Defective verb
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In linguistics, a defective verb is a verb with an incomplete conjugation, or one that cannot be used in some other way as normal verbs can. Defective verbs cannot be conjugated in certain tenses, aspects, or moods.
English
Common defectives
The most commonly recognized defective verbs in English are auxiliary verbs—the class of preterite-present verbs—can/could, may/might, shall/should, must, ought to, and will/would (would being a later historical development). Though these verbs were not originally defective, in most varieties of English today, they occur only in a modal auxiliary sense. However, unlike normal auxiliary verbs, they are not regularly conjugated in the infinitive mood. Therefore, these defective auxiliaries do not accept each other as objects. Additionally, they do not regularly appear as participles.
For example, can lacks an infinitive, future tense, participle, imperative, and gerund. The missing parts of speech are instead supplied by using the appropriate forms of to be plus able to. So, while I could write and I was able to write have the same meaning, I could has two meanings depending on use, which are I was able to or I would be able to. One cannot say *I will can, which is instead expressed as I will be able to. Similarly, must has no true past tense form, this instead being supplied by had (the past tense of have), and "to have to" in the infinitive, an example of composite conjugation. The past tense expressing the obligatory aspect of must is expressed as "had to", as in He had to go. "Must have", on the other hand, expresses probability or likelihood in modern English, e.g., "If that's thunder, there must have been lightning."
Some verbs are becoming more defective as time goes on; for example, although might is etymologically the past tense (preterite) of may, it is no longer generally used as such (*he might not pass for "he was forbidden to pass"). Similarly, should is no longer used as the past of shall, but with a separate meaning indicating possibility or moral obligation. (However, the use of the preterite form should as a subjunctive form continues, as in If I should go there tomorrow, ..., which contrasts with the indicative form I shall go there tomorrow.) The defective verb ought was etymologically the past tense of owe (the affection he ought his children), but it has since split off, leaving owe as a non-defective verb with its original sense and a regular past tense (owed).
Beyond the modal auxiliaries, beware is a fully-fledged defective verb of English: it is used as an imperative (Beware of the dog) and an infinitive (I must beware of the dog), but very rarely or never as a finite verb, especially with inflectional endings (*bewared, *bewares). The word begone is similar: any usage other than as an imperative is highly marked. Another defective verb is the archaic quoth, a past tense which is the only surviving form of the verb quethe, "to say" (related to bequeath).
Impersonal verbs
Impersonal verbs such as to rain and to snow share some characteristics with the defective verbs in that forms such as I rain or they snow are not often found; however, the crucial distinction is that impersonal verbs are "missing" certain forms for semantic reasons—in other words, the forms themselves exist and the verb is capable of being fully conjugated with all its forms (and is therefore not defective) but some forms are unlikely to be found because they appear meaningless or nonsensical.
Nevertheless, native speakers can typically use and understand metaphorical or even literal sentences where the "meaningless" forms exist, such as I rained on his parade.
Contrast the impersonal verb rain (all the forms of which exist, even if they sometimes look semantically odd) with the defective verb can (only I can and I could are possible). In most cases, a synonym for the defective verb must be used instead (i.e. "to be able to"). (The forms with an asterisk (*) are impossible, at least with respect to the relevant sense of the verb; these phonemes may by coincidence be attested with respect to a homograph [as with "canning" = "the act of preserving and packaging in cans"].)
Arabic
In Arabic, defective verbs are called Arabic: أفعال جامدة, romanized: ʾafʿāl jāmidah (lit., solid verbs). These verbs do not change tense, nor do they form related nouns. A famous example is the verb ليس laysa, which translates as it is not, though it is not the only auxiliary verb that exhibits this property. Some Arabic grammarians argue that دام "daama" (as an auxiliary verb) is also completely defective; those who refute this claim still consider it partially defective. Some other partially defective verbs are "fati'a" and zaala, which have neither an imperative form nor an infinitive form when used as auxiliary verbs.
Finnish
At least one Finnish verb lacks the first infinitive (dictionary/lemma) form. In Finnish, "kutian helposti" ("I'm sensitive to tickling") can be said, but for the verb "kutian" (here conjugated in singular first person, present tense) there is no non-conjugated form. Hypothetically, the first infinitive could be "kudita", but this form is not actually used. Additionally, the negative verb (ei, et, en, emme...) has neither an infinitive form nor a 1st person singular imperative form.
French
Falloir ("to be necessary", only the third-person forms with il exist; the present indicative conjugation (il faut) is certainly the most often used form of a defective verb in French), braire ("to bray", infinitive, present participle and third-person forms only),[1] frire ("to fry", lacks non-compound past forms; speakers paraphrase with equivalent forms of faire frire), clore ("to conclude", lacks an imperfect conjugation, as well as first and second person plural present indicative conjugations), gésir ("to lie" in the sense of "be in or assume a supine position" (and is the verb used for gravestones), can only be conjugated in the present, imperfect, present imperative, present participle and extremely rarely, the simple future forms, lacking all other tenses). Impersonal verbs, such as weather verbs, function as they do in English.
German
In contemporary German, the verb erkiesen, which means "to choose/elect" (usually referring to a person chosen for a special task or honour), is only used in the past participle (erkoren) and, more rarely, the past tense (ich erkor etc.). All other forms, including the infinitive, have long become obsolete and are now unknown and unintelligible to modern speakers. It remains commonplace in the closely related Dutch language as verkiezen, e.g. Verkiezingen in Nederland (Wikipedia in Dutch).
Classical Greek
"No single Greek verb shows all the tenses", and "most verbs have only six of" the nine classes of tense-systems, and "[s]carcely any verb shows all nine systems".[2]
The verb χρή (khrē, 'it is necessary'), only exists in the third-person-singular present and imperfect ἐχρῆν / χρῆν (ekhrēn / khrēn, 'it was necessary').
There are also verbs like οἶδα (oida, 'I know'), which use the perfect form for the present and the pluperfect (here ᾔδη ēidē, 'I was knowing') for the imperfect.
Additionally, the verb εἰμί (eimi, 'I am') only has a present, a future and an imperfect – it lacks an aorist, a perfect, a pluperfect and a future perfect.
Hindi
In their non-aspectual conjugations, all verbs of Hindi except the copula lacks the conjugations for the present idicative, imperfect past and the presumptive mood. Also, there is no distinction between the present and future subjunctive forms for all verbs except the copula. [1]
| Mood | Tense | Gender | Copula Verb (होना) 'honā' [to be] | Regular Verb (मरना) 'marnā' [to die] | |||||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Singular | Plural | Singular | Plural | ||||||||||||
| 1st | 2nd | 3rd | 1st | 2nd | 3rd | 1st | 2nd | 3rd | 1st | 2nd | 3rd | ||||
| Indicative | Present | M / F | हूँ (hū̃) | है (hai) | हैं (haim̥) | हो (ho) | हैं (haim̥) | —(does not exist)— | |||||||
| Imperfect
Past |
M | था (thā) | थे (the) | —(does not exist)— | |||||||||||
| F | थी (thī) | थीं (thīm̥) | थी (thī) | थीं (thīm̥) | |||||||||||
| Perfect
Past |
M | हुआ (huā) | हुए (hue) | मरा (marā) | मरे (mare) | ||||||||||
| F | हुई (huī) | हुईं (huīm̥) | हुई (huī) | हुईं (huīm̥) | मरी (marī) | मरीं (marīm̥) | मरी (marī) | मरीं (marīm̥) | |||||||
| Future | M | होऊँगा (hoūŋgā) | होएगा (hoegā) | होएँगे (hoeŋge) | होओगे (ho'oge) | होएँगे (hoeŋge) | मरूँगा (marūŋgā) | मरेगा (maregā) | मरेंगे (mareŋge) | मरोगे (maroge) | मरेंगे (mareŋge) | ||||
| F | होऊँगी (hoūŋgī) | होएगी (hoegī) | होएँगी (hoeŋgī) | होओगी (ho'ogī) | होएँगी (hoeŋgī) | मरूँगी (marūŋgī) | मरेगी (maregī) | मरेंगी (mareŋgī) | मरोगी (marogī) | मरेंगी (mareŋgī) | |||||
| Presumptive | Present &
Past |
M | हूँगा (hūŋgā) | होगा (hogā) | होंगे (hoŋge) | होगे (hoge) | होंगे (hoŋge) | —(does not exist)— | |||||||
| F | हूँगी (hūŋgī) | होगी (hogī) | होंगी (hoŋgī) | होगी (hogī) | होंगी (hoŋgī) | ||||||||||
| Subjunctive | Present | M / F | हूँ (hūm̥) | हो (ho) | हों (hom̥) | हो (ho) | हों (hom̥) | मरूँ (marūm̥) | मरे (mare) | मरें (marem̥) | मरो (maro) | मरें (marem̥) | |||
| Future | M / F | होऊँ (hoūm̥) | होए (hoe) | होएँ (hoem̥) | होओ (ho'o) | होएँ (hoem̥) | |||||||||
| Contrafactual | Present &
Past |
M | होता (hotā) | होते (hote) | मरता (martā) | मरते (marte) | |||||||||
| F | होती (hotī) | होतीं (hotīm̥) | होती (hotī) | होतीं (hotīm̥) | मरती (martī) | मरतीं (martīm̥) | मरती (martī) | मरतीं (martīm̥) | |||||||
| Imperative | Present | M / F | — | हो (ho) | हो (ho) | — | होओ (ho'o) | हों (hom̥) | — | मर (mar) | मरे (mare) | — | मरो (maro) | मरें (marem̥) | |
| Future | M / F | होइयो (hoiyo) | होए (hoe) | होना (honā) | होएँ (hoem̥) | मरियो (mariyo) | मरना (marnā) | ||||||||
Some Hindi verbs which have monosyllabic verb roots ending in the vowels इ (i), ई (ī) or ए (ē) have 2nd person formal imperative conjugations which are uncommon to native speakers of Hindi and are never used. Only for a fw very commonlt used verbs the 2nd person formal imperative exists. The * mark before some intimate imperative forms shows those forms are uncommonly used.
| Verbs | Infinitive | Intimate Imperative | Neutral Imperative | Formal Imperative | ||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Present | Future | Present | Future | Present | Future | |||
| Imperative
exists |
to do | करना (karnā) | कर (kar) | करियो (kariyo) | करो (karo) | करना (karnā) | कीजिये (kījiye) | कीजियेगा (kījiyegā) |
| to drink | पीना (pīnā) | पी (pī) | *पीइयो (pīiyo) | पियो (piyo) | पीना (pīnā) | पीजिये (pījiye) | पीएजीयेगा (pījiyegā) | |
| to give | देना (denā) | दे (de) | दियो (diyo) | दो (do) | देना (denā) | दीजिये (dījiye) | दीजियेगा (dījiyegā) | |
| Impertative
doesn't exist |
to live | जीना (jīnā) | जी (jī) | *जीइयो (jīiyo) | जियो (jiyo) | जीना (jīnā) | — | — |
| to sew | सीना (sīnā) | सी (sī) | *सीइयो (sīiyo) | सियो (siyo) | सीना (sīnā) | — | — | |
There is no 2nd person plural intimate pronoun and conjugation in Hindi.
| Person | Singular | Plural | ||
|---|---|---|---|---|
| 1st | मैं (mɜm̥) | हम (ham) | ||
| 2nd | Intimate | तू (tū) | doesn't exist | |
| Neutral | तुम (tum) | |||
| Formal | आप (āp) | |||
| 3rd | Literary | Proximal | यह (yah) | ये (ye) |
| Distal | वह (vah) | वे (ve) | ||
| Colloquial | Proximal | ये (ye) | ||
| Distal | वो (vo) | |||
| Literary Honourary | Proximal | ये (ye) | ||
| Distal | वे (ve) | |||
| Colloquial Honourary | Proximal | ये (ye) | ||
| Distal | वो (vo) | |||
Hungarian
Some Hungarian verbs have either no subjunctive forms or forms which sound uncommon to native speakers, e.g. csuklik ('hiccup'). See also a short summary about them in the English-language Wiktionary.
Irish
Arsa ("says") can only be used in past or present tenses. The copula is lacks a future tense, an imperative mood, and a verbal noun. It has no distinct conditional tense forms either, but conditional expressions are possible, expressed using past tense forms; for example Ba mhaith liom é, which can mean both "I liked it" and "I would like it". The imperative mood is sometimes suppletively created by using the imperative forms of the substantive verb bí. Future tense forms, however, are impossible and can only be expressed periphrastically.
There is also dar ("[it] appears"), a temporally independent verb that always appears in combination with the preposition le.
Korean
Korean has several defective verbs. 말다 (malda, "to stop or desist") may only be used in the imperative form or in the hortative form, after an 'action verb + 지 (ji)' construction. Within this scope it can still conjugate for different levels of politeness, such as "하지 마!" (Haji ma!, "Stop that!") in contrast with "하지 마십시오" (Haji masipsiyo, "Please, don't do that"). Also, 데리다 (derida, "to bring/pick up someone") is only used as 데리고 (derigo, "bringing X and..."), 데리러 (derireo, "in order to pick up"), or 데려 (deryeo, infinitive) in some compound forms.
Latin
Latin has defective verbs that possess forms only in the perfect tense; such verbs have no present tense forms whatsoever. These verbs are still present in meaning. For example, the first-person form odi ("I hate") and infinitive odisse ("to hate") appear to be the perfect of a hypothetical verb *odo/odio, but in fact have a present-tense meaning. Similarly, the verb memini, meminisse is conjugated in the perfect, yet has a present meaning:
Instead of the past-tense "I remembered", "you remembered", etc., these forms signify the present-tense "I remember", "you remember", etc. Latin defective verbs also possess regularly formed pluperfect forms with simple past tense meanings and future perfect forms with simple future tense meanings. Compare deponent verbs, which are passive in form but active in meaning.
The verb coepī, coepisse, which means "to have begun" or "began", is another verb that lacks a present tense system. However, it is not present in meaning. The verb incipiō, incipere ("I begin," "to begin") is used in the present tense instead. This is not a case of suppletion, however, because the verb incipere can also be used in the perfect.
The verbs inquit and ait, both meaning "said", cannot be conjugated through all forms. Both verbs lack numerous inflected forms, with entire tenses and voices missing altogether.
Polish
widać ("it is evident") and słychać ("it is audible") are both highly defective in Polish. The only forms of these verbs that exist are the infinitives.[clarification needed]
Portuguese
A large number of Portuguese verbs are defective in person, i.e., they lack the proper form for one of the pronouns in some tense. The verb colorir ("to color") has no first-person singular in the present, thus requiring a paraphrase, like estou colorindo ("I am coloring") or the use of another verb of a similar meaning, like pintar ("to paint").
Russian
Some Russian verbs are defective, in that they lack a first person singular non-past form: for example, победить ("to win"), убедить ("to convince"), дудеть ("to play the pipe"). These are all verbs whose stem ends in a palatalized alveolar consonant;[3] they are not a closed class, but include in their number neologisms and loanwords such as френдить ("to friend", as on a social network).[4] Where such a verb form would be required, speakers typically substitute a synonymous verb ("Я выиграю"), or use a periphrastic construction involving nominalization and an additional verb ("Я одержу победу"). Also the word "смогу (I'll be able to, I'll manage to)" is used: "(Я) смогу победить", "(я) смогу убедить"). [citation needed]
Many experiential verbs describe processes that humans cannot generally undergo, such as пригореть ("to be burnt", regarding food), куститься ("to grow in clusters"), and протекать ("to seep")—are ordinarily nonsensical in the first or second person. As these forms rarely appear, they are often described as "defective" in descriptions of Russian grammar.[5] However, this is a semantic constraint rather than a syntactic one; compare the classic nonsensical-but-grammatical sentence Colorless green ideas sleep furiously, or more directly, the English phrase I am raining. First and second person forms of these verbs do see use in metaphor and poetry.[6]
Spanish
Spanish defective verbs generally use forms with stem endings that begin with -i.[7]
- Abolir (The Nueva gramática de la lengua española from the Real Academia (section 4.14d) now conjugates it normally, using abolo / aboles etc.)
- agredir (now mostly normally conjugated)
The rest are not common:
- aguerrir
- arrecirse
- aterirse
- balbucir found in forms ending in -i, but mostly replaced by balbucear (to stammer).
- blandir
- despavorir
- empedernir
- garantir (usually replaced by garantizar, which is regular)
- soler Always used as helping verb, so many forms, although possible, won't make sense.
- usucapir (to acquire property rights through customary use) only in the infinitive in legal texts.[7]
Swedish
The auxiliary verb måste "must" lacks an infinitive, except in Swedish dialects spoken in Finland. Also, the verb is unique in that the form måste serves as both a present ("must") and past ("had to") form. The supine måst is rare.
Turkish
While the Turkish copula is not considered a verb in modern Turkish, it originated as the defective verb "imek"—which is now written and pronounced as a suffix of the predicate. Imek and the suffixes derived from it only exist in some tenses; in others, it is replaced by "olmak" (to become).
Ukrainian
Ukrainian Verbs ending on -вісти (розповісти-to tell, perfective and відповісти-to answer, perfective) lack imperative mood forms; imperfective verbs are used instead (for example, відповідай).
Welsh
Welsh has several defective verbs, a number of which are archaic or literary. Some of the more common ones in everyday use include dylwn ("I should/ought"), found only in the imperfect and pluperfect tenses, meddaf ("I say"), found only in the present and imperfect, and geni ("to be born"), which only has a verb-noun and impersonal forms, e.g. Ganwyd hi (She was born, literally "one bore her").
See also
- Unpaired word – another form of lexical gap
Notes
- ^ Girodet, Jean. Dictionnaire du bon français, Bordas, 1981. ISBN 2-04-010580-8,
- ^ Smyth, Herbert Weir (1956) [1920]. Greek Grammar. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press. pp. 108–109. ISBN 0-674-36250-0. §§362, 368a
- ^ Robert Daland; Andrea D. Sims; Janet Pierrehumbert. Much ado about nothing: A social network model of Russian paradigmatic gaps (PDF). Proceedings of the 45th Annual Meeting of the Association of Computational Linguistic.
- ^ Luc Baronian and Elena Kulinich. Paradigm gaps in Whole Word Morphology. Printed in Irregularity in Morphology (and Beyond) (2012).
- ^ Репетитор по английскому языку в Санкт-Петербурге (Russian)
- ^ Tatiana (2010-10-13). "Russian defective verbs". Archived from the original on 2 November 2014.
- ^ a b Butt, John, A New Reference Grammar to Modern Spanish, 5th Edition, p. 175
References
- Baerman, Matthew; Dunstan Brown; Greville G. Corbett (2009a). Surrey Typological Database on Defectiveness. University of Surrey. doi:10.15126/SMG.21/1.
- Baerman, Matthew; Dunstan Brown; Greville G. Corbett (2009b). Surrey Cross-linguistic Database on Defectiveness. University of Surrey. doi:10.15126/SMG.21/2.
- Baerman, Matthew; Greville G. Corbett; Dunstan Brown, eds. (2010). Defective paradigms: Missing forms and what they tell us. (Proceedings of the British Academy 163). Oxford: Oxford University Press and British Academy. ISBN 9780197264607.