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Bushmen
Bushmen Village, Namibia, 2005
Regions with significant populations
Botswana (55,000), Namibia (27,000), South Africa (10,000), Angola (<5,000)
Languages
various Khoisan languages
Religion
Khoisan religion
Related ethnic groups
Khoikhoi, Xhosa, Basters, Griqua

The indigenous people of Southern Africa, whose territory spans most areas of South Africa, Zimbabwe, Lesotho, Mozambique, Swaziland, Botswana, Namibia, and Angola, are variously referred to as Bushmen, San, Sho, Basarwa, Kung, or Khwe. As the term Bushmen is sometimes viewed as a pejorative, some prefer to be called the San people.[dubious – discuss] These people were traditionally hunter-gatherers, part of the Khoisan group and are related to the traditionally pastoral Khoikhoi. Starting in the 1950s, and lasting through the 1990s, they switched to farming as a result of government-mandated modernization programs as well as the increased risks of a hunting and gathering lifestyle in the face of technological development. There is a significant linguistic difference between the northern Bushmen living between Okavango (Botswana) and Etosha (Namibia), extending into southern Angola on the one hand and the southern group in the central Kalahari towards the Molopo, who are the last remnant of the previously extensive indigenous San of South Africa.

The San have provided a wealth of information for the fields of anthropology and genetics, even as their lifestyles change. One broad study of African genetic diversity completed in 2009 found the San people were among the five populations with the highest measured levels of genetic diversity among the 121 distinct African populations sampled.[1][2] The San are one of 14 known extant "ancestral population clusters" (from which all known modern humans evolved).[citation needed][clarification needed]

Naming

The terms San, Khwe, Sho, Bushmen and Basarwa have all been used to refer to the hunter-gatherer peoples of southern Africa. Each of these terms has a problematic history, as they have been used by outsiders to refer to them, often with pejorative connotations. The individual groups identify by names[3] such as Juǀʼhoansi and ǃKung (the punctuation characters representing different click consonants), and most call themselves by the term Bushmen when referring to themselves collectively.[4]

The different San language groups of Namibia met in late 1996 and agreed to allow the general term San to designate them externally.[5] This term was historically applied by their ethnic relatives and historic rivals, the Khoikhoi. This term means outsider in the Nama language, and was derogatory because it distinguished the Bushmen from what the Khoikhoi called themselves, namely, the First People.[4] Western anthropologists adopted San extensively in the 1970s, where it remains preferred in academic circles. The term Bushmen is widely used, but opinions vary on whether it is appropriate because it is sometimes viewed as pejorative.[6][7]

In South Africa, the term San has become favored in official contexts, and is included in the blazon of the new national coat-of-arms; Bushman is considered derogatory by many South Africans, regardless of their race.[8][9][10] Angola does not have an official term for the San, but they are sometimes referred to as Bushmen, Kwankhala, or Bosquímanos (the Portuguese term for Bushmen). In Lesotho they're referred to as Baroa, which is where the Sesotho name for south, Boroa, comes from. Neither Zambia nor Zimbabwe have official terms, although in the latter case the terms Amasili and Batwa are sometimes used.[11][dead link] In Botswana, the officially used term is Basarwa,[12] where it is partially acceptable to some Bushmen groups, although Basarwa, a Tswana label derived from Twa, also has negative connotations. The term is a class 2 noun (as indicated by the "ba-" class marker), while an older class 6 variant, Masarwa, is now almost universally considered offensive.[11] (See Noun class#Bantu languages for background.)

Society

Further information: Healing practices of the Bushmen and Rock art of the Bushmen
A San man
Rock paintings from the Western Cape

The Bushman kinship system reflects their interdependence as traditionally small mobile foraging bands. The kinship system is also comparable to the eskimo kinship system, with the same set of terms as in European cultures, but also uses a name rule and an age rule. The age rule resolves any confusion arising from kinship terms, as the older of two people always decides what to call the younger. Relatively few names circulate (approximately only 35 names per sex), and each child is named after a grandparent or another relative.

Bushmen drinking water from the bi bulb plant

Children have no social duties besides playing, and leisure is very important to Bushmen of all ages. Large amounts of time are spent in conversation, joking, music, and sacred dances. Women have a high status in San society, are greatly respected, and may be leaders of their own family groups. They make important family and group decisions and claim ownership of water holes and foraging areas. Women are mainly involved in the gathering of food, but may also take part in hunting.

The most important thing in San life is water. Droughts can last many months and waterholes may dry up. When this happens, they use sip wells. To get water this way, a San scrapes a deep hole where the sand is damp. Into this hole is inserted a long hollow grass stem. An empty ostrich egg is used to collect the water. Water is sucked into the straw from the sand, into the mouth, and then travels down another straw into the ostrich egg.

Traditionally, the San were an egalitarian society.[13] Although they had hereditary chiefs, their authority was limited. The bushmen made decisions among themselves by consensus,[14] with women treated as relatively equal.[15] San economy was a gift economy, based on giving each other gifts regularly rather than on trading or purchasing goods and services.[16]

Subsistence

Starting fire by hand

Villages range in sturdiness from nightly rain shelters in the warm spring (when people move constantly in search of budding greens), to formalized rings, wherein people congregate in the dry season around permanent waterholes. Early spring is the hardest season: a hot dry period following the cool, dry winter. Most plants are still dead or dormant, and supplies of autumn nuts are exhausted. Meat is particularly important in the dry months when wildlife cannot range far from the receding waters.

Women gather fruit, berries, tubers, bush onions, and other plant materials for the band's consumption. Ostrich eggs are gathered, and the empty shells are used as water containers. Insects provide perhaps 10% of animal proteins consumed, most often during the dry season.[17] Depending on location, the Bushmen consume 18 to 104 species including grasshoppers, beetles, caterpillars, moths, butterflies, and termites.[18]

Preparing poison arrows

Women's traditional gathering gear is simple and effective: A hide sling, a blanket, a cloak called a kaross to carry foodstuffs, firewood, smaller bags, a digging stick, and perhaps a smaller version of the kaross to carry a baby.

Men hunted in long, laborious excursions using arrows and spears poisoned with beetle larvae in the Diamphidia genus.[19] Kudu, antelope, deer, dikdik, and buffalo were important game animals. The Bushmen offered thanks to the animal's spirit after it had been killed. The liver was eaten only by men and hunters, because it was thought to contain poison unsafe for women.

In the 1990s, a portion of the population switched to livestock farming as a result of government-mandated modernization programs, as well as the increased risks of a hunting and gathering lifestyle in the face of technological development.[vague]

Early history

1000- to 2000-year-old San-paintings near Murewa Zimbabwe

A set of tools almost identical to that used by the modern San and dating to 44,000 BP were discovered at Border Cave in KwaZulu-Natal in 2012.[20]

Historical evidence shows that certain Bushmen communities have always lived in the desert regions of the Kalahari. But nearly all the Bushmen communities in southern Africa were eventually forced into this region. The Kalahari Bushmen remained in poverty where their richer neighbours denied them rights to the land. Before long, in both Botswana and Namibia, they found their territory drastically reduced.[21]

Genetic traits

Various Y-chromosome studies[22][23][24] showed that the San carry some of the most divergent (oldest) Y-chromosome haplogroups. These haplogroups are specific sub-groups of haplogroups A and B, the two earliest branches on the human Y-chromosome tree.

Mitochondrial DNA studies also showed evidence that the San carry high frequencies of the earliest haplogroup branches in the human mitochondrial DNA tree. The most divergent (oldest) mitochondrial haplogroup, L0d, has been identified at its highest frequencies in the southern African San groups.[25][22][26][27]

In a study published in March 2011, Brenna Henn and colleagues found that the ǂKhomani Bushmen, as well as the Sandawe and Hadza peoples of Tanzania, were the most genetically diverse of any living humans studied. This high degree of genetic diversity indicates that Southern Africa is the origin of anatomically modern humans.[28][29]

Neoteny

Ashley Montagu noted that Bushmen have the following neotenous (child-like) traits compared to Caucasoids: large brain, light skin pigment, less hair, round-headed, bulging forehead, small cranial sinuses, flat roof of the nose, small face, small mastoid processes, wide eye separation, median eye fold, and short stature.[30]

Ancestral land conflict with Botswana

1000- to 2000-year-old San paintings near Murewa, Zimbabwe.

Since the mid 1990s, the central government of Botswana has implemented a relocation policy, aiming to move the Bushmen out of their ancestral land on the Central Kalahari Game Reserve into newly created settlements. Although the government has categorically denied that relocation has been forced,[31] a recent court ruling confirmed that the removal was unconstitutional and residents were forcibly removed.[32]

The government's official reasons for adopting the policy is:

"Over time it has become clear that many residents of the CKGR already were or wished to become settled agriculturists, raising crops and tending livestock as opposed to hunting-gathering when the reserve was established in 1961.

"In fact, hunting-gathering had become obsolete to sustain their living conditions. These agricultural land uses are not compatible with preserving wildlife resources and not sustainable to be practiced in the Game Reserve.

"This is the fundamental reason for government to relocate the CKGR residents."[31]

Opponents to the relocation policy claim that the government's intent is to clear the area – an area the size of Denmark — for the lucrative tourist trade and diamond mining. This is strenuously denied on the government's official web site, stating that although exploration had taken place, it concluded that mining activity would not be viable and that the issue was not related to the relocation policy.

It is further claimed that the group as a whole has little voice in the national political process and is not one of the tribal groups recognized in the constitution of Botswana. Over the generations, the Bushmen of Southern Africa have continued to be absorbed into the African population, particularly the Griqua sub-group, which is an Afrikaans-speaking people of predominantly Khoisan that has certain unique cultural markers which set them apart from other Africans.

Court decision

On 13 December 2006, the Bushmen won a historic ruling in their long-running court case against the government.[33] By a 2–1 majority, the court ruled the refusal to allow the Basarwa into the Central Kalahari Game Reserve (CKGR) without a permit, and the refusal to issue special game licences to allow the Bushmen to hunt, was "unlawful and unconstitutional". It also found that the Bushmen were "forcibly and wrongly deprived of their possessions" by the government. However, the court did not compel the government to provide services such as water to any Bushmen who returned to the reserve. As of 2006, more than 1,000 Bushmen intended to return to the Central Kalahari Game Reserve, one of Africa's largest protected nature reserves.[32] However, only limited numbers of Bushmen have been allowed to return to this land. In April 2008, the United Nations Human Rights Council (UNHRC) criticised Botswana's government for not allowing certain Bushmen to return.[34]

High Court appeal

On 27 January 2011, the Bushmen won an appeal against the Government in the Botswana High Court after they were initially prohibited from accessing drinking water inside the Reserve through bore holes. Barrister Gordon Bennett represented the Bushmen in court as the judges declared the Botswana government guilty of ‘degrading treatment’ and described the case as ‘a harrowing story of human suffering and despair’. Furthermore, the Government was ordered to pay the costs of the Bushmen's appeal.[35]

Hoodia traditional knowledge agreement

Hoodia gordonii, used by the San Bushmen, was patented by the South African Council for Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR) in 1998, for its appetite suppressing quality. A licence was granted to Phytopharm, for development of the active ingredient in the Hoodia plant, p57 (glycoside), to be used as a pharmaceutical drug for dieting. Once this patent was brought to the attention of the San, a benefit-sharing agreement was reached between them and the CSIR in 2003. This would award royalties to the San for the benefits of their indigenous knowledge.[36] The San were represented by a regional organisation formed under San leadership, the Working group of Indigenous Minorities in Southern Africa (WIMSA).[37]

This benefit-sharing agreement is one of the first to give royalties to the holders of traditional knowledge used for drug sales. The terms of the agreement are contentious, because of their apparent lack of adherence to the Bonn Guidelines on Access to Genetic Resources and Benefit Sharing, as outlined in the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD).[38] The San have yet to profit from this agreement, as P57 has still not yet been legally developed and marketed.

Representation in mass media

The Bushmen of the Kalahari were first brought to the Western world's attention in the 1950s by South African author Laurens van der Post. In 1955, Van der Post was commissioned by the BBC to go to the Kalahari desert with a film crew in search of the Bushmen. The filmed material was turned into a very popular six-part television documentary a year later. Driven by a lifelong fascination with this "vanished tribe", Van der Post published a 1958 book about the same expedition, entitled The Lost World of the Kalahari. It was to be his most famous book. In 1961 he published The Heart of the Hunter, a narrative derived from 19th-century Bushmen stories by Wilhelm Bleek. Van der Post's work is largely discredited, as it is the subjective view of a European in the 1950s and 60s. His opinions branded the San as simple "children of Nature" or even "mystical ecologists".

John Marshall, the son of Harvard anthropologist Lorna Marshall, documented the lives of Bushmen in the Nyae Nyae region of Namibia over a more than 50-year period. His early film The Hunters, released in 1957, shows a giraffe hunt during the 1950s. The film Nǃai, the Story of a ǃKung Woman (1980) is the account of a woman who grew up while the Bushmen lived as autonomous hunter-gatherers, but who was later forced into a dependent life in the government-created community at Tsumkwe. A Kalahari Family (2002) is a five-part, six-hour series documenting 50 years in the lives of the Juǀʼhoansi of Southern Africa, from 1951 to 2000. Marshall was a vocal proponent of the Bushman cause throughout his life.[4]

The BBC series How Art Made the World compares San cave paintings from 200 years ago to Paleolithic European paintings which are 14,000 years old. Because of their similarities, the San works may illustrate the reasons for ancient cave paintings. In this programme, Nigel Spivey draws largely on the work of Professor David Lewis-Williams.[citation needed] Drawing parallels between modern hunter-gatherers in southern Africa (Bushmen) and the Americas, Lewis-Williams claims that healers, or ritual specialists, deliberately force themselves into a trance in which they travel to the spirit world. The visions they experience on these journeys of the mind are terrifying and complex, and the activity itself is undertaken for the good of the community. The Kalahari Bushmen go to the spirit world to entreat with their god for the lives of the sick, to make rain, and to control the movements of the game animals.[citation needed]

Lewis-Williams claims that in the lightest stages of trance states, all humans have the capacity to see geometric shapes known as form constants. They are hard-wired in the brain.[citation needed] As the trance deepens, and the subject tries to make sense of the shapes, so they change into things which are governed by that person's particular culture. The geometries are found all over the world and throughout history. Coupled to this are experiences such as changing into animals: the rock art traditions of hunter-gatherers the world over – including Ice Age Europe – contain images of figures which are half human and half animal. Lewis-Williams claims that going into deep caves is likened to going into a deep trance. Some images in France and Spain are over 1 km into the caves. Native Americans would call this 'Vision Questing' — going to barely accessible places such as mountain tops to perform rock art making, the images likely derived from visions they had experienced at special ceremonies.[citation needed]

Spencer Wells' 2003 book The Journey of Man — in connection with National Geographic's Genographic Project — discusses a genetic analysis of the San and asserts their blood contains some of the oldest genetic markers found on Earth. The Bushmen's Y-chromosomal DNA haplogroup (type A) is one of the oldest, splitting off around 70,000 years ago from those found in the rest of humanity (type BT). Therefore, the Bushmen likely represent one of the oldest existing populations. Genetic markers present on the y chromosome are passed down through thousands of generations in a relatively pure form. The PBS documentary based on the book follows these markers throughout the world, demonstrating that all of humankind can be traced back to the African continent and that the San are one of the oldest, most genetically unadulterated, remnants of humankind's ancient ancestors. More recent analysis suggests that the San may have been isolated from other original ancestral groups for as much as 100,000 years and later rejoined, re-integrating the human gene pool.[39]

Films and music

The 1980 comedy movie The Gods Must Be Crazy portrays a Kalahari Bushman tribe's first encounter with an artifact from the outside world (a Coke bottle). By the time this movie was made, the ǃKung had recently been forced into sedentary villages, and the Bushmen hired as actors were confused by the instructions to act out inaccurate exaggerations of their almost abandoned hunting and gathering life.[40] The director of this movie, Jamie Uys, had also directed Lost in the Desert in 1969, in which a small boy, stranded in the desert, encounters a group of wandering Bushmen, who help him and then abandon him as a result of a misunderstanding created by the lack of a common language and culture. Coca-Cola sponsored a documentary of San hunting entitled The Great Dance: A Hunter's Story (2000) directed by Craig and Damon Foster.

South African film-maker Richard Wicksteed has produced a number of documentaries on San/Bushman culture, history and present situation; these include In God's Places/Iindawo ZikaThixo (1995) on the Bushman cultural legacy in the southern Drakensberg; Death of a Bushman (2002) on the murder of Bushman tracker Optel Rooi by South African police; The Will To Survive (2009) which covers the history and situation of Bushman communities in southern Africa today; and My Land is My Dignity (2009) on the San's epic land rights struggle in Botswana's Central Kalahari Game Reserve.

"Eh Hee" by Dave Matthews Band was written as an evocation of the music and culture of the San. In a story told to the Radio City audience (an edited version of which appears on the DVD version of Live at Radio City), Matthews recalls hearing the music of the San and, upon asking his guide what the words to their songs were, being told that "there are no words to these songs, because these songs, we've been singing since before people had words". He goes on to describe the song as his "homage to meeting... the most advanced people on the planet".

The BBC's The Life of Mammals series includes video footage of an indigenous bushmen of the Kalahari desert undertaking a persistence hunt of a kudu through harsh desert conditions.[41] It provides an illustration of how early man may have pursued and captured prey with minimal weaponry.

Novels

James A. Michener's The Covenant (1980), is a work of historical fiction centered on South Africa. The first section of the book concerns a San tribe's journey set roughly in 13,000 BCE.

In Wilbur Smith's novel The Burning Shores (an installment in the Courtneys of Africa book series), the San people are portrayed through two major characters, O'wa and H'ani; Smith describes the Bushmen's struggles, history, and beliefs in great detail.

Tad Williams' epic Otherland series of novels features a South African Bushman named ǃXabbu, whom Williams confesses to be highly fictionalised, and not necessarily an accurate representation. In the novel, Williams invokes aspects of Bushmen mythology and culture.

In 2007, author David Gilman published The Devil's Breath, a novel partly based on the Bushmen. One of the main characters, a small bushman boy named ǃKoga, uses traditional bushman methods to help the character Max Gordon travel across Namibia.

In Peter Godwin's biography When A Crocodile Eats the Sun, he mentions his time spent with the San for an assignment. His title comes from the San's belief that a solar eclipse occurs when a crocodile eats the sun.

Laurens Van der Post's two novels, A Story Like The Wind (1972) and its sequel, A Far-Off Place (1974), are about a white boy encountering a wandering Bushman and his wife, and how the Bushmen's life and survival skills save the white teenagers' lives in a journey across the desert.

See also

Notes

  1. ^ Gill, Victoria (1 May 2009). "Africa's genetic secrets unlocked" (online edition). BBC World News. British Broadcasting Corporation. Retrieved 3 September 2009.
  2. ^ Tishkoff et al. 2009
  3. ^ PNG image (map)
  4. ^ a b c Elizabeth Marshall Thomas (2006). "The Old Way". Chapter "About Words and Names". ISBN 0-374-22552-4.
  5. ^ " The San Peoples, Kalahari Peoples Fund", retrieved 2010-02-16.
  6. ^ Sailer, Steve (2002). "Name Game Inuit or Eskimo". Retrieved 15 November 2006.
  7. ^ "Wrong Term for the Kalahari's People", "[Washington Post]", 7 June 2005
  8. ^ Adhikari, Mohamed (2005). Not White Enough, Not Black Enough: Racial Identity In The South African Coloured Community. Ohio University Press. p. 26.
  9. ^ Smith, Claire and H. Martin Wobst. Indigenous Archaeologies: Decolonizing Theory and Practice. Abingdon, Oxon: Routledge Taylor & Francis Group. p. 209.
  10. ^ Britten, Sarah. McBride of Frankenmanto: The Return of the South African Insult. 30 Degrees South. p. 19. ISBN 1-920143-18-1.
  11. ^ a b Hitchcock, Robert K., and Megan Biesele "San, Khwe, Basarwa, or Bushmen? Terminology, Identity, and Empowerment in Southern Africa." Kalahari Peoples Fund. 28 December 2000
  12. ^ Botswana Gov. – Basarwa Relocation – Intro
  13. ^ Marjorie Shostak, 1983, Nisa: The Life and Words of a ǃKung Woman. New York: Vintage Books. Page 10.
  14. ^ The ǃKung Bushmen. Orvillejenkins.com (22 May 2006). Retrieved 2012-01-29.
  15. ^ Shostak 1983: 13
  16. ^ Shostak 1983: 9, 25
  17. ^ Brian Morris (2004). Insects and human life. Berg. pp. 57–. ISBN 978-1-84520-075-6. Retrieved 29 January 2012.
  18. ^ Brian Morris (2005). Insects and Human Life, pp39-40. See page 19: for insect use in medicine, poison for arrows etc. Also page 188 regarding Kaggen, the Praying Mantis trickster deity who created the moon More on Kaggen, who might sabotage a hunt by transforming into a louse and biting the hunter: Mathias Georg Guenther (1999). Tricksters and trancers: bushman religion and society. p111.
  19. ^ How San hunters use beetles to poison their arrows, Biodiversity Explorer website
  20. ^ Earliest' evidence of modern human culture found, Nick Crumpton, BBC News, 31 July 2012
  21. ^ The modern day Bushmen / San. Art of Africa. Retrieved 2012-01-29.
  22. ^ a b Knight, Alec; Underhill, Peter A.; Mortensen, Holly M.; Zhivotovsky, Lev A.; Lin, Alice A.; Henn, Brenna M.; Louis, Dorothy; Ruhlen, Merritt; Mountain, Joanna L. (2003). "African Y Chromosome and mtDNA Divergence Provides Insight into the History of Click Languages". Current Biology. 13 (6): 464–73. doi:10.1016/S0960-9822(03)00130-1. PMID 12646128.
  23. ^ Hammer, MF; Karafet, TM; Redd, AJ; Jarjanazi, H; Santachiara-Benerecetti, S; Soodyall, H; Zegura, SL (2001). "Hierarchical patterns of global human Y-chromosome diversity" (PDF). Molecular Biology and Evolution. 18 (7): 1189–203. doi:10.1093/oxfordjournals.molbev.a003906. PMID 11420360.
  24. ^ Naidoo, Thijessen; Schlebusch, Carina M; Makkan, Heeran; Patel, Pareen; Mahabeer, Rajeshree; Erasmus, Johannes C; Soodyall, Himla (2010). "Development of a single base extension method to resolve Y chromosome haplogroups in sub-Saharan African populations". Investigative Genetics. 1 (1): 6. doi:10.1186/2041-2223-1-6. PMC 2988483. PMID 21092339.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: unflagged free DOI (link)
  25. ^ Chen, Yu-Sheng; Olckers, Antonel; Schurr, Theodore G.; Kogelnik, Andreas M.; Huoponen, Kirsi; Wallace, Douglas C. (2000). "MtDNA Variation in the South African Kung and Khwe—and Their Genetic Relationships to Other African Populations". The American Journal of Human Genetics. 66 (4): 1362–83. doi:10.1086/302848. PMC 1288201. PMID 10739760.
  26. ^ Tishkoff, S. A.; Gonder, M. K.; Henn, B. M.; Mortensen, H.; Knight, A.; Gignoux, C.; Fernandopulle, N.; Lema, G.; Nyambo, T. B. (2007). "History of Click-Speaking Populations of Africa Inferred from mtDNA and Y Chromosome Genetic Variation". Molecular Biology and Evolution. 24 (10): 2180–95. doi:10.1093/molbev/msm155. PMID 17656633.
  27. ^ Schlebusch, Carina M.; Naidoo, Thijessen; Soodyall, Himla (2009). "SNaPshot minisequencing to resolve mitochondrial macro-haplogroups found in Africa". Electrophoresis. 30 (21): 3657–64. doi:10.1002/elps.200900197. PMID 19810027.
  28. ^ Henn, Brenna; Gignoux, Christopher R.; Jobin, Matthew (2011). "Hunter-gatherer genomic diversity suggests a southern African origin for modern humans". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America. 108 (13). National Academy of Sciences: 5154–62. doi:10.1073/pnas.1017511108. Retrieved 22 June 2012.
  29. ^ Kaplan, Matt (2011). "Gene Study Challenges Human Origins in Eastern Africa". Scientific American. Nature Publishing Group. Retrieved 22 June 2012.
  30. ^ Montagu, A. (1989). Growing Young. Bergin & Garvey: CT.
  31. ^ a b Question and Answer. Government of Botswana Web Site
  32. ^ a b "Botswana's bushmen get Kalahari lands back". CNN. 13 December 2006. Archived from the original on 20 December 2006. Retrieved 13 December 2006. Cite error: The named reference "CNN.com" was defined multiple times with different content (see the help page).
  33. ^ "Sesana and Others v Attorney General (52/2002)[2006] BWHC 1 (13 December 2006)". SAFLII. Retrieved 10 May 2009.
  34. ^ DEVELOPMENT-BOTSWANA Of Tourists, Bushmen – and a Borehole. Ipsnews.net (29 May 2008). Retrieved 2012-01-29.
  35. ^ Victory for Kalahari Bushmen as court grants right to water. Survival International. Retrieved 2012-01-29.
  36. ^ Wynberg, R. (2004). Rhetoric, realism and benefit-sharing. Journal of World Intellectual Property, 7(6), 851–876. Retrieved 23 September 2008, from Wiley Interscience database.
  37. ^ Working Group of Indigenous Minorities in Southern Africa. Wimsanet.org. Retrieved 2012-01-29.
  38. ^ Tully, S. (2003). The Bonn Guidelines on access to genetic resources and benefit sharing. Review of European Community & International Environmental Law 12(1), 84–98. Retrieved 23 September 2008 from Wiley Interscience database.
  39. ^ Rincon, Paul (24 April 2008). "Human line 'nearly split in two'". Retrieved 31 December 2009. {{cite news}}: Text "Publisher BBC News" ignored (help)
  40. ^ Nǃai, the Story of a ǃKung Woman. Documentary Educational Resources and Public Broadcasting Associates, 1980.
  41. ^ Attenborough, David (5 February 2003). "Human Mammal, Human Hunter (video)". The Life of Mammals. BBC. Retrieved 10 February 2011.

References

Wikimedia Commons has media related to Bushmen.
Wikisource has the text of the 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica article "Bushmen".
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