Islamophobia

Islamophobia is a neologism that according to the 2003 edition of the New Oxford Dictionary of English refers to hatred or fear of Islam or Muslims, especially as a political force. The term, the usage of which is known to date back to 1991, became prominent in the wake of the September 11, 2001 attacks.

According to Human Rights Watch and the Council on American-Islamic Relations there has been a recent increase in hate crimes against Muslims and Islamic organizations.

A number of writers, journalists, and intellectuals including Salman Rushdie, author of The Satanic Verses, have criticized the concept for allegedly confusing the criticism of Islam as a religion with stigmatisation of its believers.

History and use of the term

Dr Abduljalil Sajid (Brighton Islamic Mission, member of the Commission on British Muslims and Islamophobia and chair of the Muslim Council for Religious and Racial Harmony UK) defined the term 'Islamophobia', a word that was first used in print in 1991, by quoting extracts from the 1997 Runnymede Trust report, which provided the first official definition of the term as unfounded hostility towards Islam, and therefore fear or dislike of all or most Muslims.

It is formed with the Greek suffix -phobia 'fear of -' in a similar way to xenophobia or homophobia. It reflects the influence of such 1990s movements as multiculturalism and identity politics. During this period, some sociologists and cultural analysts argued that there was a shift in forms of prejudice from ones based on race to ones based on notions of cultural superiority and otherness.

Actions and beliefs typically described as Islamophobic range from systematic discrimination to physical assault. Hate crimes against Muslims have been categorized as "Islamophobic", as have inflammatory hate speech, and even criticism. The UK Minister Peter Hain's statement that Britain's Muslim community is "isolationist" was met with accusations of Islamophobia, and Italian prime minister Silvio Berlusconi's statement that Western civilization is 'superior' to Islam was similarly alleged to be Islamophobic. In Germany, the state of Baden-Württemberg has proposed regulations that require citizenship applicants from the member states of the Organization of the Islamic Conference to answer questions about their attitudes on homosexuality, domestic violence and other religious issues. .

Clothing has become a flashpoint of Islamophobia. France, which has a strong secular tradition separating church from State, was accused of Islamophobia when the law on secularity and conspicuous religious symbols in schools was passed, which bans the wearing of conspicuous religious symbols in public schools. The policy extends to Muslim headscarves, large Christian crosses, Jewish skullcaps, and other visible signs of religion, although small[1][2] religious symbols (such as the Qur'an and Crucifixes) are still allowed. The Dutch parliament has voted in favour of a proposal to ban the burqa in public, which has led to similar accusations.

Use in public discourse

The term most often appears in discourse on the condition of immigrant Muslims living as minorities in the United States, Europe, and Australia, although it has also been used in recent years in countries such as India, and occasionally in connection with non-immigrant Muslim communities or individuals. In the most prominent cases, however, experiences of immigrant communities of unemployment, rejection, alienation, and violence have allegedly combined with Islamophobia to make integration difficult. Maleiha Malik has argued that this has led, in the United Kingdom, to Muslim communities suffering higher levels of unemployment, poor housing, poor health, and higher levels of racially motivated violence than other communities.

Since September 11, 2001, given the strong association between Arabs and the religion of Islam, Islamophobia is sometimes expressed as a form of anti-Arab racism. In the UK, Chris Allen has argued that whilst 'anti-Arab' sentiment is quite rare, Islamophobia has been to some degree transitory: a form of 'new' or 'cultural' racism that has seen the markers of discrimination shift from those of race to those of religion. In Germany, the majority of victims have not been Arabs, but rather are from Turkey, perhaps the most secular Islamic country. Anti-Muslim bias has also occasionally been expressed in violent attacks on Sikhs who were mistaken for Muslims on account of their distinctive turbans.

It has been argued that Islamophobia also exists in India. These claims are based upon a definition of Islamophobia that is more associated with communal politics in India, although accusations of the denigration of Islamic culture and history are also present. Karen Armstrong wrote in the Guardian newspaper that Islamophobia is the modern apparation of anti-Muslim prejudice and discrimination that dates as far back as the crusades.

Secretary-General Kofi Annan told a December 7, 2004 UN conference on the emergence of Islamophobia that "[when] the world is compelled to coin a new term to take account of increasingly widespread bigotry — that it is a sad and troubling development. Such is the case with 'Islamophobia'."

Jeremy Seabrook, Dr. Anya Rudiger and the Forum Against Islamophobia & Racism have written that the effects of Islamophobia range from individual hatred to widespread discrimination or persecution.

In 2005 the Guardian, a British newspaper, commissioned an ICM poll which indicated an increase in Islamophobic incidents, especially after the July 7 Bombings. Another survey on Muslims, this by the Open Society Institute, found that of those polled 32% believed they had suffered religious descrimination at airports, and 80% said they had experienced Islamophobia.

Characterizations

Stephen Schwartz

American journalist and Muslim convert Stephen Schwartz believes that Islamophobia consists of the following:

• attacking the entire religion of Islam as a problem for the world;
• condemning all of Islam and its history as extremist;
• denying the active existence, in the contemporary world, of a moderate Muslim majority;
• insisting that Muslims accede to the demands of non-Muslims for theological changes in their religion;
• treating all conflicts involving Muslims as the fault of Muslims themselves; and
• inciting war against Islam as a whole.

Schwartz suggests that Islamophobia, so defined, actually exists, though individuals are often accused of it without justification.

Runnymede Trust

File:Islamophobia graph.png

This graph from the Runnymede Trust tries to visually summarize all aspects of Islamophobia.

In the United Kingdom, the term “Islamophobia” was not used in government policy until 1997, when the UK race relations think tank Runnymede Trust published the report Islamophobia: A Challenge For Us All. In a section entitled The Nature of Islamophobia, the report itemizes eight features that Runnymede attributed to Islamophobia:

1. Islam is seen as a monolithic bloc, static and unresponsive to change.
2. Islam is seen as separate and “other”. It does not have values in common with other cultures, is not affected by them and does not influence them.
3. Islam is seen as inferior to the West. It is seen as barbaric, irrational, primitive, and sexist.
4. Islam is seen as violent, aggressive, threatening, supportive of terrorism, and engaged in a Clash of Civilizations.
5. Islam is seen as a political ideology, used for political or military advantage.
6. Criticisms made of 'the West' by Islam are rejected out of hand.
7. Hostility towards Islam is used to justify discriminatory practices towards Muslims and exclusion of Muslims from mainstream society.
8. Anti-Muslim hostility is seen as natural and normal.

Another critic of the Runnymede definition, British columnist Josie Appleton, criticized the definition given by the Runnymede Trust thusly:

This Runnymede report talked about a rising 'anti-Muslim prejudice' that needed addressing in policy. But the section titled 'The nature of Islamophobia' suggests a very broad notion of prejudice — examples of Islamophobia included people seeing Islam as inferior to the West, rather than just distinctively different; seeing Islam as monolithic and static, rather than diverse and progressive; seeing Islam as an enemy, rather than a partner to cooperate with (7). This also seemed to be founded on an over-sensitivity, an attempt to stem any kind of criticism of Islam. Rather than engage Muslims in debate, non-Muslims are supposed to tiptoe around them, for fear of causing offence. Since 11 September we have seen how this attitude can stifle discussion.

UK researcher Chris Allen has not rejected the concept of Islamophobia but has criticised the primary theory, concept and definition of Islamophobia—that of the Runnymede Trust—as naïve and over‐simplified.

The Runnymede Trust issued a report in 2004 which said that Islamophobia had become institutional in many Public bodies.

FAIR - Forum against Islamophobia and Racism

The UK based Forum against Islamophobia and Racism defines Islamophobia on its Website. It says:
"Islamophobia is the fear, hatred or hostility directed towards Islam and Muslims. Islamophobia affects all aspects of Muslim life and can be expressed in several ways, including:
•attacks, abuse and violence against Muslims
•attacks on mosques, Islamic centres and Muslim cemeteries
•discrimination in education, employment, housing, and delivery of goods and services
•lack of provisions and respect for Muslims in public institutions."

Council of Europe

The Council of Europe defines Islamophobia as "the fear of or prejudiced viewpoint towards Islam, Muslims and matters pertaining to them".

Roger Hardy, BBC

Roger Hardy, the BBCs Islamic affairs analyst, defines Islamophobia as "fear and hatred of Islam and Muslims".

EUMC Report into Islamophobia in the EU following 9/11

The largest monitoring project ever to be commissioned into Islamophobia was undertaken following 9/11 by the European Monitoring Centre on Racism and Xenophobia (EUMC).

From a total of 75 reports – 15 from each EU member nation - a synthesis report was published in May 2002. Entitled 'Summary report on Islamophobia in the EU after 11 September 2001' it was co-authored by Chris Allen and Jorgen S. Nielsen at the University of Birmingham, England.

The report highlighted the regularity with which ordinary Muslims became targets for abusive and sometimes violent retaliatory attacks, all of which were seemingly becoming more extreme and accepted.

According to the report, despite localised differences within each member nation, the recurrence of attacks at street level upon recognisable and visible traits of Islam and Muslims was the report's most significant finding. These attacks took such form as the following: verbal abuse indiscriminately blaming all Muslims for terrorist attacks; women having their hijab torn from their heads; male and female Muslims being spat at; children being called 'Usama' as a term of insult and derision; and random assaults, which on one occasion, left a victim paralysed and others hospitalised.

The representation of Muslims in the media was also noted. Whilst some media initially attempted to differentiate Muslims, this was not always the norm. Inherent negativity, stereotypical images, fantastical representations and grossly exaggerated caricatures were all readily identifiable, drawing upon pre-9/11 established norms to locate further justification and resonance within the media’s audiences.

Similar concerns about the role of politicians and other opinion leaders were also raised. Within the mainstream of political activity, some political leaders made immediate verbal statements stressing the need to differentiate between 'Muslims' and 'terrorists'. In Portugal however, political leaders remained silent. In some other countries, mainstream political leaders were much more vocal and emotionally charged as regards anti-Muslim rhetoric, with both Italy and Denmark being earmarked in the report.

The report concluded that, 'a greater receptivity towards anti-Muslim and other xenophobic ideas and sentiments has, and may well continue, to become more tolerated' .

Criticism of the concept and its usage

Some critics of the term have argued that it has been used as an attempt to police or censor opinion by characterizing any criticism of Islam or Muslims as pathological and irrational. Some of these critics cite the case of the British liberal feminist journalist Polly Toynbee, who was nominated for the title of "Most Islamophobic Media Personality of the Year" at the Annual Islamophobia Awards overseen by the Islamic Human Rights Commission in May 2003. The nomination was based on her comments in an article she had written for the London-based liberal newspaper The Guardian:

Religious politics scar India, Kashmir, Northern Ireland, Sri Lanka, Sudan ... the list of countries wrecked by religion is long. But the present danger is caused by Islamist theocracy ... There is no point in pretending it is not so. Wherever Islam either is the government or bears down upon the government, it imposes harsh regimes that deny the most basic human rights.

Toynbee has rejected the label of "Islamophobe" and argued that her comments must be judged on their truth or falsity, not on the offence they might give to most members of the Muslim community.

Civil-rights activist Bahram Soroush views the term Islamophobia as a form of "Intellectual blackmail", a means of avoiding legitimate criticism of Islam by "scaremongering".

Kenan Malik, a British science writer, while admitting that "there is clearly ignorance and fear of Islam in this country. Muslims do get harassed and attacked because of their faith", has made several points in rejecting the widespread existence of Islamophobia in his essay The Islamophobia Myth:

• Caution is needed in attributing Islamophobia as the base cause of any event.
• It is not sufficient that a Muslim is a victim of crime.
• The accusation of Islamophobia can be used as a mechanism to stifle debate and criticism of the cultural practices of Muslim societies.
• Finally, anti-social behaviour and deliquency may be the cause of any of the events cited as being islamophobic attacks.

Malik's perceptions have been challenged by Inayat Bunglawala, of the Muslim Council of Britain, who, in a letter to the Guardian, highlights instances of apparent Islamophobia which Malik has omitted. To illustrate this point, he mentions a BBC survey which he claims found that job applicants with traditional English names were more likely to be granted an interview than applicants with identical qualifications and work experience, but with Muslim sounding names.

Wolfram Richter, professor of economics in the Dortmund University believes that what is seen as Islamophobia is essentially just another form of racism, and beleives the next Holocaust will be against Muslims.

On December 7, 2004 at a U.N. sponsored seminar entitled "Confronting Islamophobia: Education for Tolerance and Understanding”, Ahmed Kamal Aboulmagd Ph.D., a former member of the Government of Egypt, disputed the neologism and described the term as "derogatory".

The Dutch philosopher and criminal law expert Afshin Ellian, criticised the concept in February 2006 in a piece entitled Stop Capitulating to Threats. He stated:

Free speech is in danger of being increasingly restricted by invoking “Islamophobia” and “racism”. And some intellectuals have already capitulated. For example, the opera Aisha was called off in Rotterdam in 2001, because the wife of the Prophet was depicted on stage. The production had to be cancelled because a number of actresses felt threatened. Recently a columnist on the national daily NRC Handelsblad, Hasna el Maroudi was forced to abandon her column because of threats of violence from the Moroccan community. What has happened to civil courage? Why do we hear nothing from the publishers, artists, media and colleagues of people who have capitulated about the consequences of this voluntary capitulation?

The University of London philosopher Piers Benn suggests in the New Humanist that:

Many who fear the rise of Islamophobia veer away from critical analysis of Islamic claims and practices, perhaps for fear of what they might find. They denounce critical scrutiny of Islam as somehow impolite, or ignorant of the religion’s true nature. This is not intellectually or morally healthy. The real lesson of tolerance is that disputes should be settled by reasoned dialogue rather than abuse or violence, and that we should always accept that we may have much to learn from people whose beliefs initially appear strange. But these virtues are a far cry from the sentimental pretence that all claims to religious truth are somehow ‘equal’, or that critical scrutiny of Islam (or any belief system) is ignorant, prejudiced, or ‘phobic’.

The New Criterion editor Roger Kimball agrees with Benn's depiction of Islamophobia becoming powerful enough to itself trigger fear:

While we are waiting for that backlash, and humming “Let’s Not Be Beastly to the Muslims,” it is worth noting the word “Islamophobia” is a misnomer. A phobia describes an irrational fear, and it is axiomatic that fearing the effects of radical Islam is not irrational, but on the contrary very well-founded indeed, so that if you want to speak of a legitimate phobia—it’s a phobia I experience frequently—we should speak instead of Islamophobia-phobia, the fear of and revulsion towards Islamophobia.

The National Secular Society concurs with Benn and Kimball in seeing Islamophobiaphobia in that:

There is little evidence of any wave of popular Islamophobia. But there is plenty to suggest that some in high places are suffering from an exaggerated fear of an anti-Muslim backlash, viewing the public as a pogrom waiting to happen.

The Washington Times columnist Tony Blankley distinguishes between Islamophobia and what he calls Islamistphobia:

Of course Islamophobia is a repulsive mentality -- suggestive of old-fashioned hate of others. But, as Denmark's leading Islamic scholar, Jacob Skovgaard-Petersen, explained in 2004, there is a different and growing phobia, which he named "Islamistphobia." This is not an atavistic hatred of another man's skin or faith or last name, but is instead the fear of the ideas and conduct of radical Muslims.

He argues further that undue fears of Islamophobia resulting from conflation of Islamophobia with "Islamistphobia" undermine the United States's national security.

Examples of usage in public discourse

Efforts against Islamophobia

Globally there have been a series of efforts against islamophobia, some of these efforts are detailed below.

In 2006 the Organization of the Islamic Conference (OIC) set up an observatory on Islamophobia which will monitor and document all anti-Islamic activities around the world.

In the EU

During the ascession talks regarding Turkeys posible entry to the EU, the Prime Minister of Holland, Jan Peter Balkenende, said Islamophobia must not affect the possibility of Turkey's entry to the European Union.

In France

50,000 people signed a petition urging the President of France, Jacques Chirac to curb the growing hatred and discrimination towards Muslims in France.

In the Netherlands

In 1992 a book named The Downfall of the Netherlands was banned and its Pakistani born author fined a sum of 2000 guilders for inciting hatred. [3]

In the UK

In the UK a number of methods aimed at curbing Islamophobia have been set up. In Tower Hamlets, a densely populated area with a large Muslim community, a crime reporting scheme called "Islamophobia - Don't Suffer in Silence" has been set up which police hope will raise awareness of Islamophobia and help them to understand the extent of the problem. The British National Union of Teachers (NUT) has issued guidance to teachers in the union advising that teachers have to "Challenge Islamophobia", and that they have a "crucial role" to play in helping to "dispel myths about Muslim communities".

Following the Jyllands-Posten Muhammad cartoons controversy around four thousand people participated in a march in Trafalgar Square in opposition to Islamophobia and incitement.. A similar themed march, a week later, drew around ten thousand people to the same place .

Following the July 7 bombings, the British government set up a number of initiatives aimed at combatting Islamophobia, including the "National Forum against extremism and Islamophobia". There was also plans by the British government to ban incitement to "religious hatred", however, this failed to get through the House of Commons.

The Mayor of London, Ken Livingstone, said that the Media bore some responsibility for the apparent rise in Islamophobia, and said that a "rising tide of Islamophobia" in the media must be challenged. He compared the reporting of Muslims in contemporary Britain to the way the flight of Jews from Russia had been covered 100 years ago.

In Austria

In 2006 the Catholic Mission Austria and the Islamic Demonination Austria created a platform called Christians and Muslims, which works against stereotypes and hostility and aims to increase tolerance and respect. As of July 25, 2006 the platform has 1452 supporters.

In Spain

In 1991 the Islamic Culture Foundation (FUNCI) organised, in collaboration with UNESCO and the Institut du Monde Arabe of Paris, an International Conference about the Contribution of Islamic Civilization in European Culture. In March 13 2003 they created a Manifesto against Islamophobia.

In Asia

While in Kazakhstan, the former Pontiff, Pope John Paul II, prayed for "both Christian and Muslims to raise an intense prayer to the one almighty God", and begged "God to keep the world in peace". He won praise from the President of Kazakhstan, Nursultan Nazarbayev, for "protecting the world from Islamophobia".

In the Middle East

The Hashemite Kingdom of Jordan issued a call in 1999 to world leaders to combat Islamophobia. Abdel-Elah Khatib, the Jordanian foreign minister said "The international community must consider how to confront this phenomenon of Islamophobia in order to prevent its proliferation".

In March 2005, Queen Noor of Jordan, while on the BBC television programme "Breakfast with Frost", said that "What grieves me today, truly, is the fact that not only in the United States but also in Europe we've seen the rise, over the last few years, of Islamophobia" adding that "Muslim populations and the Muslim world has been increasingly, not decreasingly, viewed as a menace, as alien, as, perhaps, incompatible with Western societies and values. And I passionately believe that that is not true and that we have a great deal of work to do there.".

References in connection to Islamophobia

• 2005 Cronulla riots
• Dalil Boubakeur, a director of a Paris mosque described the vandalism on a Mosque in Paris, France as Islamophobic.
• Attack on a Mosque in Brisbane, Australia.
• Attack on a Muslim Sanctuary in the Spanish city of Ceuta.
• Smearing of a Qur'an with what appeared to be feces and dumping it in Nashville, Tennessee, United States.
• Pat Robertson founder of the Christian Broadcasting Network calls Islam "Demonic" and alludes to a mass Muslim conspiracy for "world domination".
• Attacks on Hijabi women in the University of Toronto.
• On November 9, 2001 syndicated columnist Cal Thomas quoted John Ashcroft as having said: "Islam is a religion in which God requires you to send your son to die for him. Christianity is a faith in which God sends his son to die for you.". However, a White House spokesperson said "I understand from the Justice Department that the attorney general has been misquoted, and that the misquotes do not accurately reflect either what he said or what he believes." Cal Thomas has stood by veracity of the quote.
• Jyllands-Posten Muhammad cartoons controversy
• French law on secularity and conspicuous religious symbols in schools
• "The Force of Reason" written by Italian journalist Oriana Fallaci
• The Islamic Human Rights Commission has described British prison guards as Islamophobic.
• Oliver Duff of The Independent has alleged that the British National Party has attempted to use increasing Islamophobia to make gains in local elections.
• The political views of Filip Dewinter.
• Destruction and vandalism of Muslim graves in France.
• Vandalism of Muslim Graves in Charlton cemetery in Plumstead, London.
• Muslim protesters alleged that the Forest Gate anti terror raid in London was Islamophobic.
• The Council on American-Islamic Relations has alleged that the views of Ann Coulter are Islamophobic

See also

• Persecution of Muslims
• Religious intolerance
• Clash of Civilizations
• Alliance of Civilizations
• Islamofascism

External links

• "Deep roots of Islamophobia by James Brooks, Islamonline.net
• Forum against Islamophobia and Racism
• Misconceptions about Islam
• Islamophobia.org
• "Islamophobia", Islamicawareness.net
• Islamophobia Watch
• "Muslims and the European Right" by Abdal-Hakim Murad, Masud.co.uk, first delivered as a lecture on April 30, 2000
• Islamophobia resources: writing, articles & publications
• Scholars of the house-on revising bigotry
• The Road to the Muslim Holocaust
• "Down with multiculturalism, book-burning and fatwas" by Norman Lamont, The Telegraph, 8 May 2002
• Negative Perception Of Islam Increasing by Claudia Deane and Darryl Fears, Washington Post, March 9, 2006

Links criticising the concept of Islamophobia

• Kenan Malik: The Islamophobia myth
• Islamophobia? by Daniel Pipes
• "How can we have respect for Islam when we are too fearful to criticise it?" by Muriel Gray, The Herald, 5 February 2006