Protestantism

Protestantism is one of three primary branches of Christianity. The term "Protestant" represents a diverse range of theological and social perspectives, denominations, individuals, and related organizations. While no particular belief or practice can be said to define this branch of Christianity, those denominations considered to be well within the realm of Protestantism all have firm roots in the Protestant Reformation in Europe during the sixteenth century.

Definition and origins

Initially, the term protestant meant, "to be a witness" rather than, "to be against " as the current popular interpretation of the word seems to imply. The Latin prefix pro is interpreted as "for". The Latin adjective protestans refers to a person who gives public testimony, or who proves or demonstrates. In the early years of the Reformation, the term Protestant applied to a group of princes and imperial cities who "protested" the decision by the 1529 Diet of Speyer to reverse course, and enforce the 1521 Edict of Worms. The 1521 edict forbade Lutheran teachings within the Holy Roman Empire. The 1526 session of the Diet had agreed to toleration of Lutheran teachings (on the basis of Cuius regio, eius religio) until a General Council could be held to settle the question. However, by 1529, the Roman Catholic authorities felt they had gathered enough power to end toleration without waiting for an official pronouncement from any council.

In a broader sense of the word, Protestant came to be used as the collective name for those individuals and churches who advocated a formal separation from the Roman Catholic Church. The roots of this movement are typically accredited to Martin Luther and his 95 Theses. However, following Luther's posting of the 95 Theses at Wittenburg, significant contributions to the Protestant cause were made by reformers like John Calvin, Zwingli, Thomas Cranmer, and John Knox.

In England and other regions of the United Kingdom, the word "Protestant" is typically used to refer to the established Church of England. Protestants who are not members of the Church of England are commonly called non-conformists. In German-speaking and Scandinavian countries, the word "Protestant" still refers specifically to national Lutheran churches (in contrast to Reformed churches), while the common designation for all churches originating from the Reformation is "Evangelical" - a word that is used to refer to specifically conservative Protestants in the United States. Some Western, non-Catholic, groups are labeled as Protestant (such as the Religious Society of Friends), despite the reality that they recognize no historical connection to Luther, Calvin, or the Roman Catholic Church.

As an intellectual movement, Protestantism grew out of the Renaissance and West European universities, attracting some learned intellectuals, as well as politicians, professionals, skilled tradesmen, and artisans. The new technology of the printing press allowed Protestant ideas to spread rapidly, as well as aiding in the dissemination of translations of the Christian Bible in native tongues. Nascent Protestant social ideals of liberty of conscience and individual freedom, were formed through continuous confrontation with the authority of the Bishop of Rome, and the hierarchy of the Catholic priesthood. The Protestant movement away from the constraints of tradition, toward greater emphasis on individual conscience, anticipated later developments of democratization, and the so-called "Enlightenment" of later centuries.

Basic theological tenets of the Reformation

During the Reformation, several Latin slogans emerged, illustrating the Reformers' concern that the authorities of the Church had distorted the message of justification before God, and salvation in Jesus Christ. The Reformers believed it was necessary to return to the simplicity of the Gospel in terms of the issues designated by these slogans.

The Solas

There were five Solas, four discussed here. The fifth, Soli deo gloria (to God alone the glory), was intended to underlie the other four. These slogans essentially became rallying cries to challenge the problems the Reformers believed they had identified, which are:

Solus Christus: Christ alone.

The Protestants characterized the dogma concerning the Pope as Christ's representative head of the Church on earth, the concept of meritorious works, and the Catholic idea of a treasury of the merits of saints, as a denial that Christ is the only mediator between God and man.

Sola scriptura: Scripture alone.

Protestants believed that the Roman Catholic church obscured the teaching of the Bible, and undermined its authority, by following Tradition, regardless of whether it over-ruled or added to the doctrines of Scripture.

Sola fide: Faith alone.

The Protestants characterized the Roman Catholic concept of meritorious works, of penance and indulgences, masses for the dead, the treasury of the merits of saints and martyrs, a ministering priesthood who hears confessions, and purgatory, as reliance upon other means for justification, in addition to faith in Jesus and his work on the cross.

Sola gratia: Grace alone.

The Roman Catholic view of the means of salvation was believed by the Protestants to be a mixture of reliance upon the grace of God, and confidence in the merits of one's own works, performed in love. The Reformers posited that salvation is entirely comprehended in God's gifts, (i.e. God's act of free grace) dispensed by the Holy Spirit according to the redemptive work of Jesus Christ alone. Consequently, they argued that a sinner is not accepted by God on account of the change wrought in the believer by God's grace, and that the believer is accepted without any regard for the merit of his works - for no one deserves salvation.

On the theological front, the Protestant movement began to coalesce into several distinct branches in the mid-to-late sixteenth century. One of the central points of divergence was controversy over the Lord's Supper.

The Real Presence in the Lord's Supper

Although most early Protestants generally rejected the Roman Catholic dogma of transubstantiation, which teaches that the bread and wine used in the sacrificial rite of the Mass is transformed into the Body, Blood, Soul, and Divinity of Christ (see Eucharist), with the subsequent logic that the elements (being Christ) become worthy of worship, they disagreed with one another concerning the manner in which Christ is present in Holy Communion.

Lutherans hold to an understanding closest to that of Real Presence (often characterized by critics by the term, "consubstantiation"), which affirms the true presence of Christ "in, with, and under" the bread and wine. Lutherans point to Jesus' statement, "This IS my body", while refusing to delve past Christ's words in order to describe just how this takes place. Lutheran teaching does, however, insist that Christ is present physically, rather than in a purely "spiritual" sense.
Reformed teaching concerning the Lord's Supper ranges along the continuum from Calvin to Zwingli. The Reformed closest to Calvin emphasize the real presence, or sacramental presence, of Christ, saying that the sacrament is a means of saving grace through which the believer actually partakes of Christ, "but not in a carnal manner". Zwinglians deny that Christ makes himself present to the believer through the elements of the sacrament, but affirm that Christ is united to the believer through the faith toward which the supper is an aid (a view referred to somewhat derisively as memorialism).
A Protestant holding a popular simplification of the Zwinglian view, without concern for theological intricacies as hinted at above, may see the Lord's Supper merely as a symbol of the shared faith of the participants, a commemoration of the facts of the crucifixion, and a reminder of their standing together as the Body of Christ.
Anglicans (members of the Church of England, the Episcopal Church in the USA, and other Protestant churches that recognize the Archbishop of Canterbury as their spirtitual leader) recognize Christ's presence in the Eucharist in a variety of individual ways ranging from acceptance of the Catholic doctrine of transsubstantiation to the Zwinglian understanding of a symbolic memorial. The 29th of the 39 Articles teaches that Christ is present after a spiritual manner although the majority of mainline Anglicans would fall somewhere in the middle of the afore-mentioned positions.

In Protestant theology, as the bread shares identity with Christ (which he calls, "my body"), in an analogous way, the Church shares identity with Him (and also is called "the Body of Christ"). Thus, controversies over the Lord's Supper only initially seem to be about the nature of bread and wine, but are ultimately about the nature of salvation, and therefore secondarily about the nature of the Church. And, indirectly, about the nature of Christ.

Authority

See the articles Lay, Ordained and Priesthood of all believers

Authority in the Church

Many Protestant churches practice similar rituals to Catholicism—chiefly baptism, communion, and matrimony—frequently varying or de-formalizing the rites (although this is not the case in some Lutheran and Anglican parishes).

Understanding of secular authority

Lutheran - doctrine of the two kingdoms
Reformed
Anglican
Radical - Anabaptist and peace churches

The Kingdom of God

Later development

Protestants can be differentiated according to how they have been influenced by important movements since the magisterial Reformation and the Puritan Reformation in England. Some of these movements have a common lineage, sometimes directly spawning later movements in the same groups.

Pietism 17th Century - Methodist movement 18th century

The German Pietist movement, together with the influence of the Puritan Reformation in England in the 17th century, were important influences upon John Wesley and Methodism, as well as through smaller, new groups such as the Religious Society of Friends ("Quakers") and the Moravian Brotherhood from Germany.

The practice of a spiritual life, typically combined with social engagement, predominates in classical Pietism, which was a protest against the doctrine-centeredness Protestant Orthodoxy of the times, in favor of depth of religious experience. Many of the more conservative Methodists went on to form the Holiness movement, which emphasized a rigorous experience of holiness in practical, daily life.

Evangelicalism 18th Century

Beginning at the end of 18th century, several international revivals of Pietism (such as the Great Awakening and the Second Great Awakening), took place across denominational lines, which are referred to generally as the Evangelical movement. The chief emphases of this movement were individual conversion, personal piety and Bible study, public morality often including Temperance and Abolitionism, de-emphasis of formalism in worship and in doctrine, a broadened role for laity (including women) in worship, evangelism and teaching, and cooperation in evangelism across denominational lines.

Pentecostalism 20th Century

Pentecostalism, as a movement, began in the United States early in the 20th century, starting especially within the Holiness movement. Seeking a return to the operation of New Testament gifts of the Holy Spirit, speaking in tongues as evidence of the "baptism of the Holy Ghost" became the leading feature. Divine healing and miracles were also emphasized. Pentecostalism swept through much of the Holiness movement, and eventually spawned hundreds of new denominations in the United States. A later "charismatic" movement also stressed the gifts of the Spirit, but often operated within existing denominations, rather than by coming out of them.

Modernism 20th Century

Modernism, or Liberalism, does not constitute a rigorous and well-defined school of theology, but is rather an inclination by some writers and teachers to integrate Christian thought into the spirit of the Age of Enlightenment. New understandings of history and the natural sciences of the day led directly to new approaches to theology.

Fundamentalism 20th Century

In reaction to liberal Bible critique, Fundamentalism arose in the 20th century, primarily in the United States and Canada, among those denominations most affected by Evangelicalism. Fundamentalism placed primary emphasis on the authority and sufficiency of the Bible, and typically advised separation from error, and cultural conservatism, as important aspects of the Christian life.

Neo-orthodoxy 20th century

A non-fundamentalist rejection of liberal Christianity, associated primarily with Karl Barth, neo-orthodoxy sought to counter-act the tendency of liberal theology to make theological accommodations to modern scientific perspectives. Sometimes called Crisis theology, according to the influence of philosophical existentialism on some important segments of the movement; also, somewhat confusingly, sometimes called neo-evangelicalism.

Neo-evangelicalism mid 20th Century

Neo-evangelicalism is a movement from the middle of the 20th century, that reacted to perceived excesses of Fundamentalism, adding to concern for biblical authority, an emphasis on liberal arts, cooperation among churches, Christian Apologetics, and non-denominational evangelization.

Ecumenism 20th Century

The ecumenical movement has had an influence on mainline churches, beginning at least in 1910 with the Edinburgh Missionary Conference. Its origins lay in the recognition of the need for cooperation on the mission field in Africa, Asia and Oceania. Since 1948, the World Council of Churches has been influential. There are also ecumenical bodies at regional, national and local levels across the globe. One, but not the only expression of the ecumenical movement, has been the move to form united churches, such as the Church of South India, the Church of North India, The United Church of Canada and the Uniting Church in Australia. There has been a strong engagement of Orthodox churches in the ecumenical movement.

Protestant denominations

Protestants often refer to specific Protestant churches and groups as denominations to imply that they are differently named parts of the whole church. This "invisible unity" is assumed to be imperfectly displayed, visibly: some denominations are less accepting of others, and the basic orthodoxy of some is questioned by most of the others. Individual denominations also have formed over very subtle theological differences. Other denominations are simply regional or ethnic expressions of the same beliefs. The actual number of distinct denominations is hard to calculate, but has been estimated to be over thirty thousand. Various ecumenical movements have attempted cooperation or reorganization of Protestant churches, according to various models of union, but divisions continue to outpace unions. Most denominations share common beliefs in the major aspects of the Christian faith, while differing in many secondary doctrines.

According to the World Christian Encyclopedia (2001) by David B. Barrett, et al, there are "over 33,000 denominations in 238 countries". Every year there is a net increase of around 270 to 300 denominations.

Protestant families of denominations

Please note that only general families are listed here (tens of thousands of individual denominations exist); some of these groups do not consider themselves as part of the Protestant movement, but are generally viewed as such by scholars and the public at large:

Anabaptist
Anglican / Episcopal
Baptist
Calvinist / Reformed/Congregational and Presbyterian
Lutheran
Methodist / Wesleyan and the Holiness movement
Pentecostal and Charismatic
Quakerism
Restoration movement
Non-denominational

Number of Protestants

There are about 590 million Protestants worldwide. These include 170 million in North America, 160 million in Africa, 120 million in Europe, 70 million in Latin America, 60 million in Asia, and 10 million in Oceania. Nearly 27% of all Christians today are Protestants.

Well-known Protestant religious figures

In alphabetical order by century

15th century

Jan Hus, Czech reformist/dissident; burned to death by the Roman Catholic Church authorities unrepentant and persistent heresy.

16th century

Jacobus Arminius, Dutch theologian, founder of school of thought known as Arminianism
Heinrich Bullinger, successor of Zwingli, leading reformed theologian
John Calvin, French speaking Reformer from Geneva, theologian, founder of school of thought known as Calvinism
Thomas Cranmer, Archbishop of Canterbury under Henry VIII, leader of the English Reformation
John Knox, Scottish Calvinist reformer,
Martin Luther, German religious reformer, theologian, founder of the Lutheran church in Germany, founder of Lutheranism
Philipp Melanchthon, early Lutheran leader
Menno Simons, founder of Mennonitism
Huldrych Zwingli, founder of Swiss reformed tradition

17th-19th centuries

Jacob Amman, founder of the Amish church
Francis Asbury, early bishop of American Methodism
Jonathan Edwards, American Puritan theologian, Great Awakening reformist preacher, Calvinist
George Fox, Founder of the Religious Society of Friends
William Laud, Archbishop of Canterbury under Charles I of England
Friedrich Schleiermacher, German theologian considered founder of Liberal Christianity
Joseph Smith, Jr., claimed to have been called by God to be a Prophet, the translator of The Book of Mormon and organizer of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-Day Saints (Mormonism). Note: Mormonism is not a sect of Protestantism. See this site
Philipp Jakob Spener, "godfather" of the Pietist movement
Charles Wesley, Anglican priest, Methodist leader, poet, & hymn writer
John Wesley, Anglican priest, founder of the Methodist movement
George Whitefield, Great Awakening reformist preacher

20th century

Karl Barth, German theologian along with Emil Brunner known for Dialectical theology and Neo-orthodox theology
Dietrich Bonhoeffer, German theologian, involved in the resistance against Nazism and executed shortly before the end of World War 2
Jerry Falwell, American evangelist and political activist
Austin Farrer, Anglican theologian, preacher, and philosopher
Billy Graham, American evangelist
Nicky Gumbel, Anglican British evangelist
Martin Luther King, Jr., peace and civil rights activist
C. S. Lewis, Anglican novelist, literary scholar, and lay theologian
Reinhold Niebuhr, American theologion and ethicist
Pat Robertson, American charismatic/evangelical leader
Paul Tillich, Lutheran existentialist theologian
Desmond Tutu, Anglican Archbishop of Cape Town, South Africa, peace activist
John Howard Yoder, Mennonite theologian and ethicist
James Dobson, American Psychologist and conservative activist, founder of Focus on the Family Ministry
Troy Perry, Founder of Metropolitan Community Church, liberation theology to a primarily Gay, Lesbian, Bisexual, Transgender Community worldwide

21st century

John B. Cobb, theologian, involved in Process Theology
Franklin Graham, American evangelist (son of Billy Graham)
Stanley Hauerwas, American Christian theologian and ethicist
John Shelby Spong, Former (Episcopal) Bishop of Newark, New Jersey
Marcus Borg, American Episcopal theologian (Lutheran background)

External links

Defense of Protestant Christianity:

Criticisms of Protestant Christianity:

Catholic websites on Sola Scriptura
Anti-protestant analysis from the 1917 Catholic Encyclopedia
Why Only Catholicism Can Make Protestantism Work by Mark Brumley
SCRIPTURE ALONE ("SOLA SCRIPTURA") by by John Salza
Scripture Alone?: Twenty One Reasons to Reject Sola Scriptura by Joel Peters]

Miscellaneous:

The Future of American Protestantism from Catalyst (United Methodist perspective)
Protestantism - Christianity in View