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History of Germans in Poland

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Germans in Poland


Anders • Bursche
Fieldorf • Haller
Lelewel • Linde
Rückemann • Kromer
Bachmann • Augustus III
Regions with significant populations
Related ethnic groups
Ethnic Germans

The history of the Germans in Poland dates back over a millennium.[1] Germanic tribes migrated (500-1 BCE) from Scandinavia through today's Poland. The most significant of these were the Burgundians, Goths, Vandals, and Lombards. In the second and third centuries CE, these Germanic tribes migrated south of the Carpathian Mountains. German migration into the area of modern Poland began with the medieval eastward settlement. The historical regions of Lower Silesia, East Brandenburg, Pomerania and East Prussia were nearly completely German-settled by the High Middle Ages, while in the other areas there were substantial German populations, most notably in the historical regions of Pomerelia, Upper Silesia, Lesser Poland (sub-Carphatian region) and Posen or Greater Poland.

Poland was the largest kingdom in Europe. By comparison Poland was the most multi-ethnic state during the medieval period. It covered an immense plain with no natural boundaries, and the population, which was very thinly scattered, belonged to several races. Besides the Poles themselves, there were Germans in the cities of West Prussia and Ruthenians in Lithuania. The immigrants were largely German settlers. The Polish princes granted the Germans in the cities complete autonomy according to the "Teutonic right" (later, "Magdeburg right"), and in that way in Poland there emerged cities of the German medieval type. Before the thirteenth century was over, around one hundred Polish towns had Magdeburg-style municipal institutions. The governing classes in these towns were increasingly German and German-speaking. At the synod of Łęczyca in 1285, Archbishop Jakub Świnka of Gniezno warned that Poland might become a "new Saxony" if German negligence for Polish languege, customs, clergy and ordinary people went unchecked. Toward the end of the Middle Ages the population in a number of Polish cities was mostly German-speaking and even municipal documents were partly written in German (until the transition to Latin and later to Polish[2]).

History

The 13th century brought fundamental changes to the structure of Polish society and its political system. Because of the fragmentation and constant internal conflicts, the Piast dukes were unable to stabilize Poland's external borders of the early Piast rulers. Western Farther Pomerania broke its political ties with Poland in the second half of the 12th century and from 1231 became a fief of the Margraviate of Brandenburg, which in 1307 extended its Pomeranian possessions even further east, taking over the Sławno and Słupsk areas. Pomerelia or Gdańsk Pomerania had been independent of the Polish dukes from 1227. In mid 13th century, Bolesław II the Bald granted Lubusz Land to the Margraviate, which made possible the creation of the Neumark and had far reaching negative consequences for the integrity of the western border. In the south-east, Leszek the White was unable to preserve Poland's supremacy over the Halych area of Rus', a territory that had changed hands on a number of occasions.[3]

The social status was becoming increasingly based on the size of feudal land possessions. Those included the lands controlled by the Piast princes, their rivals the great lay land owners and church entities, all the way down to the knightly class; the work force ranged from hired "free" people, through serfs attached to the land, to slaves (purchased or war and other prisoners). The upper layer of the feudal lords, first the Church and then others, were able to acquire economic and legal immunity, which made them exempt to a significant degree from court jurisdiction or economical obligations (including taxation), that had previously been imposed by the ruling dukes.[3]

The civil strife and foreign invasions, such as the Mongol invasions in 1241, 1259 and 1287, weakened and depopulated the many small Polish principalities, as the country was becoming progressively more subdivided. The depopulation and the increasing demand for labor in the developing economy caused a massive immigration of West European peasants, mostly German settlers into Poland (early waves from Germany and Flanders in the 1220s).[4] The German, Polish and other new rural settlements were a form of feudal tenancy with immunity and German town laws were often utilized as its legal bases. German immigrants were also important in the rise of the cities and the establishment of the Polish burgher (city dwelling merchants) class; they brought with them West European laws (Magdeburg rights) and customs which the Poles adopted. From that time the Germans, who created early strong establishments (led by patriciates) especially in the urban centers of Silesia and other regions of western Poland, had been an increasingly influential minority in Poland.[3][5][6]

In 1228, the Acts of Cienia were passed and signed into law by Władysław III Laskonogi. The titular Duke of Poland promised to provide a "just and noble law according to the council of bishops and barons." Such legal guarantees and privileges included the lower level land owners—knights, who were evolving into the lower and middle nobility class known later as szlachta. The fragmentation period weakened the rulers and established a permanent trend in Polish history, whereby the rights and role of the nobility were expanded at the monarch's expense.[3]

Eastward settlement

In Little Poland, the percentage of German settlers was higher, viz. 33%. The infiltration of the foreign German language was manifest above all in place- and personal-names.[8] Elsewhere in Poland, larger German settlements existed only in the sub-Carpathian region of Małopolska[9][failed verification] and western Red Ruthenia, and the Chełmno region, but nowhere did the newcomers constitute a majority.[citation needed] During all time of existing of Commonwealth Polonization in western part of country referred to rather small groups of colonists, like Bambrzy in Greater Poland.[citation needed]

Example of an Ostsiedlung town. A woodcut of Wrocław from the Nuremberg Chronicle, 1493 (right).

In Red Ruthenia, where colonization started only after the incorporation of that region by Casimir the Great in the middle of the fourteenth century, about 500 villages were established between 1300 and 1500;.[10][11]

Rather, the phenomenon involved internal colonization, associated with rural-urban migration by natives, in which many of the Polish cities adopted laws based on those of the German towns of Lubeck and Magdeburg;[12][13];;.[14][15] Some economic methods were likewise imported from Germany.

Since the beginning of the 14/15th centuries, the Polish-Silesian Piast dynasty – Władysław Opolczyk, reinforced German settlers on the land, who in decades founded towns and villages under German town law, particularly under the law of the town Magdeburg (Magdeburg law);.[16][17]

Concurrent with the change in the structure of the Polish State and sovereignty was an economic and social impoverishment of the country. Harassed by civil strife and foreign invasions, like the Mongol invasion in 1241, the small principalities became enfeebled and depopulated. The incomes of the Princes began to decrease materially. This led them to take steps toward encouraging immigration from foreign countries. A great number of German peasants, who, during the interregnum following the death of Frederick II, suffered great oppression at the hands of their lords, were induced to settle in Poland under very favorable conditions. German immigration into Poland had started spontaneously earlier, about the end of the 11th century, and was the result of overpopulation in the central provinces of the Empire. Advantage of the existing tendency had already been taken by the Polish Princes in the 12th century for the development of cities and crafts. Now the movement became intensified.

Some of studies of the development of the German settlements in Poland indicate that they sprang up along the wide belt which the Mongols laid waste in 1241. It was a stretch of land comprising present Galicia and southern Silesia. Before the Mongol invasion these two provinces were thickly settled and highly developed;.[18][19] Through them ran the commercial highways from the East and the Levant to the Baltic and the west of Europe. Kraków and Wrocław (Breslau) were large and prosperous towns. Some historians, mostly those stressing the scale of German settlements, claim that after the Mongol barbarians retired the country was in ruins and the population scattered or exterminated. German historian Walter de Gruyter claims that the majority of the citizens in Polish and Bohamian towns were of German origin.[20] The theory that newly arrived settlers can be named German has been disputed;for example Norman Davies in his study on Wrocław, states that such term for people in that era is misleading, as German identity wasn't formed yet[21] Others, minimizing the effect of German colonisation, minimize the effect of the Mongol invasion, stressing that the destruction was limited mainly to Lesser Poland and mainly the third Mongol invasion. The refugees from this invasion went north and helped to colonize the sparsely inhabited areas and to clear the forests to the east of the Vistula in Mazovia.

The 1257 foundation decree issued by Bolesław V the Chaste for Kraków was unusual insofar that it explicitly separated the local Polish population that already lived in the city,[22] in order to avoid depopulation of already existing settlements that would lead to loss of taxes.[23] Often, the Ostsiedlung settlement was founded near a pre-existing fortress that was within the already existing town, as for example with Poznan (Posen) and Kraków.[24] in order to avoid depopulation of already existing settlements that would lead to loss of taxes[25] Often, the Ostsiedlung town was founded near a pre-existing fortress, as for example with Poznan (Posen) and Cracow.[24]

Silesia

Silesia, a duchy which became independent in the 12th century during the fragmentation of Poland, was ruled by the local Piast dynasty. The country at this time was sparsely populated with small hamlets and altogether not more than 150.000 people. Castles with adjacent suburbias were the centre of commerce, administration, crafts and the church. The most important of these citied suburbias, most often the seat of a duke, were Wrocław, Legnica, Opole and Racibórz. The country was fortified by the so called Preseka, a system of dense forests.

The Ostsiedlung in Silesia was initiated by Bolesław I, who spent a part of his life in Germany, and especially by his son Henry I and whose wife Hedwig in the late 12th century. They became the first Slavic sovereigns outside of the Holy Roman Empire to promote German settlements on a wide base. Both began to invite German settlers in order to develop their realm economically and to extend their rule. Already in 1175 Bolesław I founded Lubensis abbey and staffed the monastery with German monks from Pforta Abbey in Saxony. Before 1163, the abbey had been inhabited by German Benedictines. The Cistercian abbey, its domain and the German settlers were excluded from local legislation and subsequently the monks founded several German villages on their soil. During Henry I reign the systematic settlement began. In a complex system a network of towns was founded in the western and southwestern parts of Silesia. These towns, economic and judicial centers, were surrounded by standardized built villages which were often constructed on a cleared spot in the forests. The earliest German land clearing area in Silesia appeared from 1147 until 1200 in the area of Goldberg and Löwenberg, two settlements founded by German miners. Goldberg and Löwenberg were also the first Silesian cities to receive German town law in 1211 and 1217. This pattern of colonization was soon adopted in all other, already populated, parts of Silesia, were cities with German town law were often founded beside Slavic settlements.

In the early 14th century Silesia possessed ca. 150 towns and the population more than quintupled. The townspeople were Germans, which now formed the majority of the overall population, while the Slavs usually lived outside of the cities. In a process of peaceful assimilation Lower and Middle Silesia became organically Germanized on the West bank of Oder while Upper Silesia retained a Slavic majority, although also there German villages, German towns and increasing German agricultural cultivation of barren lands came into existence.

Main article: History of Silesia

There were ethnic Germans still living in the western territories gained by Poland in the aftermath of World War II. In 1950, the Treaty of Zgorzelec was signed between Poland and the GDR, recognizing the Oder-Neisse line implemented by the 1945 Potsdam Agreement as the border between the two states. Western Germany however did not recognize this agreement. Until 1953 there were 55 German basic schools and 2 higher German schools in Poland. The Germans enjoy a formally recognized status of an ethnic minority in modern Poland.[27]

Lesser Poland

Stronger pressure of the agricultural population on the Western Carpathians can be seen only since the 12th century. On the northern and southern edges of the Carpathians German colonization had reached the Dunajec before 1300; by about 1350 it had crossed the San and entered Red Ruthenia, whilst it filled wide mountain regions in upper Hungary.[28] This period is also marked by the arrival of the big settlement wave, called "colonization according to the German Law", because of its legal forms based on a western model and introduced in Poland by German settlers.[29] This wave was characterized by a much higher level of civilization and it played a certain role in the reorganization of older Polish villages, i.e. in transferring them from the Polish into Magdeburg Law, and in establishing new villager in the Dunajec valley, from Nowy Targ to Krościenko nad Dunajcem and Tylmanowa.[30] In the 14th century, it was still basing on immigrants from Germany, but in the next century it disposed only for Poles.[31] The establishes and the first chiefs of those villagers were Germans and the village names were usually German.

As late as at the end of the Middle Ages, the original forest parts, especially the northern ones, lying in the fork of the Vistula, Wisłoka, and San were hardly accessible for settlement due to the land's marshiness. Thus the region adjoining the Carpathians and extending to a line Tarnów-Rzeszów-Jarosław, the hitherto almost uninhabited "regio pedemontana", was settled by German-speaking Silesians and soon abounded in large Waldhufendorf with Frankish hides and in towns whose German names were in many cases identical with place-names in Silesia (Landskron, Grunberg-Grybów, Schonberg-Szymbark, Freistadt-Frysztak, Krossen-Krosno, Landshut-Łańcut etc.). Actually the intensive development of human settlements in the region took place during 13th — 15th centuries. The settlements were located according to the German Law within an area flanked by Wisłok and Wisłoka rivers. Mostly after the region returned to Polish sphere of influence in 1340, when Casimir III of Poland took the Czerwień towns. There were probably some isolated settlers in the area of Krosno, Sanok,[32] Łańcut, Biecz and Rzeszów earlier. This occurred in the regions round Tarnów, Rzeszów, Jarosław, Sanok and Przemyśl, and also in the former areas of German settlement round Lemberg, which now became Polish enclaves in Ruthenian surroundings. So we can learn that Przeworsk's first settlers were German-speaking migrants (as was the case at Łańcut, Tyczyn, Rzeszów, Przemyśl and, probably, Jarosław[33]). The Germans were usually attracted by kings seeking specialists in various trades, such as craftsmen and miners. They usually settled in newer market and mining settlements. The main settlement areas were in some language islands in the Pits and the Rzeszów regions. The settlers in the Pits region were known as Uplander Sachsen. Until approximately the 15th century, the ruling classes of most cities in present day Beskidian Piedmont consisted almost exclusively of Germans. The biggest development of Zamość county took place in 18th century. At that time the areas was inhabited by the foreign settlers. The Zamoyskis Fee-Tail was especially inhabited by German community.[34]

The term Walddeutsche was coined by the Polish historians Marcin Bielski, 1531,[35] Szymon Starowolski 1632, bp. Ignacy Krasicki[36] and Wincenty Pol, and is also sometimes used to refer to Germans between Wisłoka and San River part of West Carpathians Plateau and Central Beskidian Piedmont in Poland. German settlement in the Galician times (end of the XVIIIth century), forced by the invading Austrian Habsburg administration.

Until the 16th century, the German settlers of the colonization wave mentioned above were Polonized. Beside the colonization on the German Law, in the 15th and 16th centuries the colonization on the Vlach Law was being.[37] The surname of many Poles reflect German origines. Some other German names and their Polonized counterparts. Surnames such as Niemiec,[38] which means German in the Polish language, clearly show the ancestors origine.

Main article: Walddeutsche

Pomerelia

In Pomerelia, Ostsiedlung was started by the Pomerelian dukes[39] and focused on the towns, whereas much of the countryside remained Slavic (Kashubians). An exception was the German settled Vistula delta(Vistula Germans), the coastal regions, and the Vistula valley.

Mestwin II in 1271 referred to the inhabitants of the "civitas" (town) of Gdansk (Danzig)) as "burgensibus theutonicis fidelibus" (to the faithful German burghers).[40]

Further information: Pomerania during the High Middle Ages

The settlers came from Low German areas like Holstein, the Low Countries, Flandres, Lower Saxony, Westphalia and Mecklenburg, but a few also from the Middle German Thuringia region.

Teutonic Knights

In 1226 Konrad I of Masovia invited the Teutonic Knights to help him fight the pagan Baltic Prussian people, who lived in a territory adjacent to his lands; substantial border warfare was taking place and Konrad's province was suffering from Prussian invasions. On the other hand, the Old Prussians themselves were at that time being subjected to increasingly forced (including papacy-sponsored crusades), but largely ineffective Christianization efforts. The Teutonic Order soon overstepped the authority and moved beyond the area granted them by Konrad (Chełmno Land or Kulmerland). In the following decades they conquered large areas along the Baltic Sea coast and established their monastic state. As virtually all of the Western Baltic pagans became converted or exterminated (the Prussian conquests were completed by 1283), the Knights confronted Poland and Lithuani, then the last pagan state in Europe. Teutonic wars with Poland and Lithuania continued for most of the 14th and 15th centuries. The Teutonic state in Prussia, populated by German settlers beginning in the 13th century, had been claimed as a fief and protected by the popes and Holy Roman Emperors.;[3][41]

Cultural heritage

In the thirteenth century Gothic became the dominant artistic style in Poland,and the face of Polish towns was altered by the influx of settlers coming from Western Europe.[42] Whoever has seen the creations of a Veit Stoss and Peter Vischer in the Cracow churches, or who knows the dissemination of Magdeburg Law and the Sachsenspiegel in the Poland of the Middle Ages, will expect to find a very strong German influence in early Polish literature. The culture of the whole of Pomerania was a mixed Polish-German culture in a large part of that region. The 16th century brought, at least to the Elites, a definite victory of German culture in Western Pomerania.[43] Even toward the end of the seventeenth century and at the beginning of the eighteenth century, when literary production declined,[44] the theater still developed, sponsored by the new Saxon dynasty and the rich magnates.

File:Sonderbriefmarke-175 Jahre Hambacher Fest.jpg
Hambach Festival. Procession to Hambach Castle, with the future Flags of Poland and Germany upside-down (1832).

Poles, most of whom were Prussian subjects at the time[45] usually spoke German and were familiar with German values and customs [46].

Galicia, administered by Poles and enjoying many freedoms, including the right to use Polish as the official language, became a source of a new trend in Polish culture. Applied in Poland it would make Germans of the late Lelewel one of most enthusiastic of Polish patriots (in consequence of which be was exiled, not only from all Polish territory, but even from liberal, sympathetic France); of Vincent Pol, one of the most popular of living Polish poets, and who was considered sufficiently a Pole in 1846.

Polish writers and artists were particularly influenced by German culture[47] .The works of Arthur Schopenhauer, Friedrich Nietzsche, Gerhart Hauptmann, and others were translated into Polish and published in many copies. In more modern times Nietzsche's doctrines found a supporter in Stanisław Przybyszewski, who began as a narrative author writing in German, and belonged in Berlin to the circle around Strindberg and Dehmel, but later moved to Cracow and wrote thereafter only in Polish. Przybyszewski has himself denied in his memoirs that Nietzsche had any influence on his cult of the superman, but the influence is nonetheless obvious[48].

Richard Wagner's striving for a uniting of all branches of art found a Polish pioneer in the painter and writer Stanisław Wyspiański, who also wrote librettos for operas.[49]

As for cultural heritage, Silesia was more under German and Protestant influences than Moravia; and Catholicism has deeper roots in Moravia than in Bohemia and Silesia. Silesia is one of the most civilized Polish provinces where Polish, Czech and German cultural influences have competed and coexisted for many hundreds of years. Historically speaking, the national differences in this area were connected with the question of social and religious identity. The organic unity between the towns and the countryside, typical of Silesia in the Middle Ages and the Renaissance, was progressively replaced by marked social differences.[50] Silesia remained German until after the Second World War, when the Soviets awarded it to Poland. Breslau, the principal Silesian city, became Wrocław, just as Danzig became and remains Gdańsk.[51] Silesia and other formerly German parts of Poland were often frustrated[52] by the continued cultural identification of the Silesians, Mazurians, Kashubians, and other autochthons with their special heritages and culture.[53]

The thousand years of history of Polish-German relations is also remembered as the process of German cultural, economic, and often political domination, which, as mentioned above, became the leading theme of Polish national identity. Paradoxically, sympathy for Germany and German culture increased among people who did not speak German at home and did not have close cultural ties with Germany.[54] Today, force behind is the Polish-German good-neighbor treaty, which, among other things, obliges Poles and Germans to assume joint responsibility for goods representing cultural heritage.[55]

The remaining German minority in Poland (152,897 people were registered in the 2002 census) enjoys minority rights according to Polish minority law. There are German speakers throughout Poland, and most of the Germans live in the Opole Voivodship in Silesia. Bilingual signs are posted in some towns of the region. In addition, there are bilingual schools and German can be used instead of Polish in dealings with officials in several towns. The Germans are one native group in Poland which have representation in Polish Parliament guaranteed in Polish Constitution.

Kaczyce, Śląsk
(1447) c. 1620) 		Dębno, (Spisz)
(c. 1450) 		Blizne, Podkarpacie (Red Ruthenia)
(c. 1450) 		Haczów, Podkarpacie (Red Ruthenia)
(1388) c. 1624 		Binarowa, Podkarpacie
(1400) c. 1500

Examples of German "Bauerkultur" church architecture in the Subcarpathian region (Outer Western Carpathians), same like the wooden churches in Silesia and North Moravia. The true etymology of the name "Beskids" is unknown. It may by related to Middle Low German beshêt, beskēt, meaning watershed.[56]

Literature

Roman map of Germania in the early 2nd century.
German atlas from 1880 showing ethnic groups.
Germany during the Weimar period, with the Free State of Prussia (in blue) as the largest state.
Poland's old and new borders, 1945
Further information: Bilingual communes in Poland, Former eastern territories of Germany, Olędrzy, Vistula Germans, and Flight and expulsion of Germans from Poland during and after World War II
Main article: German minority in Poland
Main article: Walddeutsche

References

  1. ^ "Germanic tribes migrated from Scandinavia through today's Poland to the southeastern European steppes." [in] Eastern Europe: an introduction to the people, lands, and culture. 2005 p. 9; "(500-1 BCE), Germanic tribes migrated into Poland. The most significant of these were the Burgundians, Goths, Vandals, and Lombards. In the second and third centuries CE, these Germanic tribes migrated south of the Carpathian Mountains " [in] World and Its Peoples 2009 p. 1030
  2. ^ "Dopiero w połowie XVI wieku zaczęto pisać po polsku, Górnicki, Bielscy, Cyprian Bazylik, Budny, Wujek i Skarga, a przyczynił się do tego znany pisarz – Mikołaj Rey z Nagłowic, który w 1562 r. w utworze „Zwierzyniec” napisał: „A niechaj narodowie wżdy postronni znają, iż Polacy nie gęsi, iż swój język mają!”, [in:] Urbańczyk. Dwieście lat polskiego językoznawstwa: 1751-1950. 1993; "dopiero w roku 1600, zniosła rada miejska zagajanie sądów ławniczych po niemiecku; tak uporczywa była tradycja tu, w Poznaniu, Bieczu, i in. [in] Aleksander Brückner. Encyklopedia staropolska.
  3. ^ a b c d e Wyrozumski Historia Polski. 116-128
  4. ^ John Radzilowski, A Traveller's History of Poland; Northampton, Massachusetts: Interlink Books, 2007, ISBN 1-56656-655-X, p. 260
  5. ^ Jerzy Lukowski and Hubert Zawadzki, A Concise History of Poland, p. 14-16
  6. ^ Norman Davies, Europe: A History , p. 366
  7. ^ Aleksander Brückner. Encyklopedia staropolska, tom II. str. 12, Niemcy.
  8. ^ [in: Annales Silesiae. Tom 1, 1966 ]
  9. ^ "Zapisy o początkach osadnictwa historycznego sięgają początku XIII w. Znany jest transumpt z 1251 przywileju księcia Henryka Brodatego z 1234, który zezwala Teodorowi Gryficie, wojewodzie krakowskiemu, osiedlać kolonistów niemieckich "in silva circa fluvios Ostrowsko, Dunaiecz et Dunaiecz niger, Rogoźnik, Lipietnicza, Słona, Ratainicha, Nedelsc, Stradoma, quantum est de sylva ipsius, dantes eciam sil his pactis et his condicionibus uti, quibus Theutonici Sleser ses in sylvis locati utuntur". tj. książę zezwala, na osadzanie osadników niemieckich (teutońskich Ślązaków) w lasach położonych koło rzek Ostrowsko, Dunajec i Czarny Dunajec, Rogoźnik prawoboczny dopływ Czarnego Dunajca, Lepietnica (lewoboczny dopływ Czarnego Dunajca) oraz Słona, Ratajnica, Niedzielsko i Stradomka na Beskidzie." [in: Kodeks Dyplomatyczny Małopolski, I 21; Słownik geograficzny Królestwa Polskiego i innych krajów słowiańskich. t. IX. 684. WAiF. 1975-1977; Karl Rudolf Kötzschke. Quellensammlung zur deutschen Geschichte. t. IX. 1902. str. 94, Lud. t. 25-29, Nakładem Towarzystwa Ludoznawczego, 1926. str. 20,.
  10. ^ [in: Oskar Halecki, W: F. Reddaway, J. H. Penson . The Cambridge History of Poland p. 135]
  11. ^ "Na zachodnich krańcach Rusi Czerwonej powstają dwa silne skupiska ludności pochodzenia niemieckiego w okolicach Łańcuta i Sanoka [in: Józef Burszta. Od osady słowiańskiej do wsi współczesnej. 1958]; "Ludność niemiecka zamieszkała na terenach Rusi Czerwonej oraz południowej części Polski między Łańcutem a Przemyślem, uległa polonizacji dopiero pod koniec XVI wieku. Na Podkarpaciu żywioł niemiecki przetrwał aż do XVIII wieku." [in: Odrodzenie i reformacja w Polsce: Tom 37 , 1993 str. 42]. "Mieli własne kościoły lub kaplice, swych kapłanów i nierzadko zamieszkiwali konkretną dzielnicę miasta lub poszczególne wsie" [in:Odrodzenie i reformacja w Polsce, tom 37, 1993]. "Do pomników niemieckiej "Bauernkultur" zaliczane są m.in. drewniane kościółki na Podkarpaciu, podobnie jak kościółki na Śląsku i Morawach" [in:Jerzy Jarowiecki. Rocznik historii czasopiśmiennictwa polskiego, str. 180 - Tadeusz Staich. Pismo krakowskie "Watra]
  12. ^ "Osad takich miało powstać najwięcej na Śląsku, w Wielkopolsce i Małopolsce. Miasta miały własne, odrębne sądy z prawem magdeburskim. Naruszewicz zauważa, że książęta nadawali prawo niemieckie miasteczkom już przed r. 1257, a więc przed lokacją Krakowa. Sądzi, że ta opóźniona była ze względów politycznych; obawiano się bowiem żywiołu niemieokiego w stolicy. Utwierdzenie się niemieckości w Krakowie przypisuje dopiero Leszkowi Czarnemu." [in: Jerzy Krasuski, Gerard Labuda, Antoni Władysław Walczak. Stosunki polsko-niemieckie w historiografii. t. 1, 1972 str. 226 ]
  13. ^ "W Wielkopolsce napływ chłopów niemieckich był minimalny, w Małopolsce i na Rusi Czerwonej nieco silniejszy tylko na Podkarpaciu. Na Mazowszu koloniści niemieccy prawie wcale nie wystąpili." [in: Benedykt Zientara. Dzieje gospodarcze Polski do roku 1939, 1988]
  14. ^ obliczano, ze na Śląsk w okresie średniowiecza napłynąć miało około 150-180 tysięcy kolonistów niemieckich. Podobnej "germanizacji" ulec miały i pozostałe dzielnice: Małopolska, Wielkopolska i Pomorze. [in: Stefan Inglot, Jan Borkowski. Historia chłopów polskich, 1992 str. 24]
  15. ^ "Powstały wszakże i wsie niemieckie, przede wszystkim na żuławach gdańskich, a dalej w niektórych osadach kaszubskich, co było dziełem klasztoru w Kartuzach.", "W pierwszej połowie wieku XV Krzyżacy przeprowadzili germanizację zachodniej części powiatu człuchowskiego, czyniąc nadania na rzecz rycerzy niemieckich i sprowadzając do wsi tego terytorium chłopów z Niemiec." [Marian Friedberg . Kultura polska a niemiecka. Tom 1, 212]
  16. ^ "Terram nostram Russie per chitatum locacionem — reformare" Tak jasno określił książę Władysław Opolczyk, wielkorządca Rusi (1372-1378/1379) kierunek swojej polityki wobec miast przy okazji pewnej lokacji" [in: Kwartalnik historii kultury materialnej: Tom 43, 1995]
  17. ^ "Specyficzną formę przybrało osadnictwo wojskowe, zapoczątkowane w końcu XIV w. przez księcia Władysława Opolczyka (zarządcy Rusi z ramienia Ludwika Węgierskiego) na terenie ziem czerwonoruskich. Organizowane ono było w celach obrony tej ziemi przed najazdami tatarskimi; osadnicy tzw. "manowie" reprezentowali się głównie z drobnego rycerstwa" [in: Janina Leskiewicz, Polska Akademia Nauk. Instytut Kultury Materialnej, Instytut Historii (Polska Akademia Nauk), Zarys historii gospodarstwa wiejskiego w Polsce 1964]
  18. ^ "Ruś Czerwona. Kolonizacja wiejska na prawie niemieckim, rozpoczęta w tej ziemi za panowania Ludwika węgierskiego, popierana przez Władysława Opolczyka i polskich rycerzy, kontynuowana była jeszcze w w. XV. [in:Marian Friedberg. Kultura polska a niemiecka Tom 1, 1946]
  19. ^ "Był nim Władysław Opolczyk. Dobry i energiczny administrator doprowadził do pacyfikacji Haliczczyzny, lokując miasta, ściągając osadników z Polski, ze Śląska iz Niemiec i popierając handel. Dokończył też organizacji Kościoła łacińskiego." [in: Paweł Zaremba. Historia Polski: Od zarania państwa do r. 1506, 1961]
  20. ^ Brather, Sebastian (2001). Archäologie der westlichen Slawen. Siedlung, Wirtschaft und Gesellschaft im früh- und hochmittelalterlichen Ostmitteleuropa. Ergänzungsbände zum Reallexikon der germanischen Altertumskunde (in German). Vol. 30. Walter de Gruyter. p. 87. ISBN 3110170612. Quote: "Das städtische Bürgertum war - auch in Polen und Böhmen, zunächst überwiegend deutscher Herkunft."
  21. ^ Norman Davies, Roger Moorhouse (2002). Znak. ed. Mikrokosmos. Kraków. pp. :110. ISBN 83-240-0172-7.
  22. ^ Kancelaria miasta Krakowa w średniowieczu Uniwersytet Jagielloński, 1995, page 15
  23. ^ The Historiography of the So-called "East Colonisation" and the Current State of Research, w: B. Nagy, M. Sebők (red.), The Man of Many Devices, Who Wandered Full Many Ways... Festschrift in Honour of Janos Bak, Budapest 1999, s. 654-667
  24. ^ a b Brather, Sebastian (2001). Archäologie der westlichen Slawen. Siedlung, Wirtschaft und Gesellschaft im früh- und hochmittelalterlichen Ostmitteleuropa. Ergänzungsbände zum Reallexikon der germanischen Altertumskunde (in German). Vol. 30. Walter de Gruyter. pp. 156, 158. ISBN 3110170612.
  25. ^ Jan Maria Piskorski: The Historiography of the So-called "East Colonisation" and the Current State of Research, in: B. Nagy, M. Sebők (red.), The Man of Many Devices, Who Wandered Full Many Ways... Festschrift in Honour of Janos Bak, Budapest 1999, s. 654-667
  26. ^ Franciszek Kotula. Pochodzenie domów przysłupowych w Rzeszowskiem. "Kwartalnik Historii Kultury Materialnej" Jahr. V., Nr. 3/4, 1957, S. 557
  27. ^ Many Polish citizens belonging to ethnic minorities were made citizens of occupied or allied countries or given a privileged status (Germans, Belorussians, Lithuanians, Ukrainians, Lemka, Slovaks and Czechs) [in:] Z badań nad problematyką narodowościową państw Europy Środkowej i Wschodniej. Iniwersytet Wrocławski. 1998, p. 138
  28. ^ [in: The agrarian life of the Middle Ages, 1966]
  29. ^ [in: Geographia Polonica. PAN Tom 36, p. 279, 1977]
  30. ^ [in: Ethnologia Polona, 1991 PAN, Tom 15, p. 47]
  31. ^ "Po dziś dzień ludność między Rabą a lewym brzegiem Sanu nosi nazwę Mazurów, a w aktach nadawczych od XIII wieku począwszy, często napotykamy "Mazowszan", "Mazowitów", "Mazurów" jako osadników." [in: Wewnętrzne dzieje Polski. 1908 Kazimierz Rakowski.]; "Lud między Rabą a Sanem zowie się Mazurami, jako potomkowie osadników z Mazowsza" [in: Lud polski: 1926 s. 17]
  32. ^ "Z przybyszów obcych najliczniejsi nosili nazwiska niemieckie, przeważnie zresztą nie byli to rdzenni Niemcy, ale mniej czy więcej zniemczeni Ślązacy. [...] Inaczej jednak było w Sanoku. Według obliczeń polskiego uczonego, który siłę niemczyzny na Rusi Czerwonej na ogół niewątpliwie przeceniał, Niemców w Sanoku było około 30%, według historyka niemieckiego — 50%. Oczywiście obliczenia te odnoszą się do mieszczan. [...] Ziemia sanocka (jak to wykazali uczeni polscy) przedstawiała mozaikę narodowościową, gdzie obok Polaków i Rusinów spotykało się Niemców, Węgrów i Czechów; wszystkie te narodowości miały reprezentantów w różnych stanach. [in: Marian Friedberg. Kultura polska a niemiecka: elementy rodzime a wpływy niemieckie w ustroju i kulturze Polski średniowiecznej, t. I. str. 313, wyd. Instytut Zachodni, 1946]; [in: Przemysław Dąbkowski Stosunki narodowościowe ziemi sanockiej w XV stuleciu, Lwów]; [in: Janusz Rieger, Imiennictwo ludności wiejskiej w ziemi sanockiej i przemyskiej w XV w., Wrocław 1977, s. 29—33.]; "W ziemi sanockiej b. niemieckie, według tychże danych, byty nie tylko Krosno, ale też Brzozów, gdy w Sanoku istniała równowaga obu narodowości. " [in: Roczniki historyczne: Kazimierz Tymieniecki, Zygmunt Wojciechowski, Poznańskie Towarzystwo Przyjaciół Nauk, t. 12-13, 1936]
  33. ^ [in: Studia historyczne: Tom 42 , 1999]
  34. ^ Ryszard Orłowski. "Koloniści rolnicy niemieccy w Ordynacji Zamojskiej w końcu XVIII wieku", Annales UMCS, 1957
  35. ^ Marcin Bielski or Martin Bielski; "Kronika wszystkiego swiata" (1551; "Chronicle of the Whole World"), the first general history in Polish of both Poland and the rest of the world.
  36. ^ Ignacy Krasicki [in:] Kasper Niesiecki Herbarz [...] (1839-1846) tom. IX, page. 11.
  37. ^ [in: Ethnologia Polona: Tomy 15-16, 1991]
  38. ^ * Statystyka: Liczby do nazwiska 'Niemiec'
  39. ^ Hartmut Boockmann, Ostpreussen und Westpreussen, Siedler 2002, p. 161,ISBN 3-88680-212-4
  40. ^ Howard B. Clarke, Anngret Simms, The Comparative History of Urban Origins in Non-Roman Europe: Ireland, Wales, Denmark, Germany, Poland, and Russia from the Ninth to the Thirteenth Century B.A.R., p.690, 1985
  41. ^ John Radzilowski, A Traveller's History of Poland, p. 39-41
  42. ^ Eastern Europe: an introduction to the people, lands, and culture: Tom 1 p. 46, 2005
  43. ^ Acta Poloniae historica, PAN, edit. 81-82, 2000 ]
  44. ^ Eastern Europe: an introduction to the people, lands, and culture, Tom 1 by Richard C. Frucht, 2005 p. 46
  45. ^ Paths of integration: migrants in Western Europe (1880-2004) p. 139, 2006 by Leo Lucassen, David Feldman, Jochen Oltmer
  46. ^ Paths of integration: migrants in Western Europe (1880-2004) p. 139, 2006 by Leo Lucassen, David Feldman, Jochen Oltmer
  47. ^ Eastern Europe: an introduction to the people, lands, and culture, Tom 1 by C. Frucht, 2005
  48. ^ Germany and Poland in their historical relations by Albert Brackmann, Stephen Miles Bouton, p. 139
  49. ^ Albert Brackmann. Germany and Poland in their historical relations.
  50. ^ Anna Czekanowska. Polish Folk Music: Slavonic Heritage - Polish Tradition 2006. p. 73
  51. ^ Concise Encyclopaedia of World History, 2007
  52. ^ "Przełom polityczny w Polsce w 1989 r. i zjednoczenie Niemiec otworzyły okres wzmożonych deklaracji konwersji narodowych na Śląsku oraz na Warmii i Mazurach. [...] Wielu ludzi, wcześniej jednoznacznie przyznających się do polskości i walczących o nią, doznawało głębokiego rozczarowania, wielu na skutek doznanych represji zostało wręcz od polskości odepchniętych. Presja polonizacyjna, niosąc faktycznie wzorce obce kulturze Ślązaków czy Mazurów i atakując ważne elementy ich systemu identyfikacji kulturowej, wywoływała w nich często poczucie obcości wobec kultury polskiej" [w:] Wojciech Wrzesiński: Uniwersytet Wrocławski. Instytut Historyczny. Wrocławskie studia z historii najnowszej. t. 7, 1997. p. 98.
  53. ^ Norman Naimark. Fires of hatred: ethnic cleansing in twentieth-century Europe, 2001
  54. ^ Ther, Sijak. Redrawing nations: ethnic cleansing in East-Central Europe, 1944-1948, 2001
  55. ^ Daily report: East Europe: United States. Foreign Broadcast Information Service, edit. 94, 1994
  56. ^ Zbigniew Gołąb. The Origins of the Slavs: A Linguist's View. Slavica Publishers, Inc., 1992 p. 342. "The Germanic etymology of Bieszczad // Beskid was proposed by prof. Jan Michał Rozwadowski (1914:162, etc). He derives the variant beščad from Germc. biskaid, wchich is represented by MLG besche (beskêt) Trennung and by Scandinavian bêsked, borrowed from [...]"
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