Jump to content

Kinesiology

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

This is an old revision of this page, as edited by MusikAnimal (talk | contribs) at 20:35, 24 January 2014 (Reverted edits by 189.203.219.126 (talk) to last revision by ClueBot NG (HG)). The present address (URL) is a permanent link to this revision, which may differ significantly from the current revision.

This article is about the scientific study of human movement. For the alternative medicine technique, see Applied kinesiology.
A series of images that represent research (left) and practice (right) in the field of kinesiology.
Part of a series on
Science
Fields (Outline / List)
Intrascientific fields
Extrascientific fields
Scientific integrity
Instruments
This is a subseries on philosophy. In order to explore related topics, please visit navigation.

Kinesiology, also known as human kinetics, is the scientific study of human movement. Kinesiology addresses physiological, mechanical, and psychological mechanisms. Applications of kinesiology to human health include: biomechanics and orthopedics; strength and conditioning; sport psychology; methods of rehabilitation, such as physical and occupational therapy; and sport and exercise.[1] Individuals who have earned degrees in kinesiology can work in research, the fitness industry, clinical settings, and in industrial environments.[2] Studies of human and animal motion include measures from motion tracking systems, electrophysiology of muscle and brain activity, various methods for monitoring physiological function, and other behavioral and cognitive research techniques.[3][4]

Kinesiology as described above should not be confused with applied kinesiology, a controversial[5][6][7] medical diagnostic method.

The word comes from the Greek word kinein, to move.

Basics

Kinesiology is the study of human and animal movement, performance, and function by applying the sciences of biomechanics, anatomy, physiology, psychology, and neuroscience. Applications of kinesiology in human health include physical education teacher, the rehabilitation professions, such as physical and occupational therapy, as well as applications in the sport and exercise industries. Kinesiology is a field of scientific study, and does not prepare individuals for clinical practice. A bachelor's degree in kinesiology can provide strong preparation for graduate study in biomedical research, as well as in professional programs, such as allied health and medicine.

Whereas the term "kinesiologist" is neither a licensed nor professional designation in the United States nor most countries (with the exception of Canada), individuals with training in this area can teach physical education, provide consulting services, conduct research and develop policies related to rehabilitation, human motor performance, ergonomics, and occupational health and safety. In North America, kinesiologists may study to earn a Bachelor of Science, Master of Science, or Doctorate of Philosophy degree in Kinesiology or a Bachelor of Kinesiology degree, while in Australia or New Zealand, they are often conferred an Applied Science (Human Movement) degree (or higher). Many doctoral level faculty in North American kinesiology programs received their doctoral training in related disciplines, such as neuroscience, mechanical engineering, psychology, and physiology.

The world's first kinesiology department was launched in 1967 at the University of Waterloo, Canada.[8]

Principles

Adaptation Through Exercise

Summary of adaptations to long-term aerobic and anaerobic exercise. Aerobic exercise can cause several central cardiovascular adaptations, including an increase in stroke volume (SV)[9] and maximal aerobic capacity (VO2 Max),[9][10] as well as a decrease in resting heart rate (RHR).[11][12][13] Long-term adaptations to resistance training, the most common form of anaerobic exercise, include muscular hypertrophy,[14][15] an increase in the physiologic cross-sectional area (PCSA) of (a) muscle(s), and an increase in neural drive,[16][17] both of which lead to increased muscular strength.[18] Notice that the neural adaptation begins more quickly and plateaus prior to the hypertrophic response.[19][20]

Adaptation through exercise is a key principle of kinesiology that relates to improved fitness in athletes as well as health and wellness in clinical populations. Exercise is a simple and established intervention for many movement disorders and musculoskeletal conditions due to the neuroplasticity of the brain[21] and the adaptability of the musculoskeletal system.[16][17][18] Therapeutic exercise has been shown to improve neuromotor control and motor capabilities in both normal[22] and pathological populations.[10][23]

There are many different types of exercise interventions that can be applied in kinesiology to athletic, normal, and clinical populations. Aerobic exercise interventions help to improve cardiovascular endurance.[24] Anaerobic strength training programs can increase muscular strength,[17] power,[25] and lean body mass.[26] Decreased risk of falls and increased neuromuscular control can be attributed to balance intervention programs.[27] Flexibility programs can increase functional range of motion and reduce the risk of injury.[28]

As a whole, exercise programs can reduce symptoms of depression[29] and risk of cardiovascular[30] and metabolic diseases.[31] Additionally, they can help to improve quality of life,[32] sleeping habits,[29] immune system function,[33] and body composition.[26]

Finally, the study of the physiologic responses to physical exercise and their therapeutic applications is known as exercise physiology, which is a major research focus within kinesiology.

Neuroplasticity

Adaptive plasticity along with practice in three levels. In behavior level, performance (e.g., successful rate, accuracy) improved after practice.[34][35] In cortical level, motor representation areas of the acting muscles enlarged; functional connectivity between primary motor cortex (M1) and supplementary motor area (SMA) is strengthened.[36][37][38][39][40][41][42] In neuronal level, the number of dendrites and neurotransmitter increase with practice.[37][43][44]

Neuroplasticity is also a key scientific principle used in kinesiology to describe how movement and changes in the brain are related. The human brain adapts and acquires new motor skills based on this principle, which includes both adaptive and maladaptive brain changes.

Adaptive Plasticity

Recent empirical evidence indicates the significant impact of physical activity on brain function; for example, greater amounts of physical activity are associated with enhanced cognitive function in older adults.[45] The effects of physical activity can be distributed throughout the whole brain, such as higher gray matter density and white matter integrity after exercise training,[46][47] and/or on specific brain areas, such as greater activation in prefrontal cortex and hippocampus.[48] Neuroplasticity is also the underlying mechanism of skill acquisition. For example, after long-term training, pianists showed greater gray matter density in sensorimotor cortex and white matter integrity in the internal capsule compared to non-musicians.[49][50]

Mal-Adaptive Plasticity

Maladaptive plasticity is defined as the neuroplasticity with negative effects or detrimental consequences in behavior.[51][52] Movement abnormalities may occur among individuals with and without brain injuries due to abnormal remodeling in central nervous system.[39][53] Learned non-use is an example commonly seen among patients with brain damage, such as stroke. Patients with stroke learned to suppress paretic limb movement after unsuccessful experience in paretic hand use; this may cause decreased neuronal activation at adjacent areas of the infarcted motor cortex.[54][55]

There are many types of therapies that are designed to overcome maladaptive plasticity in clinic and research, such as constraint-induced movement therapy (CIMT), body weight support treadmill training (BWSTT) and virtual reality therapy. These interventions are shown to enhance motor function in paretic limbs [56][57][58] and stimulate cortical reorganization[59][60][61] in patients with brain damage.

Motor Redundancy

Animation illustrating the concept of motor redundancy: the motor action of bring the finger in contact with a point in space can be achieved using a wide variety of limb configurations.

Motor redundancy is a widely-used concept in kinesiology and motor control which states that, for any task the human body can perform, there are effectively an unlimited number of ways the nervous system could achieve that task.[62] This redundancy appears at multiple levels in the chain of motor execution:

  • Kinematic redundancy means that for a desired location of the endpoint (e.g. the hand or finger), there are many configurations of the joints that would produce the same endpoint location in space.
  • Muscle redundancy means that the same net joint torque could be generated by many different relative contributions of individual muscles.
  • Motor unit redundancy means that for the same net muscle force could be generated by many different relative contributions of motor units within that muscle.

The concept of motor redundancy is explored in numerous studies,[63][64][65] usually with the goal of describing the relative contribution of a set of motor elements (e.g. muscles) in various human movements, and how these contributions can be predicted from a comprehensive theory. Two distinct (but not incompatible) theories have emerged for how the nervous system coordinates redundant elements: simplification and optimization. In the simplification theory, complex movements and muscle actions are constructed from simpler ones, often known as primitives or synergies, resulting in a simpler system for the brain to control.[66][67] In the optimization theory, motor actions arise from the minimization of a control parameter,[65] such as the energetic cost of movement or errors in movement performance.[68]

Scope of practice

In most countries, kinesiology refers to an area of study and is not associated with a professional designation.[citation needed] In Canada, kinesiology is a professional designation associated with the assessment of movement, performance, and function; and the rehabilitation, prevention, and management of disorders to maintain, rehabilitate, and enhance movement, performance, and function in the areas of sport, recreation, work, exercise, and general activities of daily living.[69]

Kinesiology is applied in areas of health and fitness for all levels of athletes, but more often found with training of elite athletes. All too often biomechanical analysis focuses on the kinetic energy or the working numbers in execution of technique. More emphasis should be placed on muscle and joints as they are involved in the action and the role they play in execution of the technique is critical.[70]

Licensing and regulation

Canada

In Canada, Kinesiology has been designated a regulated health profession [71] Kinesiology was made a regulated health profession in the province of Ontario in the summer of 2007 [72] and similar proposals have been made for other Canadian provinces. The Canadian Kinesiology Alliance-Alliance Canadienne de Kinésiologie is a not-for-profit corporation that promotes the professions of kinesiology in Canada http://www.cka.ca.

United States

In the United States, the American Kinesiology Association is the national kinesiology organization of university departments providing professional information about kinesiology degree programs.[73]

Health service

The analysis of recorded human movement, as pioneered by Eadweard Muybridge, figures prominently in kinesiology.
  • Health Promotion
Kinesiologists working in the health promotion industry focus on working with individuals to enhance the health, fitness, and well-being of the individual. Kinesiologists can be found working in fitness facilities, personal training/corporate wellness facilities, and industry.
  • Clinical/Rehabilitation
Kinesiologists work with individuals with disabling conditions to assist in regaining their optimal physical function. They work with individuals in their home, fitness facilities, rehabilitation clinics, and at the worksite. They also work alongside physiotherapists and occupational therapists.
  • Ergonomics
Kinesiologists work in industry to assess suitability of design of workstations and provide suggestions for modifications and assistive devices.
  • Health and Safety
Kinesiologists are involved in consulting with industry to identify hazards and provide recommendations and solutions to optimize the health and safety of workers.
  • Disability Management/Case Coordination
Kinesiologists recommend and provide a plan of action to return an injured individual to their optimal function in all aspects of life.
  • Management/Research/Administration/Health and Safety
Kinesiologists frequently fulfill roles in all above areas, perform research, and manage businesses.[74]

See also

References

  1. ^ "Welcome to the Ontario Kinesiology Association". Oka.on.ca. Retrieved 2009-07-25.
  2. ^ "CKA - Canadian Kinesiology Alliance - Alliance Canadienne de Kinésiologie". Cka.ca. Retrieved 2009-07-25.
  3. ^ Bodo Rosenhahn, Reinhard Klette and Dimitris Metaxas (eds.). Human Motion - Understanding, Modelling, Capture and Animation. Volume 36 in 'Computational Imaging and Vision', Springer, Dordrecht, 2007
  4. ^ Ahmed Elgammal, Bodo Rosenhahn, and Reinhard Klette (eds.) Human Motion - Understanding, Modelling, Capture and Animation. 2nd Workshop, in conjunction with ICCV 2007, Rio de Janeiro, Lecture Notes in Computer Science, LNCS 4814, Springer, Berlin, 2007
  5. ^ Carroll, Robert Todd "These are empirical claims and have been tested and shown to be false". "Applied Kinesiology". The Skeptics Dictionary. Retrieved 2007-07-26.
  6. ^ Atwood KC (2004). "Naturopathy, Pseudoscience, and Medicine: Myths and Fallacies vs Truth". MedGenMed. 6 (1): 33. PMC 1140750. PMID 15208545.
  7. ^ Haas, Mitchell (August 2007). "Disentangling manual muscle testing and Applied Kinesiology: critique and reinterpretation of a literature review". Chiropractic & Osteopathy. 15 (1): 11. doi:10.1186/1746-1340-15-11. PMC 2000870. PMID 17716373. Retrieved 2007-11-30. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help); Unknown parameter |unused_data= ignored (help)CS1 maint: unflagged free DOI (link)
  8. ^ http://www.ahs.uwaterloo.ca/kin/
  9. ^ a b Wang, E (Nov 16, 2013). "Exercise-training-induced changes in metabolic capacity with age: the role of central cardiovascular plasticity". Age (Dordrecht, Netherlands). PMID 24243396. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
  10. ^ a b Potempa, K (January 1995). "Physiological outcomes of aerobic exercise training in hemiparetic stroke patients". Stroke; a journal of cerebral circulation. 26 (1): 101–5. PMID 7839377. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
  11. ^ Wilmore, JH (July 1996). "Endurance exercise training has a minimal effect on resting heart rate: the HERITAGE Study". Medicine and science in sports and exercise. 28 (7): 829–35. PMID 8832536. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
  12. ^ Carter, JB (2003). "Effect of endurance exercise on autonomic control of heart rate". Sports medicine (Auckland, N.Z.). 33 (1): 33–46. PMID 12477376. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
  13. ^ Chen, Chao‐Yin (January 1998). "Endurance exercise training‐induced resting Bradycardia: A brief review". Sports Medicine, Training and Rehabilitation. 8 (1): 37–77. doi:10.1080/15438629709512518. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
  14. ^ Crewther, BT (February 2013). "The effects of a resistance-training program on strength, body composition and baseline hormones in male athletes training concurrently for rugby union 7's". The Journal of sports medicine and physical fitness. 53 (1): 34–41. PMID 23470909. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
  15. ^ Schoenfeld, BJ (June 2013). "Postexercise hypertrophic adaptations: a reexamination of the hormone hypothesis and its applicability to resistance training program design". Journal of strength and conditioning research / National Strength & Conditioning Association. 27 (6): 1720–30. PMID 23442269.
  16. ^ a b Dalgas, U (July 2013). "Neural drive increases following resistance training in patients with multiple sclerosis". Journal of neurology. 260 (7): 1822–32. PMID 23483214. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
  17. ^ a b c Staron, RS (March 1994). "Skeletal muscle adaptations during early phase of heavy-resistance training in men and women". Journal of applied physiology (Bethesda, Md. : 1985). 76 (3): 1247–55. PMID 8005869. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
  18. ^ a b Folland, JP (2007). "The adaptations to strength training : morphological and neurological contributions to increased strength". Sports medicine (Auckland, N.Z.). 37 (2): 145–68. PMID 17241104. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
  19. ^ Moritani, T (June 1979). "Neural factors versus hypertrophy in the time course of muscle strength gain". American journal of physical medicine. 58 (3): 115–30. PMID 453338. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
  20. ^ Narici, MV (1989). "Changes in force, cross-sectional area and neural activation during strength training and detraining of the human quadriceps". European journal of applied physiology and occupational physiology. 59 (4): 310–9. PMID 2583179. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
  21. ^ Forrester, LW (2008). "Exercise-mediated locomotor recovery and lower-limb neuroplasticity after stroke". Journal of rehabilitation research and development. 45 (2): 205–20. PMID 18566939. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
  22. ^ Roig, M (2012). "A single bout of exercise improves motor memory". PloS one. 7 (9): e44594. PMID 22973462. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
  23. ^ Hirsch, MA (June 2009). "Exercise and neuroplasticity in persons living with Parkinson's disease". European journal of physical and rehabilitation medicine. 45 (2): 215–29. PMID 19532109. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
  24. ^ Schjerve, IE (November 2008). "Both aerobic endurance and strength training programmes improve cardiovascular health in obese adults". Clinical science (London, England : 1979). 115 (9): 283–93. PMID 18338980. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
  25. ^ Jozsi, AC (November 1999). "Changes in power with resistance training in older and younger men and women". The journals of gerontology. Series A, Biological sciences and medical sciences. 54 (11): M591-6. PMID 10619323. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
  26. ^ a b Campbell, WW (August 1994). "Increased energy requirements and changes in body composition with resistance training in older adults". The American journal of clinical nutrition. 60 (2): 167–75. PMID 8030593. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help) Cite error: The named reference "ExerciseBodyComp" was defined multiple times with different content (see the help page).
  27. ^ El-Khoury, F (Oct 29, 2013). "The effect of fall prevention exercise programmes on fall induced injuries in community dwelling older adults: systematic review and meta-analysis of randomised controlled trials". BMJ (Clinical research ed.). 347: f6234. PMID 24169944. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
  28. ^ Hartig, DE (1999 Mar-Apr). "Increasing hamstring flexibility decreases lower extremity overuse injuries in military basic trainees". The American journal of sports medicine. 27 (2): 173–6. PMID 10102097. {{cite journal}}: Check date values in: |date= (help); Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
  29. ^ a b Brand, S (February 2010). "High exercise levels are related to favorable sleep patterns and psychological functioning in adolescents: a comparison of athletes and controls". The Journal of adolescent health : official publication of the Society for Adolescent Medicine. 46 (2): 133–41. PMID 20113919. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
  30. ^ Cederberg, H (June 2011). "Exercise during military training improves cardiovascular risk factors in young men". Atherosclerosis. 216 (2): 489–95. PMID 21402378. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
  31. ^ Borghouts, LB (January 2000). "Exercise and insulin sensitivity: a review". International journal of sports medicine. 21 (1): 1–12. PMID 10683091. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
  32. ^ Tsai, JC (April 2004). "The beneficial effect of regular endurance exercise training on blood pressure and quality of life in patients with hypertension". Clinical and experimental hypertension (New York, N.Y. : 1993). 26 (3): 255–65. PMID 15132303. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
  33. ^ Nieman, DC (October 1994). "Exercise, infection, and immunity". International journal of sports medicine. 15 Suppl 3: S131-41. PMID 7883395.
  34. ^ Marston, A (May 1967). "Self-reinforcement and external reinforcement in visual-motor learning". Journal of experimental psychology. 74 (1): 93–8. PMID 6032584.
  35. ^ Marchant, David C. (January 2009). "Novice motor skill performance and task experience is influenced by attentional focusing instructions and instruction preferences". International Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology. 7 (4): 488–502. doi:10.1080/1612197X.2009.9671921. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
  36. ^ Yoo, Kwangsun (2013). "Tool-use practice induces changes in intrinsic functional connectivity of parietal areas". Frontiers in Human Neuroscience. 7. doi:10.3389/fnhum.2013.00049. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)CS1 maint: unflagged free DOI (link)
  37. ^ a b Dayan, Eran (November 2011). "Neuroplasticity Subserving Motor Skill Learning". Neuron. 72 (3): 443–454. doi:10.1016/j.neuron.2011.10.008. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help); no-break space character in |coauthors= at position 16 (help)
  38. ^ Nudo, RJ (Jun 21, 1996). "Neural substrates for the effects of rehabilitative training on motor recovery after ischemic infarct". Science (New York, N.Y.). 272 (5269): 1791–4. PMID 8650578. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
  39. ^ a b Nudo, RJ (May 1996). "Reorganization of movement representations in primary motor cortex following focal ischemic infarcts in adult squirrel monkeys". Journal of neurophysiology. 75 (5): 2144–9. PMID 8734610. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
  40. ^ Pascual-Leone, A (September 1995). "Modulation of muscle responses evoked by transcranial magnetic stimulation during the acquisition of new fine motor skills". Journal of neurophysiology. 74 (3): 1037–45. PMID 7500130. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
  41. ^ Liepert, J (April 1999). "Motor plasticity induced by synchronized thumb and foot movements". Experimental brain research. Experimentelle Hirnforschung. Experimentation cerebrale. 125 (4): 435–9. PMID 10323289. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
  42. ^ Eickhoff, SB (July 2008). "Central adaptation following heterotopic hand replantation probed by fMRI and effective connectivity analysis". Experimental neurology. 212 (1): 132–44. PMID 18501895. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
  43. ^ Johansson, B. B. (1 January 2000). "Brain Plasticity and Stroke Rehabilitation : The Willis Lecture". Stroke. 31 (1): 223–230. doi:10.1161/01.STR.31.1.223.
  44. ^ Gomez-Pinilla, F. (1 November 2002). "Voluntary Exercise Induces a BDNF-Mediated Mechanism That Promotes Neuroplasticity". Journal of Neurophysiology. 88 (5): 2187–2195. doi:10.1152/jn.00152.2002.
  45. ^ Mora, F (March 2013). "Successful brain aging: plasticity, environmental enrichment, and lifestyle". Dialogues in clinical neuroscience. 15 (1): 45–52. PMID 23576888.
  46. ^ Hopkins, ME (September 2010). "BDNF expression in perirhinal cortex is associated with exercise-induced improvement in object recognition memory". Neurobiology of learning and memory. 94 (2): 278–84. PMID 20601027. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
  47. ^ Thomas, C (June 2013). "Teaching an adult brain new tricks: a critical review of evidence for training-dependent structural plasticity in humans". NeuroImage. 73: 225–36. PMID 22484409. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
  48. ^ Erickson, KI (November 2012). "Physical activity, brain plasticity, and Alzheimer's disease". Archives of medical research. 43 (8): 615–21. PMID 23085449. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
  49. ^ Han, Y (Jul 31, 2009). "Gray matter density and white matter integrity in pianists' brain: a combined structural and diffusion tensor MRI study". Neuroscience letters. 459 (1): 3–6. PMID 18672026. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
  50. ^ PANTEV, C. (25 January 2006). "Representational Cortex in Musicians". Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences. 930 (1): 300–314. doi:10.1111/j.1749-6632.2001.tb05740.x. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
  51. ^ Cramer, SC (June 2011). "Harnessing neuroplasticity for clinical applications". Brain : a journal of neurology. 134 (Pt 6): 1591–609. PMID 21482550. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
  52. ^ Nahum, A (May 1988). "Pressure, flow, and density relationships in airway models during constant-flow ventilation". Journal of applied physiology (Bethesda, Md. : 1985). 64 (5): 2066–73. PMID 3391905. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
  53. ^ Kadota, H (July 2010). "An fMRI study of musicians with focal dystonia during tapping tasks". Journal of neurology. 257 (7): 1092–8. PMID 20143109. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
  54. ^ Taub, E (March 1994). "An operant approach to rehabilitation medicine: overcoming learned nonuse by shaping". Journal of the experimental analysis of behavior. 61 (2): 281–93. PMID 8169577. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
  55. ^ Jones, TA (June 2013). "Motor system plasticity in stroke models: intrinsically use-dependent, unreliably useful". Stroke; a journal of cerebral circulation. 44 (6 Suppl 1): S104-6. PMID 23709698. {{cite journal}}: |access-date= requires |url= (help); Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
  56. ^ Macko, RF (July 2001). "Treadmill training improves fitness reserve in chronic stroke patients". Archives of physical medicine and rehabilitation. 82 (7): 879–84. PMID 11441372. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
  57. ^ Wolf, SL (Nov 1, 2006). "Effect of constraint-induced movement therapy on upper extremity function 3 to 9 months after stroke: the EXCITE randomized clinical trial". JAMA : the journal of the American Medical Association. 296 (17): 2095–104. PMID 17077374. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
  58. ^ Turolla, A (Aug 1, 2013). "Virtual reality for the rehabilitation of the upper limb motor function after stroke: a prospective controlled trial". Journal of neuroengineering and rehabilitation. 10: 85. PMID 23914733. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
  59. ^ Orihuela-Espina, F (2013 May-Jun). "Neural reorganization accompanying upper limb motor rehabilitation from stroke with virtual reality-based gesture therapy". Topics in stroke rehabilitation. 20 (3): 197–209. PMID 23841967. {{cite journal}}: Check date values in: |date= (help); Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
  60. ^ Szaflarski, JP (August 2006). "Cortical reorganization following modified constraint-induced movement therapy: a study of 4 patients with chronic stroke". Archives of physical medicine and rehabilitation. 87 (8): 1052–8. PMID 16876549. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
  61. ^ Yang, YR (April 2010). "Cortical reorganization induced by body weight-supported treadmill training in patients with hemiparesis of different stroke durations". Archives of physical medicine and rehabilitation. 91 (4): 513–8. PMID 20382280. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
  62. ^ Bernstein, Nikolai (1967). The Co-ordination and Regulation of Movement. Long Island City, NY: Permagon Press. p. 196. {{cite book}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)
  63. ^ Latash, ML (January 2002). "Motor control strategies revealed in the structure of motor variability". Exercise and sport sciences reviews. 30 (1): 26–31. PMID 11800496. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
  64. ^ Tresch, MC (December 2009). "The case for and against muscle synergies". Current opinion in neurobiology. 19 (6): 601–7. PMID 19828310. {{cite journal}}: |access-date= requires |url= (help); Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
  65. ^ a b Todorov, E (November 2002). "Optimal feedback control as a theory of motor coordination". Nature neuroscience. 5 (11): 1226–35. PMID 12404008. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
  66. ^ d'Avella, A (March 2003). "Combinations of muscle synergies in the construction of a natural motor behavior". Nature neuroscience. 6 (3): 300–8. PMID 12563264. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
  67. ^ Mussa-Ivaldi, FA (Aug 2, 1994). "Linear combinations of primitives in vertebrate motor control". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America. 91 (16): 7534–8. PMID 8052615. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
  68. ^ Harris, CM (Aug 20, 1998). "Signal-dependent noise determines motor planning". Nature. 394 (6695): 780–4. PMID 9723616. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
  69. ^ "Welcome to the Ontario Kinesiology Association". Oka.on.ca. Retrieved 2009-07-25.
  70. ^ Dr. Michael Yessis (2006). Build A Better Athlete. Ultimate Athlete Concepts. ISBN 978-1930546783.
  71. ^ Hoffman, S. J. (2008). Shirl J. Hoffman (ed.). Introduction to Kinesiology (3 ed.). Human Kinetics. ISBN 9780736076135.
  72. ^ "Kinesiology Act, 2007, S.O. 2007, c. 10 , Sched. O". E-laws.gov.on.ca. 2007-06-04. Retrieved 2009-07-25.
  73. ^ "American Kinesiology Association". Americankinesiology.org. 2001-01-06. Retrieved 2009-07-25.
  74. ^ "CKA - Canadian Kinesiology Alliance - Alliance Canadienne de Kinésiologie". Cka.ca. Retrieved 2009-07-25.
  • The dictionary definition of kinesiology at Wiktionary
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Kinesiology&oldid=592225089"