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Emerging infectious disease

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For the medical journal, see Emerging Infectious Diseases (journal).

An emerging infectious disease (EID) is an infectious disease whose incidence has increased recently (in the past 20 years), and could increase in the near future.[1] Such diseases do not respect national boundaries.[1] The minority that are capable of developing efficient transmission between humans can become major public and global concerns as potential causes of epidemics or pandemics.[2] Their many impacts can be economic and societal, as well as clinical.[3]

Emerging infections account for at least 12% of all human pathogens.[4] EIDs can be caused by newly identified microbes, including novel species or strains of virus[5] (e.g. novel coronaviruses, ebolaviruses, HIV). Some EIDs evolve from a known pathogen, as occurs with new strains of influenza. EIDs may also result from spread of an existing disease to a new population in a different geographic region, as occurs with West Nile fever outbreaks. Some known diseases can also emerge in areas undergoing ecologic transformation (as in the case of Lyme disease[6]). Others can experience a resurgence as a re-emerging infectious disease, like tuberculosis[7] (following drug resistance) or measles.[8] Nosocomial (hospital-acquired) infections, such as methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus are emerging in hospitals, and are extremely problematic in that they are resistant to many antibiotics.[9] Of growing concern are adverse synergistic interactions between emerging diseases and other infectious and non-infectious conditions leading to the development of novel syndemics.

Many EID are zoonotic,[2] deriving from pathogens present in animals, with only occasional cross-species transmission into human populations. For instance, most emergent viruses are zoonotic[2] (whereas other novel viruses may have been circulating in the species without being recognized, as occurred with hepatitis C[10]).

Contributing factors

List

As of 2004, the U.S. National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases recognized the following emerging and re-emerging diseases.[18]

Newly recognized (since the 1980s):

Re-emerging:

Diseases with bioterrorism potential, CDC category A (most dangerous):

Diseases with bioterrorism potential, CDC category B:

Diseases with bioterrorism potential, CDC category C (least dangerous):

Since 2004, NIAID has added to its biodefense emerging pathogen list:[19]

NIAID also monitors antibiotic resistance, which can become an emerging threat for many pathogens.

Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus

Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) evolved from Methicillin-susceptible Staphylococcus aureus (MSSA) otherwise known as common S. aureus. Many people are natural carriers of S. aureus, without being affected in any way. MSSA was treatable with the antibiotic methicillin until it acquired the gene for antibiotic resistance.[20] Through genetic mapping of various strains of MRSA, scientists have found that MSSA acquired the mecA gene in the 1960s, which accounts for its pathogenicity, before this it had a predominantly commensal relationship with humans. It is theorized that when this S. aureus strain that had acquired the mecA gene was introduced into hospitals, it came into contact with other hospital bacteria that had already been exposed to high levels of antibiotics. When exposed to such high levels of antibiotics, the hospital bacteria suddenly found themselves in an environment that had a high level of selection for antibiotic resistance, and thus resistance to multiple antibiotics formed within these hospital populations. When S. aureus came into contact with these populations, the multiple genes that code for antibiotic resistance to different drugs were then acquired by MRSA, making it nearly impossible to control.[21] It is thought that MSSA acquired the resistance gene through the horizontal gene transfer, a method in which genetic information can be passed within a generation, and spread rapidly through its own population as was illustrated in multiple studies.[22] Horizontal gene transfer speeds the process of genetic transfer since there is no need to wait an entire generation time for gene to be passed on.[22] Since most antibiotics do not work on MRSA, physicians have to turn to alternative methods based in Darwinian medicine. However, prevention is the most preferred method of avoiding antibiotic resistance. By reducing unnecessary antibiotic use in human and animal populations, antibiotics resistance can be slowed.

See also

References

  1. ^ a b "Emerging Infectious Diseases - NIOSH Workplace Safety and Health Topic". www.cdc.gov. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. 17 October 2018. Archived from the original on 18 April 2020.
  2. ^ a b c Woolhouse, ME; Gowtage-Sequeria, S (2005). "Host Range and Emerging and Reemerging Pathogens". Emerging Infectious Diseases. 11: 1842-7. doi:10.3201/eid1112.050997. PMC 3367654. PMID 16485468.
  3. ^ a b c d e f g h i Morens DM, Fauci AS (2013). "Emerging infectious diseases: threats to human health and global stability". PLoS Pathogens. 9 (7): e1003467. doi:10.1371/journal.ppat.1003467. PMC 3701702. PMID 23853589.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: unflagged free DOI (link)
  4. ^ Taylor L.; et al. (2001). "Risk factors for human disease emergence". Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B. 356 (1411): 983–9. doi:10.1098/rstb.2001.0888. PMC 1088493. PMID 11516376.
  5. ^ Fauci AS (2005). "Emerging and reemerging infectious diseases: the perpetual challenge". Academic Medicine. 80 (12): 1079–85. doi:10.1097/00001888-200512000-00002. PMID 16306276.
  6. ^ Kilpatrick AM, Dobson AD, Levi T, et al. (2017). "Lyme disease ecology in a changing world: consensus, uncertainty and critical gaps for improving control". Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London. Series B, Biological Sciences. 372 (1722). doi:10.1098/rstb.2016.0117. PMC 5413869. PMID 28438910.
  7. ^ A Dictionary of Epidemiology. Oxford University Press. 2014. p. 92. ISBN 978-0-19-997673-7. {{cite book}}: Unknown parameter |editors= ignored (|editor= suggested) (help)
  8. ^ Fraser-bell, C (2019). "Global Re-emergence of Measles - 2019 update". Global Biosecurity. 1 (3). doi:10.31646/gbio.43. ISSN 2652-0036.
  9. ^ Witte, W (1997). "Increasing incidence and widespread dissemination of methicillin‐resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) in hospitals in central Europe, with special reference to German hospitals". Clinical Microbiology and Infection. 3 (4): 414–22. doi:10.1111/j.1469-0691.1997.tb00277.x.
  10. ^ Houghton M (November 2009). "The long and winding road leading to the identification of the hepatitis C virus". Journal of Hepatology. 51 (5): 939–48. doi:10.1016/j.jhep.2009.08.004. PMID 19781804.
  11. ^ Patricia, Calderón Rodríguez Nelly; Zulay, Jerez Pacheco Yary; Carlos, Ruvalcaba Ledezma Jesús; et al. (2019). "The Influence of Antivaccination Movements on the Re-emergence of Measles". Journal of Pure and Applied Microbiology. 13 (1): 127–132. doi:10.22207/JPAM.13.1.13.
  12. ^ Smith KM, Anthony SJ, Switzer WM, et al. (2012). "Zoonotic viruses associated with illegally imported wildlife products". Plos One. 7 (1): e29505. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0029505. PMC 3254615. PMID 22253731.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: unflagged free DOI (link)
  13. ^ Smith, KF; Schloegel, LM; Rosen, GE (2012). "Wildlife Trade and the Spread of Disease". New Directions in Conservation Medicine: Applied Cases of Ecological Health. Oxford University Press. pp. 151–163. ISBN 978-0-19-990905-6. {{cite book}}: Unknown parameter |editors= ignored (|editor= suggested) (help)
  14. ^ Chan JF, To KK, Tse H, et al. (2013). "Interspecies transmission and emergence of novel viruses: lessons from bats and birds". Trends in Microbiology. 21 (10): 544–55. doi:10.1016/j.tim.2013.05.005. PMC 7126491. PMID 23770275.
  15. ^ LeBreton, M; Pike, BL; Saylors, KE; et al. (2012). "Bushmeat and Infectious Disease Emergence". New Directions in Conservation Medicine: Applied Cases of Ecological Health. Oxford University Press. pp. 164–178. ISBN 978-0-19-990905-6. {{cite book}}: Unknown parameter |editors= ignored (|editor= suggested) (help)
  16. ^ Murray KA, Allen T, Loh E, et al. (2015). "Emerging Viral Zoonoses from Wildlife Associated with Animal-Based Food Systems: Risks and Opportunities". In Russell MJ, Doyle MP (eds.). Food Safety Risks from Wildlife. Springer. pp. 31–57. doi:10.1007/978-3-319-24442-6_2. ISBN 978-3-319-24442-6.
  17. ^ Kurpiers LA, Schulte-Herbrüggen B, Ejotre I, et al. (2016). "Bushmeat and Emerging Infectious Diseases: Lessons from Africa". In Angelici F (ed.). Problematic Wildlife: A Cross-Disciplinary Approach. Springer. pp. 31–57. doi:10.1007/978-3-319-22246-2_24. ISBN 978-3-319-22246-2.
  18. ^ http://www.niaid.nih.gov/about/whoWeAre/profile/fy2004/Documents/research_emerging_re-emerging.pdf
  19. ^ "NIAID Emerging Infectious Diseases/ Pathogens". www.niaid.nih.gov. NIH - National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases. 26 July 2018. Archived from the original on 18 April 2020.
  20. ^ Witte, W., Kresken, M., Braulke, C., & Cuny, C. (1997). Increasing incidence and widespread dissemination of methicillin‐resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) in hospitals in central Europe, with special reference to German hospitals. Clinical Microbiology and Infection, 3(4), 414-422.
  21. ^ Benson, M. A., Ohneck, E. A., Ryan, C., Alonzo, F., Smith, H., Narechania, A., & Torres, V. J. (2014). Evolution of hypervirulence by a MRSA clone through acquisition of a transposable element. Molecular microbiology, 93(4), 664-681.
  22. ^ a b Krishnapillai, V. (1996). Horizontal gene transfer. Journal of Genetics, 75(2), 219-232.

Further reading

  • Nathan Wolfe (2012). The Viral Storm: The Dawn of a New Pandemic Age. St. Martin's Griffin. ISBN 978-1250012210.
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