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Hurricane Floyd

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This article is about a hurricane of 1999. For other storms of the same name, see Hurricane Floyd (disambiguation).
Hurricane Floyd
hurricane
FormedSeptember 7, 1999
DissipatedSeptember 17, 1999

Hurricane Floyd was the sixth named storm, fourth hurricane, and third major hurricane in the 1999 Atlantic hurricane season. A Cape Verde-type hurricane, it struck the Bahamas and paralleled the coastline of the Eastern United States, making landfall in North Carolina as a Category 2 hurricane on the Saffir-Simpson Hurricane Scale.

The hurricane produced torrential rainfall in North Carolina, adding more rain to an area hit by Hurricane Dennis just weeks earlier. The rains caused widespread flooding as nearly every river basin in the eastern part of the state exceeded 500-year flood levels. Floyd was responsible for 57 fatalities and $5.13 billion in damage (2005 US dollars), mostly in North Carolina.

Storm history

Map plotting the storm's track and intensity, according to the Saffir–Simpson scale
Map key
Saffir–Simpson scale
  Tropical depression (≤38 mph, ≤62 km/h)
  Tropical storm (39–73 mph, 63–118 km/h)
  Category 1 (74–95 mph, 119–153 km/h)
  Category 2 (96–110 mph, 154–177 km/h)
  Category 3 (111–129 mph, 178–208 km/h)
  Category 4 (130–156 mph, 209–251 km/h)
  Category 5 (≥157 mph, ≥252 km/h)
  Unknown
Storm type
triangle Extratropical cyclone, remnant low, tropical disturbance, or monsoon depression

A tropical wave exited the coast of Africa on September 2. It moved steadily westward, and remained disorganized while void of deep convection. A curved band of deep convection developed over the center in response to a developing anti-cyclone, and it is estimated it became Tropical Depression Eight on September 7 while 1000 miles (1600 km) east of the Lesser Antilles. A strong ridge of high pressure to its north forced the developing tropical cyclone westward over warm water temperatures, allowing it to strengthen to Tropical Storm Floyd on the 8th.[1]

A large storm, Floyd initially lacked a well-defined inner-core, resulting in slow strengthening and preventing rapid intensification. On September 10, it organized enough to reach hurricane status, and on the 11th Floyd approached major hurricane strength with winds of 110 mph (175 km/h) while north of the Leeward Islands. The mid-Atlantic upper-tropospheric trough, along with an upper level low in the eastern Caribbean Sea, produced shear over the hurricane and caused it to weaken to 85 mph (135 km/h). A turn to the west, caused by building of high pressures, was followed by a period of rapid intensification. In 24 hours, maximum sustained winds increased from 110 mph (175 km/h) to 155 mph (250 km/h), while the pressure dropped to 922 mbar (hPa) by mid-day on the 13th. One contributor to the intensification was the high oceanic heat content along the storm's path.[1]

Hurricane Floyd at its North Carolina landfall

Hurricane Floyd remained near Category 5 status for 12 hours while crossing the Bahamas, and weakened to a 120 mph (195 km/h) Category 3 hurricane due to an eyewall replacement cycle. The new, larger eyewall contracted slightly, and the hurricane re-intensified to Category 4 status. A strong mid- to upper-level trough eroded the western portion of the ridge, and Floyd turned to the northwest. It paralleled the eastern Florida coast 110 miles (175 km) offshore, and steadily weakened because of entrainment of dry air and upper level shear.[1] The storm remained extremely large, however; at its peak tropical storm-force winds spanned a diameter of 580 miles (935 km)[2].

Floyd accelerated to the north and northeast, and weakened greatly to a 105 mph Category 2 hurricane at its Cape Fear landfall on September 16. After crossing over North Carolina and southeastern Virginia, it briefly re-entered the western Atlantic Ocean before reaching Long Island on the 17th. It gradually lost its tropical characteristics, due to an approaching frontal zone, and Floyd became extratropical over southern Maine late on the 17th. The extratropical storm continued to the northeast, and after passing over the Canadian Maritimes it was merged by the cold front to the east of Newfoundland.[1]

Preparations

Traffic on Interstate 26 in South Carolina

Although the track prediction for Floyd was above average while the storm was out at sea, the forecasts as it approached the coastline were merely average. The official forecasts did not predict Floyd's northward track nor its significant weakening before landfall.[3] Nearly all of the East Coast, from Florida City, Florida to Plymouth, Massachusetts, was under a Hurricane Warning at some point; however, only a fraction of this area actually received hurricane-force winds. The last time such widespread hurricane warnings occurred was during Hurricane Donna in 1960, although in that storm the warnings were accurate. [1]

Visual comparison of Floyd with Hurricane Andrew while at similar positions and nearly identical intensities.

Initial fears were of a direct hit as a large Category 4 hurricane in Florida, potentially costlier and deadlier than Hurricane Andrew. In preparation for a potentially catastrophic landfall, more than 1 million Florida residents were told to evacuate, of which 272,000 were in Miami-Dade County. [4] As the storm turned to the north, more people were evacuated as a progressively larger area was threatened. The massive storm caused the largest peacetime evacuation ever in the U.S., with around 2.6 million evacuating coastal areas in Florida, Georgia, and the Carolinas. [5]

All but 80 of Kennedy Space Center's 12,500 workforce were evacuated, due to the prediction of Floyd hitting near Cape Canaveral with winds of over 140 mph (225 km/h). The hangers that house three space shuttles can withstand winds of only 105 mph (170 km/h). A direct hit could result in potentially billions of dollars in damage of space equipment, draining funds of an already money-strained government organization. [6] In the theoretical scenario, the damage would be caused from water, a plausible problem for an area only 9 feet above sea level. If the water entered the system, it would damage the electronics, as well as requiring a complete inspection of the system. [7] When Floyd actually passed by the area, Kennedy Space Center only reported light winds, with minor water intrusion. Damage was minor overall, and was easily repaired. [8]

A hurricane warning was issued for the North Carolina coastline 27 hours prior to landfall. However, due to the size of the storm, initial forecasts predicted nearly all of the state would be affected in one form or another. School systems and businesses as far west as Asheville shut down for the day landfall was predicted. As it turned out, only the Coastal Plain sustained significant damage; much of the state west of Raleigh escaped unscathed.

Impact

Death Toll by Area
State/country Deaths
Bahamas 1
North Carolina 35
Virginia 3
Delaware 2
Pennsylvania 6
New Jersey 6
New York 2
Connecticut 1
Vermont 1
Total 57

With a death toll of 57, Hurricane Floyd was the deadliest United States hurricane since Hurricane Agnes in 1972. The storm was also one of the costliest in the nation's history, amounting to $4.5 billion (1999 USD). Most deaths and damage were from inland freshwater flooding in eastern North Carolina.

Bahamas

Hurricane Floyd lashed the Bahamas with winds of 155 mph (250 km/h) and waves up to 50 feet (15 m) in height. [5] A 20 foot (6 m) storm surge inundated many islands with over 5 feet (1.5 m) of water throughout. [9] The wind and waves toppled power and communication lines, severely disrupting electricity and telephone services for days. Damage was greatest at Abaco Island, Cat Island, San Salvador Island, and Eleuthera Island, where Floyd uprooted trees and destroyed a significant number of houses. [10] Numerous restaurants, hotels, shops, and homes were devastated, severely limiting in the recovery period tourism on which many rely for economic well being. [11] Damaged water systems left tens of thousands across the archipelago without water, electricity, or food. Despite its damage, Bahamanian citizens felt lucky; only one person drowned in Freeport, and there were few injuries reported. [9]

To help the affected citizens, the Bahamian Red Cross Society opened 41 shelters, though within 1 week many returned home. [12] The Bahamas required $435,000 in aid following the storm, much of it in food parcels. [9] The Inter-American Development Bank loaned $21 million to the archipelago to restore bridges, roads, seawalls, docks, and other building projects in the aftermath of the hurricane. [13]

Southeastern United States

Although over a million residents of Florida were evacuated, the state was only lightly affected by Hurricane Floyd. Strong waves and tropical storm-force winds resulted in significant beach erosion on the east coast of Florida, as well as the loss of some boat piers in Brevard and Volusia Counties. Moderate rainfall occurred along the coastline, amounting to a maximum of 3.2 inches (8.1 cm) in Sanford. Floyd's winds downed hundreds of trees, damaging 357 houses. Damage in northeast Florida amounted to $46.5 million, a fraction of what was originally expected. [1]

The states of Georgia and South Carolina, although threatened by the storm, were largely spared when it turned northward. Some areas of eastern South Carolina reported up to 16 inches (40 cm) of rain.

North Carolina

Coastal property damage at Pine Knoll Shores

North Carolina received the brunt of the storm's destruction. In all, Hurricane Floyd caused 35 fatalities in North Carolina, much of it from freshwater flooding, as well as billions in damage.

Flooding in Greenville on the Tar River

Storm surge from the large hurricane amounted to 9–10 feet (2.7–3 m) along the southeastern portion of the state. The hurricane spawned numerous tornadoes, of which most caused only minor damage. Damage to power lines left over 500,000 customers without electricity at some point during the storm's passage. [1]

Just weeks prior to Floyd hitting, Hurricane Dennis brought up to 15 inches (38 cm) to southeastern North Carolina. When Hurricane Floyd moved across the state in early September, it produced torrential rainfall, amounting to a maximum of 19.06 inches (48 cm) in Wilmington. Though it moved quickly, the extreme rainfall was due to Floyd's interaction with an approaching cold front across the area. [1]

Flood progression in Rocky Mount on the 15th and 16th

Extensive flooding led to overflown rivers; nearly every river basin in eastern North Carolina reached 500-year or greater flood levels.[14] Flooding occurred very slowly as the rainfall accumulated in rivers and moved downstream; some areas did not reach peak flood levels for several weeks after the storm (see flood graphic at left). The passage of Hurricane Irene four weeks later contributed an additional 6 inches (150 mm) of rain over the still-saturated area, causing further flooding.

The Tar River suffered the worst flooding, exceeding 500-year flood levels along its lower stretches; it crested 24 feet (7.3 m) above flooding stage. Flooding began in Rocky Mount, increased downstream in Greenville, and peaked near Washington. Hardest hit was Pitt County, where preliminary damages were estimated at $1.6 billion (1999 USD).[5]

Flooded areas from Floyd along the Tar and Neuse rivers
Flooded areas along the Tar and Neuse Rivers
Flooded areas along the Tar and Neuse Rivers
 — as of September 17
 — as of September 23
 — as of September 30

The Neuse River, Roanoke River, Woccamah River, and New River exceeded 500-year flood levels, although damage was lower in these areas (compared to the Tar River) because of lower population densities. Because most of the Cape Fear River basin was west of the peak rainfall areas the city of Wilmington was spared the worst flooding, despite having the highest localized rainfall; however the Northeast Cape Fear River (a tributary) did exceed 500-year flood levels. Of the state's rivers, only the Lumber River escaped catastrophic flooding.[15]

Rainfall and strong winds affected many homes across the state, destroying 7,000, leaving 17,000 uninhabitable, and damaging 56,000 houses. 10,000 people resided in temporary shelters following the storm. The extensive flooding resulted in significant crop damage. As quoted by North Carolina Secretary of Health and Human Services H. David Bruton, "Nothing since the Civil War has been as destructive to families here. The recovery process will be much longer than the water-going-down process." [5] Around 31,000 jobs were lost from over 60,000 businesses through the storm, causing nearly $4 billion in lost revenue. In much of the affected area, people were still forced to either boil water or buy bottled water as late as 2001.

In contrast to the problems experienced by eastern North Carolina, much of the western portion of the state remained under a severe drought. [5]

Virginia

Flooding in Franklin, Virginia

Like in North Carolina, Floyd produced torrential rainfall in Virginia, amounting to a peak of 16.57 inches (42 cm) in Newport News. [1] The rainfall led to overflown rivers in the Chowan River Basin, some of which exceeded 500-year flood levels[15]. The Blackwater River reached 100-year flood levels and flooded Franklin with 12 feet (3.6 m) of water. Extensive road damage occurred there, isolating the area from the rest of the state. 182 businesses and 150 houses were underwater in Franklin from the worst flooding in 60 years. In addition, 2 dams along the Rappahannock River burst from the extreme flooding. Throughout all of Virginia, Floyd damaged 9,250 houses, killed 3 people, and caused $101 million in damage. [16]

Mid-Atlantic

By the time Floyd hit the shore, it was significantly weaker than it was at sea, which was caused by the collapsing of its concentric eyes. This had little effect on the inland damage caused by the storm, however, and Floyd caused torrential rains and high winds throughout the Mid-Atlantic as far north as New York City and Long Island. The population affected by Floyd was also a compounding problem, as more than 60 million people were affected.

Rainfall from Floyd

Chestertown, Maryland reported a maximum rainfall total of 14 inches (35 cm), with other locales reporting similar values. [1] Extreme river flooding caused moderate damage to bridges and roads, resulting in a damage toll of $7.9 million. [17] In addition, over 250,000 residents were without electricity, due to high winds blowing down power lines. [5]

Rainfall amounts peaked at 13.34 inches (34 cm) in Somerville, New Jersey and 12.36 inches (31 cm) in Vernon, Delaware. Bound Brook, New Jersey, was especially hard hit by a record flooding event (41-feet flood crest, 11 feet above flood stage, 12 feet of water on Main Street, 3 people drowned [1]) in the Raritan River basin, as a result of Floyd's heavy rains. Still a large hurricane, Floyd produced a strong storm surge, peaking at 2.8 feet (0.8 m) with a storm tide of 9.34 feet (2.8 m) in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. 1,260,000 citizens across the three states lost power from the storm. Many in Pennsylvania were left homeless from the flooding. [5]

New England and Canada

Floyd caused large power outages and flood damage across New England, with over 5 inches (130 mm) of rain being dropped over most of the area.[5] Because the storm lost tropical characteristics as it entered coastal Canada, effects there were minor, amounting to gusty winds and high seas of up to 30 feet (9 m) in height. [18]

Aftermath

FEMA criticism

The Hurricane Floyd disaster was followed by what was judged by many to be a very slow federal response. Fully three weeks after the storm hit Jesse Jackson complained to FEMA Director James Lee Witt on his CNN program Both Sides Now, "It seemed there was preparation for Hurricane Floyd, but then came Flood Floyd. Bridges are overwhelmed, levees are overwhelmed, whole towns under water...[it's] an awesome scene of tragedy. So there's a great misery index in North Carolina." Witt responded, "We're starting to move the camper trailers in, It's been so wet it's been difficult to get things in there, but now it's going to be moving very quickly. And I think you're going to see a — I think the people there will see a big difference over within this next weekend!"[19]

Ecological effects

Runoff in the aftermath of the hurricane

Runoff from the hurricane created significant problems for the ecology of North Carolina's rivers and sounds.

In the immediate aftermath of the storm, freshwater runoff, sediment, and decomposing organic matter caused salinity and oxygen levels in Pamlico Sound and its tributary rivers to drop to nearly zero. This raised fears of massive fish and shrimp kills, as had happened after Hurricane Fran and Hurricane Bonnie, and the state government responded quickly to provide financial aid to fishing and shrimping industries. Strangely, however, the year's shrimp and crab harvest were extremely prosperous; one possible explanation is that runoff from Hurricane Dennis caused marine animals to begin migrating to saltier waters, so they were less vulnerable to Floyd's ill effects.[20]

Pollution from runoff was also a significant fear. Numerous pesticides were found in low but measurable quantities in the river waters, particularly in the Neuse River. Overall, however, the concentration of contaminants was slightly lower than had been measured in Hurricane Fran, likely because Floyd simply dropped more water to dilute them.[21]

Parental stress and child abuse

A 2004 study by the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, published in the American Journal of Preventive Medicine, found some evidence that small children living in the hardest-hit part of North Carolina suffered increased rates of child abuse during the six months following the storm. This is likely due to parental stress in rebuilding and grieving their losses in the aftermath of a catastrophe. Dr. Heather T. Keenan, co-author of the study, said, "This information may be useful in future disaster planning. To the extent possible, vulnerable families should receive additional support — both immediately after a disaster and during the recovery period." [22]

Retirement

See also: List of retired Atlantic hurricanes

Because of the hurricane's destruction in North Carolina and elsewhere in the United States, the World Meteorological Organization retired the name Floyd in the spring of 2000; it will never again be used for an Atlantic hurricane. The name was replaced with Franklin in the 2005 season.

Trivia

Satellite image of Hurricane Floyd, commonly erroneously attributed to other storms

According to snopes.com, Hurricane Floyd has contributed to Internet folklore. The satellite image on the right often erroneously circulates through the Internet with a wide variety of descriptions, usually the most recent devastating hurricane. It has at various times been identified as Hurricane Katrina (which was only a tropical storm at that location in the Atlantic), Hurricane Frances, Hurricane Jeanne, and even the tsunami following the 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake. It is, in fact, Hurricane Floyd in September, 1999. Perhaps the fact that it is such a striking image is the reason it is such a temptation to credit it with being other disasters.[23]

See also

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References

  1. ^ a b c d e f g h i j National Hurricane Center (2006-02-13). "Preliminary Report: Hurricane Floyd". NOAA. {{cite web}}: Unknown parameter |publishyear= ignored (help)
  2. ^ David Herring (2006-02-13). "Hurricane Floyd's Lasting Legacy". NASA. {{cite web}}: Unknown parameter |publishyear= ignored (help)
  3. ^ National Weather Service (2006-02-13). "Service Assessment: Hurricane Floyd Floods of September 1999" (PDF). NOAA. {{cite web}}: Unknown parameter |publishyear= ignored (help)
  4. ^ Template:News reference
  5. ^ a b c d e f g h National Climatic Data Center (2006-02-13). "Climate-Watch, September 1999". NOAA. {{cite web}}: Unknown parameter |publishyear= ignored (help)
  6. ^ Kenneth Silber (2006-02-14). "Bracing for Impact". space.com. {{cite web}}: Unknown parameter |publishyear= ignored (help)
  7. ^ Jonathan Lipman (2006-02-14). "Storm May Further Jeopardize NASA Budget". space.com. {{cite web}}: Unknown parameter |publishyear= ignored (help)
  8. ^ Kenneth Silber (2006-02-14). "NASA Reports 'Minor' Damage at Space Center". space.com. {{cite web}}: Unknown parameter |publishyear= ignored (help)
  9. ^ a b c Rick Graef (2006-02-14). "The Abacos' Hurricane Floyd Information Pages Relief and Rebuilding Reports and Updates". Go-Abacos.Com.
  10. ^ Margareta Wahlstrom (2006-02-24). "Bahamas: Hurricane Floyd - Preliminary appeal #23/99" (PDF). International Federation of Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies. {{cite web}}: Unknown parameter |publishyear= ignored (help)
  11. ^ Agence France-Presse (2006-02-14). "Battered Bahamas start difficult clean-up in Floyd's wake". ReliefWeb. {{cite web}}: Unknown parameter |publishyear= ignored (help)
  12. ^ UN Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs (2006-02-14). "Bahamas - Hurricane Floyd OCHA Situation Report No. 2". ReliefWeb. {{cite web}}: Unknown parameter |publishyear= ignored (help)
  13. ^ Inter-American Development Bank (2006-02-14). "IDB approves $21 million to assist Bahamas in rehabilitating works damaged by Hurricane Floyd". ReliefWeb. {{cite web}}: Unknown parameter |publishyear= ignored (help)
  14. ^ USGS: 1999 North Carolina Flooding: Summary
  15. ^ a b Jerad D. Bales, Carolyn J. Oblinger, and Asbury H. Sallenger, Jr. (2006-02-14). "Flooding". Two Months of Flooding in Eastern North Carolina... USGS. {{cite web}}: Unknown parameter |publishyear= ignored (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  16. ^ David Roth and Hugh Cobb (2006-02-14). "Virginia Hurricane History". HPC/NOAA.
  17. ^ "Hurricane Floyd Information: Maryland-Delaware-D.C. Area". USGS. 2006-02-14. {{cite web}}: Unknown parameter |publishyear= ignored (help)
  18. ^ Canadian Hurricane Centre (2006-02-14). "1999 Tropical Cyclone Season Summary". Environment Canada.
  19. ^ Template:News reference
  20. ^ David Herring (2006-02-14). "Hurricane Floyd: Fearing the Worst". NASA. {{cite web}}: Unknown parameter |publishyear= ignored (help)
  21. ^ Jerad D. Bales, Carolyn J. Oblinger, and Asbury H. Sallenger, Jr. (2006-02-14). "Water". Two Months of Flooding in Eastern North Carolina... USGS. {{cite web}}: Unknown parameter |publishyear= ignored (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  22. ^ Template:News reference
  23. ^ Barbara and David P. Mikkelson (2006-02-14). "Satellite View". snopes.com. {{cite web}}: Unknown parameter |publishyear= ignored (help)

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