japan, trains could again have a dominant position on intercity travel. During the 1970s, the introduction of automated rapid transit systems allowed cheaper operation. The 1990s saw an increased focus on accessibility and low-floor trains. Many tramways have been upgraded to light rail, and many cities that closed their old tramways have reopened new light railway systems.
Trains
A train is a connected series of rail vehicles that move along the track. Propulsion for the train is provided by a separate locomotive, or from individual motors in self-propelled multiple units. Most trains carry a revenue load, although non-revenue cars exist for the railway's own use, such as for maintenance-of-way purposes. The railroad engineer or engine driver controls the locomotive or other power cars, although people movers and some rapid transits are driverless.
Haulage
Traditionally, trains are pulled using a locomotive. This involved a single or multiple powered vehicles being located at the front of the train, and providing sufficient adhesion to haul the weight of the full train. This remains dominant for freight trains, and is often used for passenger trains. A push-pull train has the end passenger car equipped with a driver's cab so the engineer can remote-control the locomotive. This allows one of the locomotive hauled trains drawbacks to be removed, since the locomotive need not be moved to the end of the train each time the train changes direction. A railroad car is a vehicle used for the haulage of either passengers or freight.
A multiple unit has powered wheels throughout the whole train. This the used for rapid transit and tram systems, as well as many both short- and long-haul passenger trains. A railcar is a single, self-powered car. Multiple units have a driver's cab at each end of the unit, and were developed following the ability to build electric motors and engines small enough to build under the coach. There are only a few freight multiple units, most of which are high-speed post trains.
Motive power
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Steam locomotives are locomotives with a steam engine that provides adhesion. Coal, petroleum, or wood is burned in a firebox. The heat warms up water in the fire-tube boiler to create pressurized steam. The steam travels through the smokebox before leaving via the chimney. In the process it powers a piston, that transmits power directly through a connecting rod (US: main rod) and a crankpin (US: wristpin) on the driving wheel (US main driver) or to a crank on a driving axle. Steam locomotives have been phased out in most parts of the world for economical and safety reasons.
Electric locomotives draw power from a stationary source via overhead wire or a third rail. Some also or instead use a battery. A transformer in the locomotive converts the high voltage, low current power to low voltage, high current used in the electric motors that power the wheels. Modern locomotives use three-phase AC induction motors. Electric locomotives are the most powerful traction. They are also the cheapest to run and provide less noise and no local air pollution. However, they require high capital investments both for the catenary and the supporting infrastructure. Accordingly, electric traction is used on urban systems, lines with high traffic and for high-speed rail.
Diesel locomotives use a diesel engine as the prime mover. The energy transmission may be either diesel-electric, diesel-mechanical or diesel-hydraulic, but diesel-electric is dominant. Electro-diesel locomotives are built to run as diesel-electric on unelectrified sections, and as an electric locomotive on electrified sections.
Alternative methods of motive power include magnetic levitation, horse-drawn, cable, gravity, pneumatics and gas turbine.
Passenger trains
A passenger train travels between stations where passengers may embark and disembark. The oversight of the train is the duty of a conductor. Passenger trains are part of public transport, and often make up the stem of the service, with buses feeding to stations.
Intercity trains are long-haul trains that operate with few stops between cities. Trains typically have amenities such as a dining car. Some lines also provide over-night services with sleeping cars. Some long-haul trains been given a specific name. Regional trains are medium distance trains that connect cities with outlying, surrounding areas, or provide a regional service. Trains make more stops and have lower speeds. Commuter trains serve suburbs of urban areas, providing a daily commuting service. Airport rail links provide quick access from city centres to airports.
Rapid transit is built in large cities and has the highest capacity of any passenger transport system. It is grade separated and commonly built underground or elevated. At street level, smaller trams can be used. Light rails are upgraded trams, that have step-free access, their own right-of-way and sometimes sections underground. Monorail systems operate as elevated, medium capacity systems. A people mover is a driverless, grade-separated train that serves only a few stations, of as a shuttle.
High-speed rail operate at much higher speeds than conventional railways, the limit being regarded at 200 to 320 km/h. High-speed trains are used mostly for long-haul service, and most systems are in Western Europe and East Asia. The speed record is 574.8 km/h (357.2 mph), set by a modified French TGV.[25][26] Magnetic levitation trains such as the Shanghai airport train use under-riding magnets which attract themselves upward towards the underside of a guideway, and this line has achieved somewhat higher peak speeds in day-to-day operation than conventional high-speed railways, although only over short distances.
Freight train
A freight train hauls cargo using freight cars specialized for the type of goods. Freight trains can be highly economic, with economy of scale and high energy efficiency. However, its use is reduced by lack of flexibility, often by the need of transshipment at both ends of the trip due to lack of tracks to the point of pick-up and delivery. Authorities often encourage the use of cargo rail transport due to its environmental profile.
Container trains have become the dominant type in the US for non-bulk haulage. Containers can easily be transshipped to other modes, such as ships and trucks, using cranes. This has succeeded the boxcar (wagon-load), where the cargo had to be loaded and unloaded into the train manually. In Europe the sliding wall wagon has largely superseded the ordinary covered wagons. Other types of cars include refrigerator cars, stock cars for livestock and autoracks for road vehicles. When rail is combined with road transport, a roadrailer will allow semi-trailer to be driven onto the train, allowing for easy transshipment between road and rail.
Bulk handling represents a key advantage for rail transport. Low transshipment costs combined with energy efficiency and low inventory costs allow trains to handle bulk much cheaper than by road. Typical bulk cargo includes coal, ore, grains and liquids. Bulk is transported in open-topped cars and tank cars.
Infrastructure
Right of way
Railway tracks are laid upon land owned or leased by the railway company. Owing to the desirability of maintaining modest grades, rails will often be laid in circuitous routes in hilly or mountainous terrain. Route length and grade requirements can be reduced by the use of alternating cuttings, bridges and tunnels—all of which can greatly increase the capital expenditures required to develop a right of way, while significantly reducing operating costs and allowing higher speeds on longer radius curves. In densely urbanized areas, railways are sometimes laid in tunnels to minimize the effects on existing properties.
Trackage
Track consists of two parallel steel rails, anchored perpendicular to members called ties (sleepers) of timber, concrete, steel, or plastic to maintain a consistent distance apart, or gauge. The track guides the conical, flanged wheels, keeping the cars on the track without active steering and therefore allowing trains to be much longer than road vehicles. The rails and ties are usually placed on a foundation made of compressed earth on top of which is placed a bed of ballast to distribute the load from the ties and to prevent the track from buckling as the ground settles over time under the weight of the vehicles passing above. The ballast also serves as a means of drainage. Some more modern track in special areas is attached by direct fixation without ballast. Track may be prefabricated or assembled in place. By welding rails together to form lengths of continuous welded rail, additional wear and tear on rolling stock caused by the small surface gap at the joints between rails can be counteracted and make for a quieter ride (passenger trains). On curves the outer rail may be at a higher level than the inner rail. This is called superelevation or cant. This reduces the forces tending to displace the track and makes for a more comfortable ride for standing livestock and standing or seated passengers. This will be effective at a limited range of speeds.
Turnouts, also known as points and switches, are the means of directing a train onto a diverging section of track. Laid similar to normal track, a point typically consists of a frog (common crossing), check rails and two switch rails. The switch rails may be moved left or right, under the control of the signalling system, to determine which path the train will follow.
Spikes in wooden ties can loosen over time, but split and rotten ties may be individually replaced with new wooden ties or concrete substitutes. Concrete ties can also develop cracks or splits, and can also be replaced individually. Should the rails settle due to soil subsidence, they can be lifted by specialized machinery and additional ballast tamped under the ties to level the rails. Periodically, ballast must be removed and replaced with clean ballast to ensure adequate drainage. Culverts and other passages for water must be kept clear lest water is impounded by the trackbed, causing landslips. Where trackbeds are placed along rivers, additional protection is usually placed to prevent erosion during times of high water. Bridges require inspection and maintenance, since they are subject to large surges of stress in a short period of time when a heavy train crosses.
Signalling
Railway signalling is a system used to control railway traffic safely to prevent trains from colliding. Being guided by fixed rails with low friction, trains are uniquely susceptible to collision since they frequently operate at speeds that do not enable them to stop quickly or within the driver's sighting distance. Most forms of train control involve movement authority being passed from those responsible for each section of a rail network to the train crew. Not all methods require the use of signals, and some systems are specific to single track railways. The signalling process is traditionally carried out in a signal box, a small building that houses the lever frame required for the signalman to operate switches and signal equipment. These are placed at various intervals along the route of a railway, controlling specified sections of track. More recent technological developments have made such operational doctrine superfluous, with the centralization of signalling operations to regional control rooms. This has been facilitated by the increased use of computers, allowing vast sections of track to be monitored from a single location. The common method of block signalling divides the track into zones guarded by combinations of block signals, operating rules, and automatic-control devices so that only one train may be in a block at any time.
Electrification
The electrification system provides electrical energy to the trains, so they can operate without a prime mover onboard. This allows lower operating costs, but requires large capital investments along the lines. Mainline and tram systems normally have overhead wires, which hang from poles along the line. Grade-separated rapid transit sometimes use a ground third rail. Power may be fed as direct or alternating current. The most common currencies are 600 and 750 V for tram and rapid transit systems, and 1,500 and 3,000 V for mainlines. The two dominant AC systems are 15 kV AC and 25 kV AC.
Stations
A railway station serves as a area where passengers can board and alight from trains. A goods station is a yard which is exclusively used for loading and unloading cargo. Large passenger stations have at least one building providing conveniences for passengers, such as purchasing tickets and food. Smaller stations typically only consist of a platform. Early stations were sometimes built with both passenger and goods facilities.[27] Platforms are used to allow easy access to the trains, and are connected to each other via underpasses, footbridge and level crossings. Some large stations are built as cul-de-sac, with trains only operating out from one direction. Smaller stations normally serve local residential areas, and may have connection to feeder bus services. Large stations, in particular central stations, serve as the main public transport hub for the city, and have transfer available between rail services, and to rapid transit, tram or bus services.
Operations
Ownership
Traditionally, the infrastructure and rolling stock are owned and operated by the same company. This has often been by a national railway, while other companies have had private railways. Since the 1980s, there has been an increasing tendency to split up railway companies, with separate companies owning the stock from those owning the infrastructure, particularly in Europe, where this is required by the European Union. This has allowed open access by any train operator to any portion of the European railway network.
Financing
The main source of income for railway companies is from ticket revenue (for passenger transport) and shipment fees for cargo. Discounts and monthly passes are sometimes available for frequent travelers. Freight revenue may be sold per container slot or for a whole train. Sometimes, the shipper owns the cars and only rents the haulage. For passenger transport, advertisement income can be significant.
Government may choose to give subsidies to rail operation, since rail transport has fewer externalities than other dominant modes of transport. If the railway company is state-owned, the state may simply provide direct subsidies in exchange for an increased production. If operations have been privatized, several options are available. Some countries have a system where the infrastructure is owned by a government agency or company—with open access to the tracks for any company that meets safety requirements. In such cases, the state may choose to provide the tracks free of charge, or for a fee that does not cover all costs. This is seen as analogous to the government providing free access to roads. For passenger operations, a direct subsidy may be paid to a public-owned operator, or public service obligation tender may be helt, and a time-limited contract awarded to the lowest bidder.
Safety
- Main article: list of rail accidents pre-1950; 1950–1999; 2000–present.
Rail transport is one of the safest forms of land travel.[citation needed] Trains can travel at very high speed, but they are heavy, are unable to deviate from the track and require a great distance to stop. Possible accidents include derailment (jumping the track), a head-on collision with another train and collision with an automobile or other vehicle at a level crossings. The latter accounts for the majority of rail accidents and casualties. The most important safety measures are railway signalling and gates at level/grade crossings. Train whistles warn of the presence of a train, while trackside signals maintain the distances between trains.
Impact
Energy
Rail transport is an energy-efficient [28] but capital-intensive means of mechanized land transport. The tracks provide smooth and hard surfaces on which the wheels of the train can roll with a minimum of friction. As an example, a typical modern wagon can hold up to 113 tonnes of freight on two four-wheel bogies. The contact area between each wheel and the rail is a strip no more than a few millimetres wide, which minimizes friction. The track distributes the weight of the train evenly, allowing significantly greater loads per axle and wheel than in road transport, leading to less wear and tear on the permanent way. This can save energy compared with other forms of transportation, such as road transport, which depends on the friction between rubber tires and the road. Trains have a small frontal area in relation to the load they are carrying, which reduces air resistance and thus energy usage, although this does not reduce the effects of side winds.
In addition, the presence of track guiding the wheels allows for very long trains to be pulled by one or a few engines, even around curves, which allows for economies of scale in energy use; by contrast, in road transport, more than two articulations causes fishtailing and makes the vehicle unsafe.
Usage
Due to these benefits, rail transport is a major form of passenger and freight transport in many countries. In Asia, many millions use trains as regular transport in India, China, South Korea and Japan. It is widespread in European countries. Freight rail transport is widespread and heavily used in North America, but intercity passenger rail transport on that continent is relatively scarce outside the Northeast Corridor.[29]
Africa and South America have some extensive networks such as in South Africa, Northern Africa and Argentina; but some railway on these continents are isolated lines connecting two places. Australia has a generally sparse network befitting its population density, but has some areas with significant networks, especially in the southeast. In addition to the previously existing east-west transcontinental line in Australia, a line from north to south has been constructed. The highest railroad in the world is the line to Lhasa, in Tibet, partly running over permafrost territory. The western Europe region has the highest railroad density in the world, nevertheless it remains a technically and organizationally fragmented region with the Trans-Europe Express being one of the few exceptions.
Of 236 countries and dependencies globally, 143 have rail transport (including several with very little), of which about 90 have passenger services.[citation needed]
See also
- List of rail transport topics
- Rail transport by country
- List of railway companies
- Passenger rail terminology
- International Union of Railways
References
- ^ According to this source, rail is safe on a per-mile and per-hour basis, while air is safe only on a per-mile basis
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- ^ Hylton, Stuart (2007). The Grand Experiment: The Birth of the Railway Age 1820-1845. Ian Allan Publishing.
- ^ Kriechbaum, Reinhard (15 May 2004). "Die große Reise auf den Berg". der Tagespost (in German). Retrieved 22 April 2009.
- ^ "Der Reiszug - Part 1 - Presentation". Funimag. Retrieved 22 April 2009.
- ^ Georgius Agricola (1913). De re metallica.
- ^ Porter, Peter (1914). Landmarks of the Niagara Frontier. The Author.
- ^ Morlok, Edward K. (11 May 2005). "First permanent railroad in the U.S. and its connection to the University of Pennsylvania". Retrieved 19 September 2007.
- ^ Vaughan, A. (1997). Railwaymen, Politics and Money. London: John Murray.
- ^ a b Marshall, John (1979). The Guiness Book of Rail Facts & Feats. ISBN 0-900424-56-7.
- ^ "Surrey Iron Railway 200th - 26th July 2003". Early Railways. Stephenson Locomotive Society. Retrieved 19 September.
{{cite web}}: Check date values in:|accessdate=(help) - ^ Gordon, W. J. (1910). Our Home Railways, Volume One. London: Frederick Warne and Co. pp. 7–9.
- ^ http://www.museumwales.ac.uk/en/rhagor/article/trevithic_loco/
- ^ "Steam train anniversary begins". BBC. Retrieved 13 June 2009.
A south Wales town has begun months of celebrations to mark the 200th anniversary of the invention of the steam locomotive. Merthyr Tydfil was the location where, on 21 February 1804, Richard Trevithick took the world into the railway age when he set one of his high-pressure steam engines on a local iron master's tram rails
- ^ Payton, Philip (2004). Oxford Dictionary of National Biography. Oxford University Press.
- ^ Chartres, J. "Richard Trevithick". In Cannon, John (ed.). Oxford Companion to British History. p. 932.
- ^ "Early Days of Mumbles Railway". BBC. 15 February 2007. Retrieved 19 September 2007.
- ^ "Encyclopedia Brittanica". Retrieved 10 September 2007.
{{cite web}}:|chapter=ignored (help) - ^ Hamilton Ellis (1968). The Pictorial Encyclopedia of Railways. The Hamlyn Publishing Group. p. 20.
- ^ Hamilton Ellis (1968). The Pictorial Encyclopedia of Railways. The Hamlyn Publishing Group. pp. 24–30.
- ^ "Liverpool and Manchester". Retrieved 19 September 2007.
- ^ Indiana Magazine of History, Vol. XV, September, 1919, No. 3 p. 233 and following, The Journal of Ebenezer Mattoon Chamberlain 1832-5
- ^ Stephen E. Ambrose (2000). Nothing Like It In The World; The men who built the Transcontinental Railroad 1863-1869. Simon & Schuster. ISBN 0-684-84609-8.
- ^ Tokle, Bjørn (2003). Communication gjennom 100 år (in Norwegian). Meldal: Chr. Salvesen & Chr. Thams's Communications Aktieselskab. p. 54.
- ^ Associated Press (4 April 2007). "French train breaks speed record". CNN. Retrieved 3 April 2007.
- ^ Fouquet, Helene and Viscousi, Gregory (3 April 2007). "French TGV Sets Record, Reaching 357 Miles an Hour (Update2)". Bloomberg. Retrieved 19 September 2007.
{{cite news}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) - ^ "The Inception of the English Railway Station". Architectural History. 4: 63–76. 1961. doi:10.2307/1568245. Retrieved 13 August 2008.
- ^ American Association of Railroads. "Railroad Fuel Efficiency Sets New Record". Retrieved 12 April 2009.
- ^ "Public Transportation Ridership Statistics". American Public Transportation Association. 2007. Retrieved 10 September 2007.