Vascular dementia
Vascular dementia | |
---|---|
Other names | Arteriosclerotic dementia (in the ICD-9) Multi-infarct dementia (in the ICD-10) Vascular cognitive impairment |
Specialty | Psychiatry, neurology ![]() |
Symptoms | Cognitive impairment |
Vascular dementia (VaD) is dementia caused by problems in the supply of blood to the brain, typically a series of minor strokes, leading to worsening cognitive abilities, the decline occurring piecemeal.[1] The term refers to a syndrome consisting of a complex interaction of cerebrovascular disease and risk factors that lead to changes in brain structures due to strokes and lesions, resulting in changes in cognition. The temporal relationship between a stroke and cognitive deficits is needed to make the diagnosis.[2]
Signs and symptoms
Differentiating dementia syndromes can be challenging, due to the frequently overlapping clinical features and related underlying pathology. In particular, Alzheimer's disease often co-occurs with vascular dementia.[3][4]
People with vascular dementia present with progressive cognitive impairment, acutely or sub-acutely as in mild cognitive impairment, frequently step-wise, after multiple cerebrovascular events (strokes). Some people may appear to improve between events and decline after further silent strokes. A rapidly deteriorating condition may lead to death from a stroke, heart disease, or infection.[5]
The disease is described as both a mental disorder and behavioural disorder within the International Classification of Diseases.[6] Signs and symptoms are cognitive, motor, behavioral, and for a significant proportion of patients, also affective. These changes typically occur over a period of 5–10 years. Signs are typically the same as in other dementias, but mainly include cognitive decline and memory impairment of sufficient severity as to interfere with activities of daily living, sometimes with presence of focal neurologic signs, and evidence of features consistent with cerebrovascular disease on brain imaging (CT or MRI).[7] The neurologic signs localizing to certain areas of the brain that can be observed are hemiparesis, bradykinesia, hyperreflexia, extensor plantar reflexes, ataxia, pseudobulbar palsy, as well as gait problems and swallowing difficulties. People have patchy deficits in terms of cognitive testing. They tend to have better free recall and fewer recall intrusions when compared with patients with Alzheimer's disease.[8] In the more severely affected patients, or patients affected by infarcts in Wernicke's or Broca's areas, specific problems with speaking called dysarthria and aphasias may be present.[citation needed]
In small vessel disease, the frontal lobes are often affected. Consequently, patients with vascular dementia tend to perform worse than their Alzheimer's disease counterparts in frontal lobe tasks, such as verbal fluency, and may present with frontal lobe problems: apathy, abulia (lack of will or initiative), problems with attention, orientation, and urinary incontinence. They tend to exhibit more perseverative behavior. VaD patients may also present with general slowing of processing ability, difficulty shifting sets, and impairment in abstract thinking. Apathy early in the disease is more suggestive of vascular dementia.[citation needed]
Rare genetic disorders that cause vascular lesions in the brain have other presentation patterns. As a rule, they tend to occur earlier in life and have a more aggressive course. In addition, infectious disorders, such as syphilis, can cause arterial damage, strokes, and bacterial inflammation of the brain.[citation needed]
Causes
Vascular dementia can be caused by ischemic or hemorrhagic infarcts affecting multiple brain areas, including the anterior cerebral artery territory, the parietal lobes, or the cingulate gyrus. On rare occasion, infarcts in the hippocampus or thalamus are the cause of dementia.[9] A history of stroke increases the risk of developing dementia by around 70%, and recent stroke increases the risk by around 120%.[10] Brain vascular lesions can also be the result of diffuse cerebrovascular disease, such as small vessel disease.[citation needed]
Risk factors for vascular dementia include age, hypertension, smoking, hypercholesterolemia, diabetes mellitus, cardiovascular disease, and cerebrovascular disease. Other risk factors include geographic origin, genetic predisposition, and prior strokes.[11]
Vascular dementia can sometimes be triggered by cerebral amyloid angiopathy, which involves accumulation of beta amyloid plaques in the walls of the cerebral arteries, leading to breakdown and rupture of the vessels. Since amyloid plaques are a characteristic feature of Alzheimer's disease, vascular dementia may occur as a consequence. Cerebral amyloid angiopathy can, however, appear in people with no prior dementia condition. Amyloid beta accumulation is often present in cognitively normal elderly people.[12][13]
Two reviews of 2018 and 2019 found potentially an association between celiac disease and vascular dementia.[14][15]
Diagnosis
Several specific diagnostic criteria can be used to diagnose vascular dementia,[16] including the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, Fourth Edition (DSM-IV) criteria, the International Classification of Diseases, Tenth Edition (ICD-10) criteria, the National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke criteria, Association Internationale pour la Recherche et l'Enseignement en Neurosciences (NINDS-AIREN) criteria,[17] the Alzheimer's Disease Diagnostic and Treatment Center criteria, and the Hachinski Ischemic Score (after Vladimir Hachinski).[18]
The recommended investigations for cognitive impairment include: blood tests (for anemia, vitamin deficiency, thyrotoxicosis, infection, etc.), chest X-Ray, ECG, and neuroimaging, preferably a scan with a functional or metabolic sensitivity beyond a simple CT or MRI. When available as a diagnostic tool, single photon emission computed tomography (SPECT) and positron emission tomography (PET) neuroimaging may be used to confirm a diagnosis of multi-infarct dementia in conjunction with evaluations involving mental status examination.[19] In a person already having dementia, SPECT appears to be superior in differentiating multi-infarct dementia from Alzheimer's disease, compared to the usual mental testing and medical history analysis.[20] Advances have led to the proposal of new diagnostic criteria.[21][22]
The screening blood tests typically include full blood count, liver function tests, thyroid function tests, lipid profile, erythrocyte sedimentation rate, C reactive protein, syphilis serology, calcium serum level, fasting glucose, urea, electrolytes, vitamin B-12, and folate. In selected patients, HIV serology and certain autoantibody testing may be done.[citation needed]
Mixed dementia is diagnosed when people have evidence of Alzheimer's disease and cerebrovascular disease, either clinically or based on neuro-imaging evidence of ischemic lesions.[23]
Pathology
Gross examination of the brain may reveal noticeable lesions and damage to blood vessels. Accumulation of various substances such as lipid deposits and clotted blood appear on microscopic views. The white matter is most affected, with noticeable atrophy (tissue loss), in addition to calcification of the arteries.[24] Microinfarcts may also be present in the gray matter (cerebral cortex), sometimes in large numbers. Although atheroma of the major cerebral arteries is typical in vascular dementia, smaller vessels and arterioles are mainly affected.[citation needed]
Prevention
Early detection and accurate diagnosis are important,[25] as vascular dementia is at least partially preventable. Ischemic changes in the brain are irreversible, but the patient with vascular dementia can demonstrate periods of stability or even mild improvement.[26] Since stroke is an essential part of vascular dementia,[10] the goal is to prevent new strokes. This is attempted through reduction of stroke risk factors, such as high blood pressure, high blood lipid levels, atrial fibrillation, or diabetes mellitus. Meta-analyses have found that medications for high blood pressure are effective at prevention of pre-stroke dementia, which means that high blood pressure treatment should be started early.[27] These medications include angiotensin converting enzyme inhibitors, diuretics, calcium channel blockers, sympathetic nerve inhibitors, angiotensin II receptor antagonists or adrenergic antagonists. Elevated lipid levels, including HDL, were found to increase risk of vascular dementia. However, six large recent reviews showed that therapy with statin drugs was ineffective in treatment or prevention of this dementia.[27][28] Aspirin is a medication that is commonly prescribed for prevention of strokes and heart attacks; it is also frequently given to patients with dementia. However, its efficacy in slowing progression of dementia or improving cognition has not been supported by studies.[27][29] Smoking cessation and Mediterranean diet have not been found to help patients with cognitive impairment; physical activity was consistently the most effective method of preventing cognitive decline.[27]
Treatment
Currently, there are no medications that have been approved specifically for prevention or treatment of vascular dementia. The use of medications for treatment of Alzheimer's dementia, such as cholinesterase inhibitors and memantine, has shown small[quantify] improvement of cognition in vascular dementia. This is most likely due to the drugs' actions on co-existing AD-related pathology. Multiple studies found a small[quantify] benefit in VaD treatment with: memantine, a non-competitive N-methyl-D-aspartate (NMDA) receptor antagonist; cholinesterase inhibitors galantamine, donepezil, rivastigmine;[30] Studies have been proposed to evaluate whether an extract of Ginkgo biloba EGb761 improves cognition, daily activities, and quality of life in treating vascular dementia.[31]
In those with celiac disease or non-celiac gluten sensitivity, a strict gluten-free diet may relieve symptoms of mild cognitive impairment.[14][15] It should be started as soon as possible. There is no evidence that a gluten free diet is useful against advanced dementia. People with no digestive symptoms are less likely to receive early diagnosis and treatment.[15]
General management of dementia includes referral to community services, aid with judgment and decision-making regarding legal and ethical issues (e.g., driving, capacity, advance directives), and consideration of caregiver stress. Behavioral and affective symptoms deserve special consideration in this patient group. These problems tend to resist conventional psychopharmacological treatment, and often lead to hospital admission and placement in permanent care.[citation needed]
Prognosis
Many studies have been conducted to determine average survival of patients with dementia. The studies were frequently small and limited, which caused contradictory results in the connection of mortality to the type of dementia and the patient's gender. A very large study conducted in Netherlands in 2015 found that the one-year mortality was three to four times higher in patients after their first referral to a day clinic for dementia, when compared to the general population.[32] If the patient was hospitalized for dementia, the mortality was even higher than in patients hospitalized for cardiovascular disease.[32] Vascular dementia was found to have either comparable or worse survival rates when compared to Alzheimer's Disease;[33][34][35] another very large 2014 Swedish study found that the prognosis for VaD patients was worse for male and older patients.[36]
Unlike Alzheimer's disease, which weakens the patient, causing them to succumb to bacterial infections like pneumonia, vascular dementia can be a direct cause of death due to the possibility of a fatal interruption in the brain's blood supply.[citation needed]
Epidemiology
Vascular dementia is the second-most-common form of dementia after Alzheimer's disease (AD) in older adults.[37] The prevalence of the illness is 1.5% in Western countries and approximately 2.2% in Japan. It accounts for 50% of all dementias in Japan, 20% to 40% in Europe and 15% in Latin America. 25% of stroke patients develop new-onset dementia within one year of their stroke. One study found that in the United States, the prevalence of vascular dementia in all people over the age of 71 is 2.43%, and another found that the prevalence of the dementias doubles with every 5.1 years of age.[38][39] The incidence peaks between the fourth and the seventh decades of life and 80% of patients have a history of hypertension.[40][41]
A recent meta-analysis identified 36 studies of prevalent stroke (1.9 million participants) and 12 studies of incident stroke (1.3 million participants).[10] For prevalent stroke, the pooled hazard ratio for all-cause dementia was 1.69 (95% confidence interval: 1.49–1.92; P < .00001; I2 = 87%). For incident stroke, the pooled risk ratio was 2.18 (95% confidence interval: 1.90–2.50; P < .00001; I2 = 88%). Study characteristics did not modify these associations, with the exception of sex, which explained 50.2% of between-study heterogeneity for prevalent stroke. These results confirm that stroke is a strong, independent, and potentially modifiable risk factor for all-cause dementia.[10]
See also
References
- ^ MedlinePlus Encyclopedia: Multi-infarct dementia
- ^ Cunningham EL, McGuinness B, Herron B, Passmore AP (May 2015). "Dementia". The Ulster Medical Journal. 84 (2): 79–87. PMC 4488926. PMID 26170481.
- ^ Karantzoulis S, Galvin JE (November 2011). "Distinguishing Alzheimer's disease from other major forms of dementia". Expert Review of Neurotherapeutics. 11 (11): 1579–91. doi:10.1586/ern.11.155. PMC 3225285. PMID 22014137.
- ^ "Vascular Dementia". MayoClinic.org. Mayo Clinic. Retrieved 31 March 2021.
- ^ Office of Communications and Public Liaison. "NINDS Multi-Infarct Dementia Information Page". www.ninds.nih.gov. Retrieved 19 September 2017.
- ^ Sartorius, Norman; Henderson, A.S.; Strotzka, H.; Lipowski, Z.; Yu-cun, Shen; You-xin, Xu; Strömgren, E.; Glatzel, J.; Kühne, G.-E.; Misès, R.; Soldatos, C.R.; Pull, C.B.; Giel, R.; Jegede, R.; Malt, U.; Nadzharov, R.A.; Smulevitch, A.B.; Hagberg, B.; Perris, C.; Scharfetter, C.; Clare, A.; Cooper, J.E.; Corbett, J.A.; Griffith Edwards, J.; Gelder, M.; Goldberg, D.; Gossop, M.; Graham, P.; Kendell, R.E.; Marks, I.; Russell, G.; Rutter, M.; Shepherd, M.; West, D.J.; Wing, J.; Wing, L.; Neki, J.S.; Benson, F.; Cantwell, D.; Guze, S.; Helzer, J.; Holzman, P.; Kleinman, A.; Kupfer, D.J.; Mezzich, J.; Spitzer, R.; Lokar, J. "The ICD-10 Classification of Mental and Behavioural Disorders Clinical descriptions and diagnostic guidelines" (PDF). www.who.int World Health Organization. p. 50. Retrieved 23 June 2021.
{{cite web}}
: CS1 maint: url-status (link) - ^ Encyclopedia of the Human Brain - Dementia Associated with Depression. Oxford: Elsevier Science and Technology. 2002. Retrieved 20 September 2012.
- ^ Alagiakrishnan, Kannayiram. "Vascular Dementia Clinical Presentation: History, Physical, Causes". emedicine.medscape.com. Retrieved 19 March 2021.
- ^ Love S (December 2005). "Neuropathological investigation of dementia: a guide for neurologists". Journal of Neurology, Neurosurgery, and Psychiatry. 76 Suppl 5 (supplement 5): v8-14. doi:10.1136/jnnp.2005.080754. PMC 1765714. PMID 16291923.
- ^ a b c d Kuźma E, Lourida I, Moore SF, Levine DA, Ukoumunne OC, Llewellyn DJ (November 2018). "Stroke and dementia risk: A systematic review and meta-analysis". Alzheimer's & Dementia. 14 (11): 1416–1426. doi:10.1016/j.jalz.2018.06.3061. PMC 6231970. PMID 30177276.
- ^ Arvanitakis Z. "Dementia And Vascular Disease". Archived from the original on 2012-01-20.
- ^ Vlassenko AG, Mintun MA, Xiong C, Sheline YI, Goate AM, Benzinger TL, Morris JC (November 2011). "Amyloid-beta plaque growth in cognitively normal adults: longitudinal [11C]Pittsburgh compound B data". Annals of Neurology. 70 (5): 857–61. doi:10.1002/ana.22608. PMC 3243969. PMID 22162065.
- ^ Sojkova J, Zhou Y, An Y, Kraut MA, Ferrucci L, Wong DF, Resnick SM (May 2011). "Longitudinal patterns of β-amyloid deposition in nondemented older adults". Archives of Neurology. 68 (5): 644–9. doi:10.1001/archneurol.2011.77. PMC 3136195. PMID 21555640.
- ^ a b Makhlouf S, Messelmani M, Zaouali J, Mrissa R (2018). "Cognitive impairment in celiac disease and non-celiac gluten sensitivity: review of literature on the main cognitive impairments, the imaging and the effect of gluten free diet". Acta Neurol Belg (Review). 118 (1): 21–27. doi:10.1007/s13760-017-0870-z. PMID 29247390. S2CID 3943047.
- ^ a b c Zis P, Hadjivassiliou M (26 February 2019). "Treatment of Neurological Manifestations of Gluten Sensitivity and Coeliac Disease". Curr Treat Options Neurol (Review). 21 (3): 10. doi:10.1007/s11940-019-0552-7. PMID 30806821.
- ^ Wetterling T, Kanitz RD, Borgis KJ (January 1996). "Comparison of different diagnostic criteria for vascular dementia (ADDTC, DSM-IV, ICD-10, NINDS-AIREN)". Stroke. 27 (1): 30–6. doi:10.1161/01.str.27.1.30. PMID 8553399.[permanent dead link]
- ^ Tang WK, Chan SS, Chiu HF, Ungvari GS, Wong KS, Kwok TC, Mok V, Wong KT, Richards PS, Ahuja AT (2004). "Impact of applying NINDS-AIREN criteria of probable vascular dementia to clinical and radiological characteristics of a stroke cohort with dementia". Cerebrovascular Diseases. 18 (2): 98–103. doi:10.1159/000079256. PMID 15218273. S2CID 42917588.
- ^ Pantoni L, Inzitari D (October 1993). "Hachinski's ischemic score and the diagnosis of vascular dementia: a review". Italian Journal of Neurological Sciences. 14 (7): 539–46. doi:10.1007/BF02339212. PMID 8282525. S2CID 1990332.
- ^ Bonte FJ, Harris TS, Hynan LS, Bigio EH, White CL (July 2006). "Tc-99m HMPAO SPECT in the Differential Diagnosis of the Dementias with Histopathologic Confirmation". Clinical Nuclear Medicine. 31 (7): 376–378. doi:10.1097/01.rlu.0000222736.81365.63. PMID 16785801. S2CID 39518497.
{{cite journal}}
: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) - ^ Dougall NJ, Bruggink S, Ebmeier KP (2004). "Systematic Review of the Diagnostic Accuracy of 99mTc-HMPAO-SPECT in Dementia". American Journal of Geriatric Psychiatry. 12 (6): 554–570. doi:10.1176/appi.ajgp.12.6.554. PMID 15545324.
{{cite journal}}
: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) - ^ Waldemar G.; Dubois B.; Emre M.; et al. (January 2007). "Recommendations for the Diagnosis and Management of Alzheimer's Disease and Other Disorders Associated with Dementia: EFNS guideline". European Journal of Neurology. 14 (1): e1–26. doi:10.1111/j.1468-1331.2006.01605.x. PMID 17222085.
- ^ From NINCDS-ADRDA Alzheimer's Criteria: Dubois B, Feldman HH, Jacova C, Dekosky ST, Barberger-Gateau P, Cummings J, Delacourte A, Galasko D, Gauthier S, Jicha G, Meguro K, O'brien J, Pasquier F, Robert P, Rossor M, Salloway S, Stern Y, Visser PJ, Scheltens P (August 2007). "Research criteria for the diagnosis of Alzheimer's disease: revising the NINCDS-ADRDA criteria". The Lancet. Neurology. 6 (8): 734–46. doi:10.1016/S1474-4422(07)70178-3. PMID 17616482. S2CID 7356809.
- ^ Custodio, Nilton; Montesinos, Rosa; Lira, David; Herrera-Pérez, Eder; Bardales, Yadira; Valeriano-Lorenzo, Lucía (2017). "Mixed dementia: A review of the evidence". Dementia & Neuropsychologia. 11 (4): 364–370. doi:10.1590/1980-57642016dn11-040005. ISSN 1980-5764. PMC 5769994. PMID 29354216.
- ^ Hase, Yoshiki; Horsburgh, Karen; Ihara, Masafumi; Kalaria, Raj N. (2018). "White matter degeneration in vascular and other ageing-related dementias". Journal of Neurochemistry. 144 (5): 617–633. doi:10.1111/jnc.14271. PMID 29210074. S2CID 33778577.
- ^ McVeigh, Catherine; Passmore, Peter (Sep 2006). "Vascular dementia: prevention and treatment". Clinical Interventions in Aging. 1 (3): 229–235. doi:10.2147/ciia.2006.1.3.229. ISSN 1176-9092. PMC 2695177. PMID 18046875.
{{cite journal}}
: CS1 maint: unflagged free DOI (link) - ^ Erkinjuntti, Timo (Feb 2012). Gelder, Michael; Andreasen, Nancy; Lopez-Ibor, Juan; Geddes, John (eds.). New Oxford Textbook of Psychiatry (2 ed.). Oxford: Oxford University Press. doi:10.1093/med/9780199696758.001.0001. ISBN 9780199696758. Retrieved 7 November 2015.
- ^ a b c d Baskys A, Cheng JX (November 2012). "Pharmacological prevention and treatment of vascular dementia: approaches and perspectives". Experimental Gerontology. 47 (11): 887–91. doi:10.1016/j.exger.2012.07.002. PMID 22796225. S2CID 1153876.
- ^ Mijajlović MD, Pavlović A, Brainin M, Heiss WD, Quinn TJ, Ihle-Hansen HB, et al. (January 2017). "Post-stroke dementia - a comprehensive review". BMC Medicine. 15 (1): 11. doi:10.1186/s12916-017-0779-7. PMC 5241961. PMID 28095900.
{{cite journal}}
: CS1 maint: unflagged free DOI (link) - ^ Rands, Gianetta; Orrell, Martin (23 October 2000). "Aspirin for vascular dementia". Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews. 2012 (4): CD001296. doi:10.1002/14651858.cd001296. PMC 4171457. PMID 11034710.
- ^ J, Birks; B, McGuinness; D, Craig (2013-05-31). "Rivastigmine for Vascular Cognitive Impairment". The Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews (5): CD004744. doi:10.1002/14651858.CD004744.pub3. PMID 23728651. Retrieved 2020-05-29.
- ^ Wang, M; Peng, H; Peng, Z; et al. (11 September 2020). "Efficacy and safety of ginkgo preparation in patients with vascular dementia: A protocol for systematic review and meta-analysis". Medicine. 99 (37): e22209. doi:10.1097/MD.0000000000022209. PMC 7489658. PMID 32925798.
- ^ a b van de Vorst IE, Vaartjes I, Geerlings MI, Bots ML, Koek HL (October 2015). "Prognosis of patients with dementia: results from a prospective nationwide registry linkage study in the Netherlands". BMJ Open. 5 (10): e008897. doi:10.1136/bmjopen-2015-008897. PMC 4636675. PMID 26510729.
- ^ Guehne U, Riedel-Heller S, Angermeyer MC (2005). "Mortality in dementia". Neuroepidemiology. 25 (3): 153–62. doi:10.1159/000086680. PMID 15990446. S2CID 34748156.
- ^ Bruandet A, Richard F, Bombois S, Maurage CA, Deramecourt V, Lebert F, Amouyel P, Pasquier F (February 2009). "Alzheimer disease with cerebrovascular disease and vascular dementia: clinical features and course compared with Alzheimer disease". Journal of Neurology, Neurosurgery, and Psychiatry. 80 (2): 133–9. doi:10.1136/jnnp.2007.137851. PMID 18977819. S2CID 31195983.
- ^ Villarejo A, Benito-León J, Trincado R, Posada IJ, Puertas-Martín V, Boix R, Medrano MR, Bermejo-Pareja F (2011). "Dementia-associated mortality at thirteen years in the NEDICES Cohort Study". Journal of Alzheimer's Disease. 26 (3): 543–51. doi:10.3233/JAD-2011-110443. PMID 21694455.
- ^ Garcia-Ptacek S, Farahmand B, Kåreholt I, Religa D, Cuadrado ML, Eriksdotter M (2014). "Mortality risk after dementia diagnosis by dementia type and underlying factors: a cohort of 15,209 patients based on the Swedish Dementia Registry". Journal of Alzheimer's Disease. 41 (2): 467–77. doi:10.3233/JAD-131856. PMID 24625796.
- ^ Battistin L, Cagnin A (December 2010). "Vascular cognitive disorder. A biological and clinical overview". Neurochemical Research. 35 (12): 1933–8. doi:10.1007/s11064-010-0346-5. PMID 21127967. S2CID 25151407.
- ^ Plassman BL, Langa KM, Fisher GG, Heeringa SG, Weir DR, Ofstedal MB, Burke JR, Hurd MD, Potter GG, Rodgers WL, Steffens DC, Willis RJ, Wallace RB (2007). "Prevalence of dementia in the United States: the aging, demographics, and memory study". Neuroepidemiology. 29 (1–2): 125–32. doi:10.1159/000109998. PMC 2705925. PMID 17975326.
- ^ Jorm AF, Korten AE, Henderson AS (November 1987). "The prevalence of dementia: a quantitative integration of the literature". Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica. 76 (5): 465–79. doi:10.1111/j.1600-0447.1987.tb02906.x. PMID 3324647. S2CID 35474483.
- ^ Sova, Maria-Roxana; Dobrin, R P; Chiriţă, V (2009). "Aspects regarding the incidence and prevalence of vascular dementia forms". Revista Medico-Chirurgicala a Societatii de Medici Si Naturalisti Din Iasi (in Romanian). 113 (1). Rev Med Chir Soc Med Nat Iasi: 53–58. PMID 21495296. Retrieved 31 March 2021.
- ^ Wolters, Frank J.; Ikram, M Arfan (2019). "Epidemiology of Vascular Dementia". Arteriosclerosis, Thrombosis, and Vascular Biology. 39 (8). Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol: 1542–1549. doi:10.1161/ATVBAHA.119.311908. PMID 31294622.
External links
- Multi-Infarct Dementia Fact Sheet at ninds.nih.gov
- American Academy of Neurology (December 21, 2007). "Walking and Moderate Exercise Help Prevent Dementia". ScienceDaily. Retrieved December 21, 2007, from https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2007/12/071219202948.htm