Symmetrical voice

Symmetrical voice, also known as Austronesian alignment, the Philippine-type voice system or the Austronesian focus system, is a typologically unusual kind of morphosyntactic alignment in which "one argument can be marked as having a special relationship to the verb".^[1] This special relationship manifests itself as a voice affix on the verb that corresponds to the syntactic role of a noun within the clause, that is either marked for a particular grammatical case or is found in a privileged structural position within the clause or both.

Symmetrical voice is best known from the languages of the Philippines, but is also found in Taiwan's Formosan languages, as well as in northern Borneo, northern Sulawesi, and Madagascar, and has been reconstructed for the ancestral Proto-Austronesian language. In the rest of the Malayo-Polynesian languages, including Proto-Oceanic, symmetrical voice was lost almost entirely.^[2]

Terminology

The term Austronesian focus was widely used in early literature, but more scholars turn to the term voice recently because of the arguments against the term 'focus'.^[3] On the other hand, Starosta argued that neither voice nor focus is correct and that it is a lexical derivation.^[4]

Schachter (1987) proposed the word 'trigger', which has seen widespread use. As one source summarized, 'focus' and 'topic' do not mean what they mean in discourse (the essential piece of new information, and what is being talked about, respectively), but rather 'focus' is a kind of agreement, and the 'topic' is a noun phrase that agrees with the focus-marked verb. Thus using those terms for Austronesian/Philippine alignment is "misleading" and "it seems better to refer to this argument expression as the trigger, a term that reflects the fact that the semantic role of the argument in question triggers the choice of a verbal affix."^[5]

Studies

A number of studies focused on the typological perspective of Austronesian voice system.^[6]^[7]

Some explored the semantic or pragmatic properties of Austronesian voice system.^[8]^[9]

Others contributed to the valence-changing morphology.^[10]

Properties

Agreement with the semantic role of the subject

In languages that exhibit symmetrical voice, the voice affix on the main verb within the clause marks agreement with "the semantic role of the [subject]".^[11]

For example, the Actor Voice affix may agree only with agent nominal phrases. (The asterisk means that the sentence is ungrammatical for the intended meaning.)

Kapampangan

a.

Actor Voice

S‹um›ulat

‹AV›will.write

ya=ng

3SG.DIR=ACC

poesia

poem

ing

DIR

lalaki

boy

king

OBL

pisara.

blackboard

"The boy will write a poem on the blackboard."

b.

*

Sumulat

yang

lalaki

ing

poesia

king

pisara.

Intended: "The boy will write a poem on the blackboard."
(Grammatical for: "The poem will write a boy on the blackboard.")

c.

*

Sumulat

yang

poesia

ing

pisara

king

lalaki.

Intended: "The boy will write a poem on the blackboard."
(Grammatical for: "The blackboard will write a poem on the boy.")

Tagalog

a.

Actor Voice

B‹um›ilí

‹ASP.AV›buy

ng

IND

manggá

mango

sa

OBL

palengke

market

ang

DIR

lalaki.

man

"The man bought a mango at the market."

b.

*

Bumilí

ng

lalaki

sa

palengke

ang

manggá.

Intended: "The man bought a mango at the market."
(Grammatical for: "The mango bought a man at the market.")

c.

*

Bumilí

ng

manggá

sa

lalaki

ang

palengke.

Intended: "The man bought a mango at the market."
(Grammatical for: "The market bought a mango from the man.")

The sentences in (b) are ungrammatical because the patient nominal phrase is marked as the subject, even though the verb bears the Actor Voice infix. The sentences in (c) are ungrammatical because, instead of the agent nominal phrase, the location nominal phrase is marked as the subject.

The patient voice affix may agree only with patient nominal phrases.

Kapampangan

a.

Patient Voice

I-sulat

PV-will.write

n=e

3SG.ERG=3SG.DIR

ning

ERG

lalaki

boy

ing

DIR

poesia

poem

king

OBL

pisara.

blackboard

"The poem will be written by the boy on the blackboard."

b.

*

Isulat

ne

ning

poesia

ing

lalaki

king

pisara.

Intended: "The poem will be written by the boy on the blackboard."
(Grammatical for: "The boy will be written by the poem on the blackboard.")

c.

*

Isulat

ne

ning

lalaki

ing

pisara

king

poesia.

Intended: "The poem will be written by the boy on the blackboard."
(Grammatical for: "The blackboard will be written by the boy on the poem.")

Tagalog

a.

Patient Voice

B‹in›ilí-∅

‹ASP›buy-PV

ng

IND

lalaki

man

sa

OBL

palengke

market

ang

DIR

manggá.

mango

"The mango was bought by the man at the market."

b.

*

Binilí-∅

ng

manggá

sa

palengke

ang

lalaki.

Intended: "The mango was bought by the man at the market."
(Grammatical for: "The man was bought by the mango at the market.")

c.

*

Binilí-∅

ng

lalaki

sa

manggá

ang

palengke.

Intended: "The mango was bought by the man at the market."
(Grammatical for: "The market was bought by the man at the mango.")

The sentences in (b) are ungrammatical because the agent nominal phrase is marked as the subject, even though the verb bears the patient voice affix. The sentences in (c) are ungrammatical because, instead of the patient nominal phrase, the location nominal phrase is marked as the subject.

The locative voice affix may agree only with location nominal phrases.

Kapampangan

a.

Locative Voice

Pi-sulat-an

LV-will.write-LV

n=e=ng

3SG.ERG=3SG.DIR=ACC

poesia

poem

ning

ERG

lalaki

boy

ing

DIR

pisara.

blackboard

"The blackboard will be written a poem on by the boy."

b.

*

Pisulatan

neng

poesia

ning

pisara

ing

lalaki.

Intended: "The blackboard will be written a poem on by the boy."
(Grammatical for: "The boy will be written a poem on by the blackboard.")

c.

*

Pisulatan

neng

pisara

ning

lalaki

ing

poesia.

Intended: "The blackboard will be written a poem on by the boy."
(Grammatical for: "The poem will be written a blackboard on by the boy.")

Tagalog

a.

Locative Voice

B‹in›ilh-án

‹ASP›buy-LV

ng

IND

lalaki

man

ng

IND

manggá

mango

ang

DIR

palengke.

market

"The market was bought a mango at by the man."

b.

*

Binilhán

ng

palengke

ng

manggá

ang

lalaki.

Intended: "The market was bought a mango at by the man."
(Grammatical for: "The man was bought a mango from by the market.")

c.

*

Binilhán

ng

lalaki

ng

palengke

ang

manggá.

Intended: "The market was bought a mango at by the man."
(Grammatical for: "The mango was bought a market at by the man.")

The sentences in (b) are ungrammatical because the agent nominal phrase is marked as the subject, even though the verb bears the locative voice affix. The sentences in (c) are ungrammatical because, instead of the location nominal phrase, the patient nominal phrase is marked as the subject.

Types of semantic roles

Across languages, the most common semantic roles with which the voice affixes may agree are agent, patient, location, instrument, and benefactee. In some languages, the voice affixes may also agree with semantic roles such as theme, goal, reason, and time. The set of semantic roles that may be borne by subjects in each language varies, and some affixes can agree with more than one semantic role.

Promotion direct to subject

Languages that have symmetrical voice do not have a process that promotes an oblique argument to direct object. Oblique arguments are promoted directly to subject.

Tagalog

1)

Actor Voice

Nagpadalá

M-n-pag-padalá

AV-ASP-¿?-send

AGENT

ang

DIR

mama

man

THEME

ng

IND

pera

money

GOAL

sa

OBL

anák

child

niyá.

3SG.GEN

"The man sent money to his child."

2)

Locative Voice

P‹in›adalh-án

‹ASP›send-LV

AGENT

ng

IND

mama

man

THEME

ng

IND

pera

money

GOAL

ang

DIR

anák

child

niyá.

3SG.GEN

"His_i child was sent money by the man_i."

3)

(ungrammatical attempt to promote the indirect object to direct object)

*

Nagpadalhán

M-n-pag-padalh-án

AV-ASP-¿?-send-LV

AGENT

ang

DIR

mama

man

THEME

ng

IND

pera

money

GOAL

ng

IND

anák

child

niyá.

3SG.GEN

Intended: "The man sent his child money."

In the Tagalog examples above, the goal nominal phrase can either be an indirect object, as in (1), or a subject as in (2). However, it cannot become a direct object, or be marked with indirect case, as in (3). Verb forms, such as "nagpadalhan", which bear both an Actor Voice affix and a non-Actor Voice affix, do not exist in languages that have symmetrical voice.

The Tagalog examples contrast with the examples^[12] from Indonesian below. Indonesian is an Austronesian language that does not have symmetrical voice.

Indonesian

4)

Active Voice

AGENT

Ayah

father

mengirim

meN-kirim

ACTIVE VOICE-send

THEME

uang

money

GOAL

kepada

to

saya.

1SG

"Father sent money to me."

5)

Passive Voice with an Applicative Suffix

GOAL

Saya

1SG

di-kirim-i

PASSIVE VOICE-send-APPLICATIVE

THEME

uang

money

AGENT

oleh

by

Ayah.

father

"I was sent money by Father."

6)

Active Voice with an Applicative Suffix

AGENT

Ayah

father

mengirimi

meN-kirim-i

ACTIVE VOICE-send-APPLICATIVE

GOAL

saya

1SG

THEME

uang.

money

"Father sent me money."

In the Indonesian examples, the goal nominal phrase can be the indirect object, as in (4), and the subject, as in (5). However, unlike in Tagalog, which has symmetrical voice, the goal nominal phrase in Indonesian can be a direct object, as in (6). The preposition kepada disappears in the presence of the applicative suffix -i, and the goal nominal phrase moves from sentence-final position to some verb-adjacent position. In addition, they can behave like regular direct objects and undergo processes such as passivisation, as in (5).

Examples

Proto-Austronesian

The examples ^[13] below are in Proto-Austronesian. Asterisks indicate a linguistic reconstruction. The voice affix on the verb appears in red text, while the subject, which the affix selects, appears in underlined bold italics. Four voices have been reconstructed for Proto-Austronesian: Actor Voice, Patient Voice, Locative Voice and Instrument Voice.

Proto-Austronesian

(1)

Actor Voice

*

K‹um›aen

‹AV›eat

Semay

rice

Cau.

man

"The man is eating some rice."

(2)

Patient Voice

*

Kaen-en

eat-PV

nu

ERG

Cau

man

Semay.

rice

"A/the man is eating the rice." (or "The rice is being eaten by a/the man.")

(3)

Locative Voice

*

Kaen-an

eat-LV

nu

ERG

Cau

man

Semay

rice

Rumaq.

house

"The man is eating rice in the house." (or "The house is being eaten rice in by the man.")

(4)

Instrument Voice

*

Si-kaen

IV-eat

nu

ERG

Cau

man

Semay

rice

lima-ni-á.

hand-GEN-3SG

"The man is eating rice with his hand." (or "His_i hand is being eaten rice with by the man_i.")

Modern Austronesian languages

Below are examples of modern Austronesian languages that exhibit symmetrical voice. These languages are spoken in Taiwan, the Philippines, Malaysia, Indonesia, and Madagascar.

The number of voices differs from language to language. While the majority sampled have four voices, it is possible to have as few as three voices, and as many as six voices.

In the examples below, the voice affix on the verb appears in red text, while the subject, which the affix selects, appears in underlined bold italics.

Formosan

The data below come from Formosan, a geographic grouping of all Austronesian languages that belong outside of Malayo-Polynesian. The Formosan languages are primarily spoken in Taiwan.

Amis

Amis^[14] has four voices: Actor Voice, Patient Voice, Locative Voice, and Instrument Voice.

The direct case marker, which marks the subject in Amis, is ku.

(1)

Actor Voice

Mi-ʔaɬup

AV-hunt

ku

DIR

kapah

young man

tu

ACC

vavuy.

pig

"A young man hunts a pig."

(2)

Patient Voice

Ma-ʔaɬup

PV-hunt

nu

ERG

kapah

young man

ku

DIR

vavuy.

pig

"A young man hunts a pig." (or "A pig is hunted by a young man.)

(3)

Locative Voice

Pi-ʔaɬup-an

LV-hunt-LV

nu

ERG

kapah

young man

kura

that.DIR

lutuk

mountain

tu

ACC

vavuy.

pig

"A young man hunts a pig on that mountain." (or "That mountain is hunted a pig on by a young man.")

(4)

Instrument Voice

Sa-pi-ʔaɬup

IV-hunt

nu

ERG

kapah

young man

ku

DIR

ʔiluc

spear

tu

ACC

vavuy.

pig

"A young man hunts a pig with a spear." (or "A spear is hunted a pig with by a young man.")

Atayal

While they both have the same number of voices, the two dialects of Atayal presented below do differ in the shape of the circumstantial voice prefix. In Mayrinax, the circumstantial voice prefix is si-, whereas in Squliq, it is s-.

Mayrinax

Mayrinax^[15] has four voices: Actor Voice, Patient Voice, Locative Voice, and Circumstantial Voice.

The circumstantial Voice prefix selects for benefactee and instrument subjects.

The direct case morpheme in Mayrinax is kuʔ.

(1)

Actor Voice

M-aras

AV-fetch

cuʔ

ACC

qusiaʔ

water

kuʔ

DIR

makurakis.

girl

"The girl fetches water."

(2)

Patient Voice

Ras-un

fetch-PV

nkuʔ

ERG

makurakis

girl

kuʔ

DIR

qusiaʔ.

water

"The girl fetches water." (or "Water is fetched by the girl.")

(3)

Locative Voice

Ras-an

fetch-LV

nkuʔ

ERG

makurakis

girl

cuʔ

ACC

qusiaʔ

water

kuʔ

DIR

βintaŋ

water bucket

ka

LIG

hani.

this

"The girl fetches water in this water bucket." (or "This water bucket is fetched water in by the girl.")

(4) a.

Circumstantial Voice (with beneficiary subject)

Si-ʔaras

CV-fetch

nkuʔ

ERG

makurakis

girl

cuʔ

ACC

qusiaʔ

water

kuʔ

DIR

mamaliku=niaʔ.

husband=3SG.GEN

"The girl fetches water for her husband." (or "Her husband_i is fetched water for by the girl_i.")

b.

Circumstantial Voice (with instrument subject)

Si-ʔaras

CV-fetch

nkuʔ

ERG

makurakis

girl

cuʔ

ACC

qusiaʔ

water

kuʔ

DIR

βintaŋ

water bucket

ka

LIG

hani.

this

"The girl fetches water with this water bucket." (or "This water bucket is fetched water with by the girl.")

Squliq

Squliq^[16] has four voices: Actor Voice, Patient Voice, Locative Voice, and Circumstantial Voice.

The circumstantial voice prefix selects for benefactee and instrument subjects.

The direct case morpheme in Squliq is qu’.

(1)

Actor Voice

M-aniq

AV-eat

qulih

fish

qu’

DIR

Tali’.

Tali

"Tali eats fish."

(2)

Patient Voice

Niq-un

eat-PV

na’

ERG

Tali’

Tali

qu’

DIR

qulih

fish

qasa.

that

"Tali eats that fish." (or "That fish is eaten by Tali.")

(3)

Locative Voice

Niq-an

eat-LV

na’

ERG

Tali’

Tali

qulih

fish

qu’

DIR

ngasal

house

qasa.

that

"Tali eats fish in that house." (or "That house is eaten fish in by Tali.")

(4) a.

Circumstantial Voice (with benefactee subject)

S-qaniq

CV-eat

na’

ERG

Tali’

Tali

qulih

fish

qu’

DIR

Sayun.

Sayun

"Tali eats fish for Sayun." (or "Sayun is eaten fish for by Tali.")

b.

Circumstantial Voice (with instrument subject)

S-qaniq

CV-eat

na’

ERG

Tali’

Tali

qulih

fish

qu’

DIR

qway.

chopsticks

"Tali eats fish with chopsticks." (or "Chopsticks are eaten fish with by Tali.")

Hla’alua

Hla’alua^[17]^[18] has three voices: Actor Voice, Patient Voice and Circumstantial Voice.

The circumstantial voice suffix selects for location and theme subjects.

While bound pronouns have a direct case form, nouns do not bear a special direct case marker for subjects in Hla’alua.

(1)

Actor Voice

Hli-um-u=cu=aku

ASP-AV-eat=ASP=1SG.DIR

hlavate

guava

usua.

two

"I have eaten two guavas."

(2)

Patient Voice

Hli-paipekel-a=cu

ASP-mould-PV=ASP

a

DET

Eleke

a

DET

tangusuhlu=na.

rice.cake=DEF

"Eleke has moulded the rice cake." (or "The rice cake has been moulded by Eleke.")

(3) a.

Circumstantial Voice (with location subject)

Hli-aala-ana

ASP-take-CV

’Angai

vutukuhlu

fish

a

DET

hluuhlungu=na.

stream=DEF

"’Angai has caught fish in the stream." (or "The stream has been caught fish in by ’Angai.")

b.

Circumstantial Voice (with theme subject)

Hli-aala-ana=ku

ASP-take-CV=1SG.ERG

a

DET

vahlituku-isa

money-3

ama’a.

father

"I have taken father's money." (or "Father's money has been taken by me.")

Kanakanavu

Kanakanavu^[19] has four voices: Actor Voice, Patient Voice, Locative Voice, and Instrument Voice.

The direct case morpheme, which optionally marks the subject in Kanakanavu, is sua.

(1)

Actor Voice

K‹um›aʉn

‹AV›eat

(sua)

DIR

ŋiau

cat

tapianaŋai.

bird

"A cat ate a bird."

(2)

Patient Voice

Cʉʔʉr-ai

see-PV

maanu

child

iisi

this

(sua)

DIR

tacau

dog

iisa.

that

"This child saw that dog." (or "That dog was seen by this child.")

(3)

Locative Voice

Riucuucu-an

kiss-LV

Mu'u

(sua)

DIR

PaicU.

PaicU

"Mu'u kissed PaicU." (or "PaicU was kissed by Mu'u.")

(4)

Instrument Voice

Si-puʔa

IV-buy

maanu-maku

child-1SG.GEN

ʔʉnai

land

sua

DIR

vantuku

money

iisi.

this

"My child bought land with this money." (or "This money was bought land with by my child.")

Kavalan

Kavalan^[20] has three voices: Actor Voice, Patient Voice and Circumstantial Voice.

The circumstantial voice prefix selects for instrument and benefactee subjects.

The direct case morpheme, which marks the subject in Kavalan, is ya.

(1)

Actor Voice

Q‹em›al

‹AV›dig

tu

ACC

rasung

well

ya

DIR

sunis.

child

"The child dug a well."

(2)

Patient Voice

Qal-an

dig-PV

na

ERG

sunis

child

ya

DIR

rasung.

well

"The child dug the well." (or The well was dug by the child.")

(3) a.

Circumstantial Voice (with instrument subject)

Ti-tangan=ku

CV-open=1SG.ERG

tu

ACC

ineb

door

ya

DIR

suqsuq.

key

"I opened the door with the key." (or "The key was opened the door with by me.")

(3) b.

Circumstantial Voice (with benefactee subject)

Ti-sammay

CV-cook

na

ERG

tama=ku

father=1SG.GEN

ya

DIR

tina=ku.

mother-1SG.GEN

"My father cooked for my mother." (or "My mother was cooked for by my father.")

Paiwan

Paiwan^[21] has four voices: Actor Voice, Patient Voice, Locative Voice, and Instrument Voice.

The direct case morpheme, which marks the subject in Paiwan, is a.

(1)

Actor Voice

Q‹m›ałup

‹AV›hunt

a

DIR

tsautsau

man

tua

OBL

vavuy

pig

i

PREP

(tua)

(OBL)

gadu

mountain

tua

OBL

vuluq.

spear

"The man hunts the pigs in the mountains with a spear."

(2)

Patient Voice

Qałup-en

hunt-PV

nua

ERG

tsautsau

man

a

DIR

vavuy

pig

i

PREP

(tua)

(OBL)

gadu

mountain

tua

OBL

vuluq.

spear

"The man hunts the pigs in the mountains with a spear." (or "The pigs are hunted by the man in the mountains with a spear.")

(3)

Locative Voice

Qałup-an

hunt-LV

nua

ERG

tsautsau

man

tua

OBL

vavuy

pig

a

DIR

gadu

mountain

tua

OBL

vuluq.

spear

"The man hunts the pigs in the mountains with a spear." (or "The mountains are hunted the pigs in by the man with a spear.")

(4)

Instrument Voice

Si-qałup

IV-hunt

nua

ERG

tsautsau

man

tua

OBL

vavuy

pig

i

PREP

(tua)

(OBL)

gadu

mountain

a

DIR

vuluq.

spear

"The man hunts the pigs in the mountains with a spear." (or "The spear is hunted the pigs with by the man in the mountains.")

Pazeh

Pazeh,^[22] which became extinct in 2010, had four voices: Actor Voice, Patient Voice, Locative Voice, and Instrument Voice.

The direct case morpheme, which marks the subject in Pazeh, is ki.

(1)

Actor Voice

Mu-ngazip

AV-bite

yaku

1SG

ki

DIR

wazu.

dog

"The dog bit me."

(2)

Patient Voice

Ngazib-en

bite-PV

wazu

dog

lia

ASP

ki

DIR

rakihan.

child

"A dog bit the child." (or The child was bitten by a dog.")

(3)

Locative Voice

Pu-batu’-an

pave-stone-LV

lia

ASP

ki

DIR

babaw

above

daran.

road

"The road surface was paved with stones."

(4)

Instrument Voice

Saa-talek

IV-cook

alaw

fish

ki

DIR

bulayan.

pan

"The pan was cooked fish with."

Puyuma

Puyuma^[23] has four voices: Actor Voice, Patient Voice, Locative Voice, and Circumstantial Voice.

The circumstantial voice suffix selects for benefactee and instrument subjects.

The direct case morpheme, which marks the subject in Puyuma, is na or i.

(1)

Actor Voice

Tr‹em›akaw

‹AT.RL›steal

dra

ACC

paisu

money

i

DIR

Isaw.

Isaw

"Isaw stole money."

(2)

Patient Voice

Tu=trakaw-aw

3.ERG=steal-PT.RL

na

DIR

paisu

money

kan

ERG

Isaw.

Isaw

"Isaw stole the money." (or "The money was stolen by Isaw.")

(3)

Locative Voice

Tu=trakaw-ay=ku

3.ERG=steal-LT.RL=1SG.DIR

dra

ACC

paisu

money

kan

ERG

Isaw.

Isaw

"Isaw stole money from me." (or "I was stolen money from by Isaw.")

(4) a.

Circumstantial Voice (with benefactee subject)

Tu=trakaw-anay

3.ERG=steal-CT.RL

i

DIR

tinataw

his.mother

dra

ACC

paisu.

money

"He stole money for his mother." (or "His_i mother was stolen money for by him_i.")

b.

Circumstantial Voice (with instrument subject)^[24]

Ku=dirus-anay

1SG.ERG=wash-CT.RL

na

DIR

enay

water

kan

ACC

Aliwaki.

Aliwaki

"I washed Aliwaki with water." (or "The water was washed Aliwaki with by me.")

Seediq

The two dialects of Seediq presented below each have a different number of voices. The direct case morpheme, which marks the subject in both dialects, is ka.

Tgdaya

Tgdaya^[25] has four voices: Actor Voice, Patient Voice, Locative Voice and Instrument Voice.

(1)

Actor Voice

S‹em›ebuc

‹AV›hit

ricah

plum

ka

DIR

Pawan.

Pawan

"Pawan is hitting plums."

(2)

Patient Voice

Sebet-un

hit-PV

na

ERG

Pawan

ka

DIR

ricah.

plum

"Pawan is hitting the plum." (or "The plum is being hit by Pawan.")

(3)

Locative Voice

Sebet-an

hit-LV

na

ERG

Pawan

ricah

plum

ka

DIR

peepah.

farm.field

"Pawan is hitting plums in the farm field." (or "The farm field is being hit plums in by Pawan.")

(4)

Instrument Voice

Se-sebuc

IV-hit

na

ERG

Pawan

ricah

plum

ka

DIR

butakan.

stick

"Pawan is hitting plums with the stick." (or "The stick is being hit plums with by Pawan.")

Truku

Truku^[26] has three voices: Actor Voice, Goal Voice, and Circumstantial Voice.

The goal voice suffix selects for patient and location subjects. The circumstantial voice prefix selects for benefactee and instrument subjects.

(1)

Actor Voice

K‹em›erut

‹AV›cut

babuy

pig

ka

DIR

Masaw.

Masaw

"Masaw slaughters a/the pig."

(2) a.

Goal Voice (with patient subject)

Keret-an

cut-GV

Masaw

ka

DIR

babuy.

pig

"Masaw slaughters the pig." (or "The pig is slaughtered by Masaw.")

b.

Goal Voice (with location subject)

Keret-an

cut-GV

laqi

child

sagas

watermelon

ka

DIR

keti’inuh

board

ni’i.

this

"The child cuts watermelon on this board." (or "This board is cut watermelon on by the child.")

(3) a.

Circumstantial Voice (with benefactee subject)

Se-kerut

CV-cut

babuy

pig

Masaw

ka

DIR

baki.

old.man

"Masaw slaughters a/the pig for the old man." (or "The old man is slaughtered a/the pig for by Masaw.")

b.

Circumstantial Voice (with instrument subject)

Se-kerut

CV-cut

babuy

pig

Masaw

ka

DIR

puting.

knife

"Masaw slaughters a/the pig with the knife." (or "The knife is slaughtered a/the pig with by Masaw.")

Tsou

Tsou^[27] has four voices: Actor Voice, Patient Voice, Locative Voice, and Benefactive Voice. In addition to the voice morphology on the main verb, auxiliary verbs in Tsou, which are obligatory in the sentence,^[28] are also marked for voice. However, auxiliaries only differentiate between Actor Voice and non-Actor Voice^[29] (in green text).

The direct case morpheme, which marks subjects in Tsou, is ’o.

(1)

Actor Voice

Mi-’o

AUX.AV-1SG.DIR

mo-si

AV-put

to

OBL

peisu

money

ne

OBL

Nookay.

Nookay

"I deposit money in Nookay."

(2)

Patient Voice

Os-’o

AUX.NAV-1SG.ERG

si-a

put-PV

to

OBL

panka

table

’o

DIR

peisu.

money

"I put the money on the/a table." (or "The money was put on the/a table by me.")

(3)

Locative Voice

Os-’o

AUX.NAV-1SG.ERG

si-i

put-LV

to

OBL

chumu

water

’o

DIR

kopu.

cup

"I put water into the cup." (or "The cup was put water into by me.")

(4)

Benefactive Voice^[30]

Os-’o

AUX.NAV-1SG.ERG

si-i-neni

put-LV-BV

to

OBL

ocha

tea

’o

DIR

Pasuya.

Pasuya

"I served tea for Pasuya." (or "Pasuya was served tea for by me.")

Batanic

The data below come from the Batanic languages, a subgroup under Malayo-Polynesian. These languages are spoken on the islands found in the Luzon Strait, between Taiwan and the Philippines.

Ivatan

Ivatan^[31]^[32] has four voices: Actor Voice, Patient Voice, Locative Voice, and Circumstantial Voice.

The circumstantial voice prefix selects for instrument and benefactee subjects.

The direct case morpheme, which marks the subject in Ivatan, is qo.

(1)

Actor Voice

Mangamoqmo

m-pang-qamoqmo

AV-¿?-frighten

qo

DIR

tao

man

so

ACC

motdeh

child

no

IND

boday

snake

do

OBL

vahay.

house

"The man is frightening a child with a snake in the house."

(2)

Patient Voice

Qamoqmo-hen

frighten-PV

no

IND

tao

man

qo

DIR

motdeh

child

no

IND

boday

snake

do

OBL

vahay.

house

"The man is frightening a child with a snake in the house." (or "A child is being frightened with a snake in the house by the man.")

(3)

Locative Voice^[33]

Pangamoqmoan

pang-qamoqmo-an

¿?-frighten-LV

no

IND

tao

man

so

ACC

motdeh

child

no

IND

boday

snake

qo

DIR

vahay.

house

"The man is frightening a child with a snake in the house." (or "The house is being frightened a child in with a snake by the man.")

(4) a.

Circumstantial Voice (with instrument subject)^[34]

Qipangamoqmo

qi-pang-qamoqmo

CV-¿?-frighten

no

IND

tao

man

so

ACC

motdeh

child

qo

DIR

boday

snake

do

OBL

vahay.

house

"The man is frightening a child with a snake in the house." (or "The snake is being frightened a child with in the house by the man.")

(4) b.

Circumstantial Voice (with benefactee subject)^[35]

Qipangamoqmo

qi-pang-qamoqmo

CV-¿?-frighten

no

IND

tao

man

so

ACC

motdeh

child

no

IND

boday

snake

do

OBL

vahay

house

qo

DIR

kayvan-a.

friend-3SG.GEN

"The man is frightening a child with a snake in the house for his friend." (or "His_i friend is being frightened a child for with a snake in the house by the man_i.")

Yami

Yami^[36] has four voices: Actor Voice, Patient Voice, Locative Voice, and Instrument Voice.

The direct case morpheme, which marks subjects in Yami, is si for proper names, and o for common nouns.

(1)

Actor Voice

K‹om›an

‹AV›eat

so

OBL

wakay

sweet potato

si

DIR

Salang.

Salang

"Salang ate a sweet potato."

(2)

Patient Voice

Kan-en

eat-PV

na

3SG.ERG

ni

ERG

Salang

o

DIR

wakay.

sweet potato

"Salang ate the sweet potato." (or "The sweet potato was eaten by Salang.")

(3)

Locative Voice

Ni-akan-an

ASP-eat-LV

na

3SG.ERG

o

DIR

mogis

rice

ori

that

ni

ERG

Salang.

Salang

"Salang ate from some of that rice." (or "Some of that rice was eaten from by Salang.")

(4)

Instrument Voice

I-akan

IV-eat

na

3SG.ERG

ni

ERG

Salang

o

DIR

among

fish

ya.

this

"Salang ate (a meal) with this fish." (or "This fish was eaten (a meal) with by Salang.")

Philippine

The data below come from Philippine languages, a subgroup under Malayo-Polynesian, predominantly spoken across the Philippines, with some found on the island of Sulawesi in Indonesia.

Blaan

Blaan^[37]^[38]^[39] has four voices: Actor Voice, Patient Voice, Instrument Voice, and Non-Actor Voice.

The non-Actor Voice affix selects for patient and location subjects, depending on the inherent voice of the verb.

Agent Prefocus Base^[40]		Patient Prefocus Base^[41]		Instrument Prefocus Base^[42]
(1)	Actor Voice (intransitive) Stifun assemble ale. 3PL.DIR Stifun ale. assemble 3PL.DIR "They assemble."	(1)	Actor Voice M-bat AV-throw agu 1SG.DIR bula. ball M-bat agu bula. AV-throw 1SG.DIR ball "I throw the ball."	(1)	Actor Voice K‹am›lang ‹AV›cut agu 1SG.DIR kayu. tree K‹am›lang agu kayu. ‹AV›cut 1SG.DIR tree "I cut the tree."
(2)	Actor Voice (transitive) S‹am›tifun ‹AV›assemble ale 3PL.DIR dad PL to. person S‹am›tifun ale dad to. ‹AV›assemble 3PL.DIR PL person "They assemble the people."	(2)	Patient Voice (with patient subject Bat=gu throw=1SG.ERG bula. ball Bat=gu bula. throw=1SG.ERG ball "I throw the ball" (or "The ball is thrown by me.")	(2)	Non-Actor Voice (with patient subject) K‹an›lang=gu ‹NAV›cut=1SG.ERG kayu. tree K‹an›lang=gu kayu. ‹NAV›cut=1SG.ERG tree "I cut the tree." (or "The tree is cut by me.")
(3)	Non-Actor Voice (with patient subject) S‹an›tifun=la ‹NAV›assemble=3PL.ERG dad PL to. person S‹an›tifun=la dad to. ‹NAV›assemble=3PL.ERG PL person "They assemble the people." (or "The people are assembled by them.")	(3)	Non-Actor Voice (with location subject) N-bat=gu NAV-throw=1SG.ERG bula ball diding. wall N-bat=gu bula diding. NAV-throw=1SG.ERG ball wall "I throw the ball at the wall." (or "The wall is thrown the ball at by me.")	(3)	Instrument Voice Klang=gu cut=1SG.ERG kayu tree falakol. hatchet Klang=gu kayu falakol. cut=1SG.ERG tree hatchet "I cut the tree with the hatchet." (or "The hatchet is cut the tree with by me.")

Cebuano

Cebuano^[43] has four voices: Actor Voice, Patient Voice, Circumstantial Voice, and Instrument Voice.

The circumstantial voice suffix selects for location, benefactee and goal subjects.

The direct case morpheme, which marks the subject in Cebuano, is ang or si.

(1)

Actor Voice

Mo-lutò

AV-cook

si

DIR

Maria

Maria

ug

ACC

kalamáy

type.of.dessert

para

for

kang

OBL

Pedro.

Pedro

"Maria will cook kalamáy for Pedro."

(2)

Patient Voice

Luto-on

cook-PV

sa

ERG

babaye

woman

ang

DIR

bugás

rice

sa

OBL

lata.

can

"The woman will cook the rice in the can."
(or "The rice will be cooked by the woman in the can.")

(3) a.

Circumstantial Voice (with location subject)

Luto-an

cook-CV

sa

ERG

babaye

woman

ang

DIR

lata

can

ug

ACC

bugás.

rice

"The woman will cook rice in the can."
(or "The can will be cooked rice in by the woman.")

(3) b.

Circumstantial Voice (with benefactee subject)

Luto-an

cook-CV

ni

ERG

Maria

si

DIR

Pedro

Pedro

ug

ACC

kalamáy.

type.of.dessert

"Maria will cook Pedro kalamáy."
(or "Pedro will be cooked kalamáy for by Maria.")

(3) c.

Circumstantial Voice (with goal subject)

Sulat-án

write-CV

ni

ERG

Inday

si

DIR

Perla

Perla

ug

ACC

sulat.

letter

"Inday will write Perla a letter."
(or "Perla will be written a letter to by Inday.")

(4)

Instrument Voice

I-sulát

IV-write

ni

ERG

Linda

ang

DIR

lapis

pencil

ug

ACC

sulat.

letter

"Linda will write a letter with the pencil."
(or "The pencil will be written a letter with by Linda.")

Kalagan

Kalagan^[44] has four voices: Actor Voice, Patient Voice, Instrument Voice, and Circumstantial Voice.

The circumstantial voice suffix selects for benefactee and location subjects.

The direct case morpheme, which marks the subject in Kalagan, is ya. The direct case form of the first person, singular pronoun is aku, whereas the ergative case form is ku.

(1)

Actor Voice

K‹um›amang

‹AV›get

aku

1SG.DIR

sa

OBL

tubig

water

na

PREP

lata

can

kan

for

Ma’

Dad

adti

on

balkon

porch

na

PREP

lunis.

Monday

"I will get the water with the can for Dad on the porch on Monday."

(2)

Patient Voice

Kamang-in

get-PV

ku

1SG.ERG

ya

DIR

tubig

water

na

PREP

lata

can

kan

for

Ma’

Dad

adti

on

balkon

porch

na

PREP

lunis.

Monday

"I will get the water with the can for Dad on the porch on Monday."
(or "The water will be gotten by me with the can for Dad on the porch on Monday.")

(3)

Instrument Voice

Pag-kamang

IV-get

ku

1SG.ERG

ya

DIR

lata

can

sa

OBL

tubig

water

kan

for

Ma’

Dad

adti

on

balkon

porch

na

PREP

lunis.

Monday

"I will get the water with the can for Dad on the porch on Monday."
(or "The can will be gotten the water with by me for Dad on the porch on Monday.")

(4) a.

Circumstantial Voice (with benefactee subject)

Kamang-an

get-CV

ku

1SG.ERG

ya

DIR

Ma’

Dad

sa

OBL

tubig

water

na

PREP

lata

can

adti

on

balkon

porch

na

PREP

lunis.

Monday

"I will get the water with the can for Dad on the porch on Monday."
(or "Dad will be gotten the water for by me with the can on the porch on Monday.")

(4) b.

Circumstantial Voice (with location subject)

Kamang-an

get-CV

ku

1SG.ERG

ya

DIR

balkon

porch

sa

OBL

tubig

water

na

PREP

lata

can

kan

for

Ma’

Dad

na

PREP

lunis.

Monday

"I will get the water with the can for Dad on the porch on Monday."
(or "The porch will be gotten the water from by me with the can for Dad on Monday.")

Kapampangan

Kapampangan^[45] has five voices: Actor Voice, Patient Voice, Goal Voice, Locative Voice, and Circumstantial Voice.

The circumstantial voice prefix selects for instrument and benefactee subjects.

The direct case morpheme in Kapampangan is ing, which marks singular subjects, and reng, which is for plural subjects. Non-subject agents are marked with ergative case, ning, while non-subject patients are marked with accusative case, -ng, which is cliticized onto the preceding word.^[46]

(1)

Actor Voice

S‹um›ulat

‹AV›will.write

yang

ya=ng

3SG.DIR=ACC

poesia

poem

ing

DIR

lalaki

boy

gamit

OBL

pen

king

OBL

papil.

paper

"The boy will write a poem with a pen on the paper."

(2)

Patient Voice

I-sulat

PV-will.write

ne

na+ya

3SG.ERG+3SG.DIR

ning

ERG

lalaki

boy

ing

DIR

poesia

poem

king

OBL

mestra.

teacher.F

"The boy will write the poem to the teacher."
(or "The poem will be written by boy to the teacher.")

(3)

Goal Voice

Sulat-anan

will.write-GV

ne

na+ya

3SG.ERG+3SG.DIR

ning

ERG

lalaki

boy

ing

DIR

mestro.

teacher.M

"The boy will write to the teacher."
(or "The teacher will be written to by the boy.")

(4)

Locative Voice

Pi-sulat-an

LV-will.write-LV

neng

na+ya=ng

3SG.ERG+3SG.DIR=ACC

poesia

poem

ning

ERG

lalaki

boy

ing

DIR

blackboard.

blackboard

"The boy will write a poem on the blackboard."
(or "The blackboard will be written a poem on by the boy.")

(5) a.

Circumstantial Voice (with instrument subject)

Panyulat

paN-sulat

CV-will.write

neng

na+ya=ng

3SG.ERG+3SG.DIR=ACC

poesia

poem

ning

ERG

lalaki

boy

ing

DIR

pen.

pen

"The boy will write a poem with the pen."
(or "The pen will be written a poem with by the boy.")

(5) b.

Circumstantial Voice (with benefactee subject)

Pamasa

paN-basa

CV-will.read

nong

na+la=ng

3SG.ERG+3PL.DIR=ACC

libru

book

ning

ERG

babai

woman

reng

PL.DIR

anak.

child

"The woman will read a book for the children."
(or "The children will be read a book for by the woman.")

Limos Kalinga

Limos Kalinga^[47] has five voices: Actor Voice, Patient Voice, Locative Voice, Benefactive Voice and Instrument Voice.

Except for when the subject is the agent, the subject is found directly after the agent in the clause.

(1)

Actor Voice

Nandalus

n-man-dalus

ASP-AV-wash

si

DIR

Malia=t

Malia=OBL

danat

PL

palatu.

plate

"Malia washed some plates."

(2)

Patient Voice^[48]

Binayum

b‹in›ayu-∅=m

‹ASP›pound-PV=2SG.ERG

din

DIR

pagoy.

rice

"You pounded the rice."
(or "The rice was pounded by you.")

(3)

Locative Voice

D‹in›alus-an

‹ASP›wash-LV

ud

ERG

Malia

danat

DIR.PL

palatu.

plate

"Malia washed the plates."
(or "The plates were washed by Malia.")

(4)

Benefactive Voice

I-n-dalus-an

BV-ASP-wash-BV

ud

ERG

Malia

si

DIR

ina=na=t

mother=3SG.GEN=OBL

nat

SG

palatu.

plate

"Malia washed a plate for her mother."
(or "Her_i mother was washed a plate for by Malia_i.")

(5)

Instrument Voice

I-n-dalus

IV-ASP-wash

ud

ERG

Malia

nat

DIR

sabun

soap

sinat

OBL.SG

palatu.

plate

"Malia washed a plate with the soap."
(or "The soap was washed a plate with by Malia.")

Maranao

Maranao^[49] has four voices: Actor Voice, Patient Voice, Circumstantial Voice, and Instrument Voice.

The circumstantial suffix selects for benefactee and location subjects.

The direct case morpheme, which marks the subject in Maranao, is so.

(1)

Actor Voice

S‹om›ombali’

‹AV›butcher

so

DIR

mama’

man

sa

OBL

karabao

water.buffalo

ko

PREP

maior.

mayor

"The man will butcher water buffalo for the mayor."

(2)

Patient Voice

Sombali’-in

butcher-PV

o

ERG

mama’

man

so

DIR

karabao.

water.buffalo

"The man will butcher the water buffalo."
(or "The water buffalo will be butchered by the man.")

(3) a.

Circumstantial Voice (with benefactee subject)

Sombali’-an

butcher-CV

o

ERG

mama’

man

so

DIR

maior

mayor

sa

OBL

karabao.

water.buffalo

"The man will butcher water buffalo for the mayor."
(or "The mayor will be butchered water buffalo for by the man.")

(3) b.

Circumstantial Voice (with location subject)

Koaq-an

get-CV

o

ERG

mama’

man

sa

OBL

bolong

medicine

so

DIR

tinda.

store

"The man will get the medicine at/from the store."
(or "The store will be gotten medicine at/from by the man.")

(4)

Instrument Voice

I-sombali’

butcher-IV

o

ERG

mama’

man

so

DIR

gelat

knife

ko

PREP

karabao.

water.buffalo

"The man will butcher the water buffalo with the knife."
(or "The knife will be butchered the water buffalo with by the man.")

Palawan

Palawan^[50] has four voices: Actor Voice, Patient Voice, Instrument Voice, and Circumstantial Voice.

The circumstantial voice suffix selects for benefactee and location subjects.

(1)

Actor Voice

‹Mog›lamuʔ

‹ASP.AV›cook

libun

woman

in

that.DIR

ot

IND

lugow

congee

kot

for

mosakit

sick person

sot

on

apuy.

fire

"The woman will cook congee on the fire for the sick person."

(2)

Patient Voice

La~lamuʔ-on

ASP~cook-PV

ot

IND

libun

woman

lugow

congee

in

that.DIR

kot

for

mosakit

sick person

sot

on

apuy.

fire

"The woman will cook the congee on the fire for the sick person."
(or "The congee will be cooked on the fire for the sick person by the woman.")

(3)

Instrument Voice

I-la~lamuʔ

IV-ASP~cook

ot

IND

libun

woman

lugow

congee

kot

for

mosakit

sick person

apuy

fire

in.

that.DIR

"The woman will cook congee with the fire for the sick person."
(or "The fire will be cooked congee with for the sick person by the woman.")

(4) a.

Circumstantial Voice (with benefactee subject)

La~lamuʔ-an

ASP~cook-CV

ot

IND

libun

woman

ot

IND

lugow

congee

sot

on

apuy

fire

mosakit

sick person

in.

that.DIR

"The woman will cook congee on the fire for the sick person."
(or "The sick person will be cooked congee for on the fire by the woman.")

(4) b.

Circumstantial Voice (with location subject)

La~lamuʔ-an

ASP~cook-CV

ot

IND

libun

woman

ot

IND

lugow

congee

kot

for

mosakit

sick person

apuy

fire

in.

that.DIR

"The woman will cook congee on the fire for the sick person."
(or "The fire will be cooked congee on for the sick person by the woman.")

Subanen

Subanen^[51] has three voices: Actor Voice, Patient Voice, and Circumstantial Voice.

The examples below are from Western Subanon, and the direct case morpheme in this language is og.

(1)

Actor Voice

S‹um›aluy

‹ASP.AV›buy

og

DIR

polopanad

teacher

nog

IND

kolatas.

paper

"A teacher will buy some paper."

(2)

Patient Voice

Soluy-on

buy-ASP.PV

nog

IND

polopanad

teacher

og

DIR

kolatas.

paper

"A teacher will buy some paper."
(or "Some paper will be bought by a teacher.")

(3)

Circumstantial Voice

Soluy-an

buy-ASP.CV

nog

IND

polopanad

teacher

og

DIR

bata′

child

nog

IND

kolatas.

paper

"A teacher will buy some paper for a child."
(or "A child will be bought some paper for by a teacher.")

Tagalog

Tagalog has six voices: Actor Voice, Patient Voice, Locative Voice, Benefactive Voice, Instrument Voice, and Reason Voice.

The locative voice suffix selects for location and goal subjects. (In the examples below, the goal subject and the benefactee subject are the same noun phrase.)

The reason voice prefix can only be affixed to certain roots, the majority of which are for emotion verbs (e.g., galit "be angry", sindak "be shocked"). However, verb roots such as matay "die", sakit "get sick", and iyak "cry" may also be marked with the reason voice prefix.

The direct case morpheme, which marks subjects in Tagalog, is ang. The indirect case morpheme, ng /naŋ/, which is the conflation of the ergative and accusative cases seen in Proto-Malayo-Polynesian, marks non-subject agents and non-subject patients.

(1)

Actor Voice

B‹um›ili

‹ASP.AV›buy

ng

IND

mangga

mango

sa

OBL

palengke

market

para

for

sa

OBL

ale

woman

sa

OBL

pamamagitan

means

ng

IND

pera

money

ang

DIR

mama.

man

"The man bought a mango at the market for the woman by means of money."

(2)

Patient Voice^[52]

B‹in›ili-∅

‹ASP›buy-PV

ng

IND

mama

man

sa

OBL

palengke

market

para

for

sa

OBL

ale

woman

sa

OBL

pamamagitan

means

ng

IND

pera

money

ang

DIR

mangga.

mango

"The man bought the mango at the market for the woman by means of money."
(or "The mango was bought by the man at the market for the woman by means of money.")

(3) a.

Locative Voice (with location subject)

B‹in›ilh-an

‹ASP›buy-LV

ng

IND

mama

man

ng

IND

mangga

mango

para

for

sa

OBL

ale

woman

sa

OBL

pamamagitan

means

ng

IND

pera

money

ang

DIR

palengke.

market

"The man bought a mango at the market for the woman by means of money."
(or "The market was bought a mango at by the man for the woman by means of money.")

(3) b.

Locative Voice (with goal subject)

B‹in›ilh-an

‹ASP›buy-LV

ng

IND

mama

man

ng

IND

mangga

mango

sa

OBL

palengke

market

sa

OBL

pamamagitan

means

ng

IND

pera

money

ang

DIR

ale.

woman

"The man bought a mango at the market for the woman by means of money."
(or "The woman was bought a mango for by the man at the market by means of money.")

(4)

Benefactive Voice

I-b‹in›ili

BV-‹ASP›buy

ng

IND

mama

man

ng

IND

mangga

mango

sa

OBL

palengke

market

sa

OBL

pamamagitan

means

ng

IND

pera

money

ang

DIR

ale.

woman

"The man bought a mango at the market for the woman by means of money."
(or "The woman was bought a mango for by the man at the market by means of money.")

(5)

Instrument Voice

Ipinambili

Ip‹in›aN-bili

‹ASP›IV-buy

ng

IND

mama

man

ng

IND

mangga

mango

sa

OBL

palengke

market

para

for

sa

OBL

ale

woman

ang

DIR

pera.

money

"The man bought a mango at the market for the woman by means of money."
(or "The money was bought a mango with by the man at the market for the woman.")

(6) a.

Reason Voice^[53]

Ik‹in›a-iyak

‹ASP›RV-cry

ng

IND

bata

child

ang

DIR

pag-kagat

NMLZ-bite

sa

OBL

kaniya

3SG.OBL

ng

IND

langgam.

ant

"The child cried because an/the ant bit him."
(or "An/the ant's biting of him was cried about by the child.")

(6) b.

Actor Voice

‹Um›iyak

‹ASP.AV›cry

ang

DIR

bata

child

dahil

because

k‹in›agat-∅

‹ASP›bite-PV

siya

3SG.DIR

ng

IND

langgam.

ant

"The child cried because an/the ant bit him."
(or "The child cried because he was bitten by an/the ant.")

Tondano

Tondano^[54] has four voices: Actor Voice, Patient Voice, Locative Voice, and Circumstantial Voice.

The circumstantial Voice selects for instrument, benefactee, and theme subjects.

The subject is found in sentence-initial position, before the verb.

(1)

Actor Voice

Si

AN.SG

tuama

man

k‹um›eoŋ

‹AV›will.pull

roda

cart

wo

with

n-tali

INAN-rope

waki

to

pasar.

market

"The man will pull the cart with the rope to the market."

(2)

Patient Voice

Roda

cart

keoŋ-ən

will.pull-PV

ni

ERG.AN.SG

tuama

man

wo

with

n-tali

INAN-rope

waki

to

pasar.

market

"The man will pull the cart with the rope to the market."
(or "The cart will be pulled with rope to the market by the man.")

(3)

Locative Voice

Pasar

market

keoŋ-an

will.pull-LV

ni

ERG.AN.SG

tuama

man

roda

cart

wo

with

n-tali.

INAN-rope

"The man will pull the cart with the rope to the market."
(or "The market will be pulled the cart to with the rope by the man.")

(4) a.

Circumstantial Voice (with instrument subject)

Tali

rope

i-keoŋ

CV-will.pull

ni

ERG.AN.SG

tuama

man

roda

cart

waki

to

pasar.

market

"The man will pull the cart with the rope to the market."
(or "The rope will be pulled the cart with to the market by the man.")

(4) b.

Circumstantial Voice (with benefactee subject)

Se

AN.PL

okiʔ

child

i-lutuʔ

CV-will.cook

ni

ERG.AN.SG

mama

mother

seraʔ

fish

"Mother will cook fish for the children."
(or "The children will be cooked fish for by mother.")

(4) c.

Circumstantial Voice (with theme subject)

Ləloŋkotan

ladder

i-wareŋ

CV-will.return

ni

ERG.AN.SG

tuama

man

waki

to

wale.

house

"The man will return the ladder to the house."
(or "The ladder will be returned by the man to the house.")

Bornean

The data below come from Bornean languages, a geographic grouping under Malayo-Polynesian, mainly spoken on the island of Borneo, spanning administrative areas of Malaysia and Indonesia.

Bonggi

Bonggi^[55]^[56] has four voices: Actor Voice, Patient Voice, Instrumental Voice, and Circumstantial Voice.

The circumstantial voice suffix selects for benefactee and goal subjects.

The subject is found in sentence-initial position, before the verb.

(1)

Actor Voice

Sia

3SG.DIR

imagi

in-N-bagi

RL-AV-divide

louk

fish

nyu.

2PL.GEN

"He divided your fish."

(2)

Patient Voice^[57]

Louk

fish

nyu

2PL.GEN

biagi

b‹in›agi-∅

‹RL›divide-PV

nya.

3SG.ERG

"He divided your fish." (or "Your fish was divided by him.")

(3)

Instrument Voice

Badiʔ

machete

ku

1SG.GEN

pimagi

p‹in›əN-bagi

‹RL›IV-divide

nya

3SG.ERG

louk

fish

nyu.

2PL.GEN

"He divided your fish with my machete." (or "My machete was divided your fish with by him.")

(4) a.

Circumstantial Voice (with benefactee subject)

Ou

1SG.DIR

bigiadn

b‹in›agi-adn

‹RL›divide-CV

nya

3SG.ERG

louk

fish

nyu.

2PL.GEN

"He divided your fish for me." (or "I was divided your fish for by him.")

(4) b.

Circumstantial Voice (with goal subject)

Ou

1SG.DIR

biniriadn

b‹in›ori-adn

‹RL›give-CV

nya

3SG.ERG

siidn.

money

"He gave money to me." (or "I was given money to by him.")

Kadazan Dusun

Kadazan Dusun^[58] has three voices: Actor Voice, Patient Voice and Benefactive Voice.

The direct case morpheme, which marks the subject in Kadazan Dusun, is i.

(1)

Actor Voice

Mog-ovit

AV-bring

i

DIR

ama’

father

di

IND

tanak

child

do

ACC

buuk.

book

"Father is bringing the child a book."

(2)

Patient Voice

Ovit-on

bring-PV

di

IND

ama’

father

di

IND

tanak

child

i

DIR

buuk.

book

"Father is bringing the child the book." (or "The book is being brought to the child by Father.")

(3)

Benefactive Voice

Ovit-an

bring-BV

di

IND

ama’

father

i

DIR

tanak

child

do

ACC

buuk.

book

"Father is bringing the child a book." (or "The child is being brought a book to by Father.")

Kelabit

Kelabit^[59] has three voices: Actor Voice, Patient Voice and Instrument Voice.

Unlike other languages presented here, Kelabit does not use case-marking or word-ordering strategies to indicate the subject of the clause.^[60] However, certain syntactic processes, such as relativization, target the subject. Relativizing non-subjects results in ungrammatical sentences.^[61]

(1)

Actor Voice

La’ih

man

sineh

that

nenekul

in-N-tekul

ASP-AV-spoon.up

nubaq

rice

nedih

3SG.GEN

ngen

with

seduk.

spoon

"That man spooned his rice up with a spoon."

(2)

Patient Voice^[62]

Sikul

t‹in›ekul-∅

‹ASP›spoon.up-PV

la’ih

man

sineh

that

nubaq

rice

nedih

3SG.GEN

ngen

with

seduk.

spoon.

"That man spooned his rice up with a spoon." (or "His_i rice was spooned up with a spoon by that man_i.")

(3)

Instrument Voice

Seduk

spoon

penenekul

p‹in›eN-tekul

‹ASP›IV-spoon.up

la’ih

man

sineh

that

nubaq

rice

nedih.

3SG.GEN

"That man spooned his rice up with a spoon." (or "A spoon was spooned his_i rice up with by that man_i.")

Kimaragang

Kimaragang^[63] has five voices: Actor Voice, Patient Voice, Benefactive Voice, Instrument Voice and Locative Voice.

Only intransitive verbs can be marked with the locative voice suffix,^[64] which looks similar to the patient voice suffix.^[65]

The direct case marker, which marks the subject in Kimaragang, is it for definite nouns and ot for indefinite nouns.

(1)

Actor Voice

Mangalapak

m-poN-lapak

AV-TR-split

oku

1SG.DIR

do

IND.INDF

niyuw.

coconut

"I will split a coconut/some coconuts."

(2)

Patient Voice

Lapak-on

split-PV

ku

1SG.IND

it

DIR.DEF

niyuw.

coconut

"I will split the coconuts." (or "The coconuts will be split by me.")

(3)

Benefactive Voice

Lapak-an

split-BV

ku

1SG.IND

do

IND.INDF

niyuw

coconut

it

DIR.DEF

wogok.

pig

"I will split some coconuts for the pigs." (or "The pigs will be split some coconuts for by me.")

(4)

Instrument Voice^[66]^[67]

Tongo

what

ot

DIR.INDF

pangalapak

∅-poN-lapak

IT-TR-split

nu

2SG.IND

dilo’

that.IND

niyuw

coconut

______?

DIR

"What will you split those coconuts with?" (or "The thing that will be split those coconuts with by you is what?")

(5)

Locative Voice^[68]

Siombo

where

ot

DIR.INDF

ogom-on

sit-LV

ku

1SG.IND

_____?

DIR

"Where shall I sit?" (or "The thing that will be sat upon by me is where?")

Timugon Murut

Timugon Murut^[69] has five voices: Actor Voice, Patient Voice, Benefactive Voice, Instrument Voice, and Circumstantial Voice.

There is no direct case marker to mark subjects in Timugon Murut. However, non-subject agents are marked with the ergative case marker, du, while non-subject non-agents are marked with the oblique case marker, da.

(1)

Actor Voice

Mambali

m-paN-bali

AV-¿?-buy

dŭanduʔ=ti

woman=DET

da=konoon

OBL=clothes

da=dalaiŋ=no

OBL=child=DET

da=sŭab=no

OBL=morning=DET

da=duit=na-no.

OBL=money=3SG.GEN-DET

"The woman will buy clothes for the child in the morning with her money."

(2)

Patient Voice

Bali-on

buy-PV

konoon

clothes

du=dŭanduʔ=ti

ERG=woman=DET

da=dalaiŋ=no

OBL=child=DET

da=sŭab=no

OBL=morning=DET

da=duit=na-no.

OBL=money=3SG.GEN-DET

"The woman will buy clothes for the child in the morning with her money." (or "Clothes will be bought for the child in the morning by the woman with her money.")

(3)

Benefactive Voice

Bali-in

buy-BV

dalaiŋ=no

child=DET

da=konoon

OBL=clothes

du=dŭanduʔ=ti

ERG=woman=DET

da=sŭab=no

OBL=morning=DET

da=duit=na-no.

OBL=money=3SG.GEN-DET

"The woman will buy clothes for the child in the morning with her money." (or "The child will be bought clothes for in the morning by the woman with her money.")

(4)

Instrument Voice

Duit=na-no

money=3SG.GEN-DET

pambabali

paN-CV~bali

¿?-IV~buy

du=dŭanduʔ=ti

ERG=woman=DET

da=konoon

OBL=clothes

da=dalaiŋ=no

OBL=child=DET

da=sŭab=no.

OBL=morning=DET

"The woman will buy clothes for the child in the morning with her money." (or "Her_i money will be bought clothes with for the child in the morning by the woman_i.")

(5)

Circumstantial Voice

Sŭab=na

morning=DET

pambalian

paN-bali-an

¿?-buy-CV

du=dŭanduʔ=ti

ERG=woman=DET

da=konoon

OBL=clothes

da=dalaiŋ=no

OBL=child=DET

da=duit=na-no.

OBL=money=3SG.GEN-DET

"The woman will buy clothes for the child in the morning with her money." (or "The morning will be bought clothes in for the child by the woman with her money.")

Barito

The data below represent the Barito languages, and are from a language spoken on Madagascar, off the east coast of Africa. Other languages from Barito are spoken in Indonesia and the Philippines.

Malagasy

Malagasy^[70] has three voices: Actor Voice, Patient Voice, and Circumstantial Voice.

The circumstantial voice suffix selects for instrument and benefactee subjects.

Malagasy does not have a direct case marker. However, the subject is found in sentence-final position.

(1)

Actor Voice

Mamono

m-aN-vono

AV-TR-kill

akoho

chicken

amin'ny

with'DET

antsy

knife

ny

DET

mpiompy.

farmer

"The farmer kills chickens with the knife."

(2)

Patient Voice

Vonoin'ny

vono-ina'ny

kill-PV'DET

mpiompy

farmer

amin'ny

with'DET

antsy

knife

ny

DET

akoho.

chicken

"The farmer kills the chickens with the knife." (or "The chickens are killed with the knife by the farmer.")

(3) a.

Circumstantial Voice (with instrument subject)

Amonoan'ny

aN-vono-ana'ny

TR-kill-CV'DET

mpiompy

farmer

akoho

chicken

ny

DET

antsy.

knife

"The farmer kills chickens with the knife." (or "The knife is killed chickens with by the farmer.")

(3) b.

Circumstantial Voice (with benefactee subject)

Amonoan'ny

aN-vono-ana'ny

TR-kill-CV'DET

mpiompy

farmer

akoho

chicken

ny

DET

vahiny.

guest

"The farmer kills chickens for the guests." (or "The guests are killed chickens for by the farmer.")

Non-Austronesian examples

Alignment types resembling symmetrical voice have been observed in non-Austronesian languages.

Nilotic

The Nilotic languages are a group of languages spoken in the eastern part of Sub-Saharan Africa.

Dinka

Dinka is a dialect continuum spoken in South Sudan. The two dialects presented below each have a maximum of three voices.

Agar

Andersen (1991) suggests that Agar exhibits symmetrical voice. This language has a maximum of three voices: Actor Voice, Patient Voice, and Circumstantial Voice. The subject is found in sentence-initial position, before the verb. The non-finite form of the verb found in the examples^[71] below is yḛ̂ep "cut".

(1)

Actor Voice

ô̰ok

1PL

á̰a-y‹ḛ̀›p

D.PL-‹AV›cut

tḭ̀im

tree

nè̤

PREP

yê̤ep.

axe

"We are cutting the tree with the axe."

(2)

Patient Voice

tḭ̀im

tree

à̰-y‹ḛ́›p-kṳ̀

D-‹PV›cut-1PL

nè̤

PREP

yê̤ep.

axe

"We are cutting the tree with the axe." (or "The tree is being cut by us with the axe.")

(3)

Circumstantial Voice

yê̤ep

axe

à̰-y‹ḛ́e›p

D-‹CV›cut

ó̰ok

1PL.GEN

tḭ̀im.

tree

"We are cutting the tree with the axe." (or "The axe is being cut the tree with by us.")

However, the number of voice morphemes available in this language is reduced to two when the agent is a full noun (i.e., not a pronoun), such as in the examples^[72] below. In (5a), where the subject is a patient, and the agent is not a pronoun, the verb is marked with Circumstantial Voice. Compare to (2) above, in which the agent is pronominal, and the verb is marked with patient voice morpheme, ḛ́.

(4)

Actor Voice

dhɔ̤̀ɔk

boy

à̰-y‹ḛ̀›p

D-‹AV›cut

tḭ̀im

tree

nè̤

PREP

yê̤ep.

axe

"The boy is cutting the tree with the axe."

(5) a.

Circumstantial Voice (with patient subject)

tḭ̀im

tree

à̰-y‹ḛ́e›p

D-‹CV›cut

dhɔ̤̀ɔk

boy

nè̤

PREP

yê̤ep.

axe

"The boy is cutting the tree with the axe." (or "The tree is being cut by the boy with the axe.")

(5) b.

Circumstantial Voice (with instrument subject)

yê̤ep

axe

à̰-y‹ḛ́e›p

D-‹CV›cut

dhɔ̤̀ɔk

boy

tḭ̀im.

tree

"The boy is cutting the tree with the axe." (or "The axe is being cut the tree with by the boy.")

Bor

Van Urk (2015) suggests that Bor exhibits symmetrical voice. This language has three voices: Actor Voice, Patient Voice, and Circumstantial Voice.

The subject is found in sentence-initial position, before the verb. The non-finite form of the verb found in the examples^[73] below is câam "eat".

(1)

Actor Voice

Àyén

Ayen

à-c‹à›m

3SG-‹AV›eat

cuî̤in

food

nè̤

PREP

pǎal.

knife

"Ayen is eating food with a knife."

(2)

Patient Voice

Cuî̤in

food

à-c‹ɛ́ɛ›m

3SG-‹PV›eat

Áyèn

Ayen.ERG

nè̤

PREP

pǎal.

knife

"Ayen is eating food with a knife." (or "Food is being eaten by Ayen with a knife.")

(3)

Circumstantial Voice^[74]

Pǎal

knife

à-c‹ɛ́ɛ›m-è̤

3SG-‹PV›eat-CV

Áyèn

Ayen.ERG

cuî̤in.

food

"Ayen is eating food with a knife." (or "The knife is being eaten food with by Ayen.")

Kurmuk

Andersen (2015) suggests that Kurmuk, which is spoken in Sudan, has a construction that resembles symmetrical voice. This language has three voices: Actor Voice, Patient Voice, and Circumstantial Voice.

The subject in the examples^[75] below is found in sentence-initial position, before the verb.

(1)

Actor Voice

t̪áarák

person

ꜜbóor-ú-∅

skin-PST-AV

dɛ̀ɛl

goat

kʌ̀

PREP

ŋɪ̀ɪr.

knife

"The man skinned a goat with a knife."

(2)

Patient Voice

dɛ̀ɛl

goat

bóor-út̪-ɪ̀

skin-PST-PV

ŋʌ̀

NOM

t̪áarák

person

kʌ̀

PREP

ŋɪ̀ɪr.

knife

"The man skinned the goat with a knife." (or "The goat was skinned by the man with a knife.")

(3)

Circumstantial Voice

ŋɪ̀ɪr

knife

bóor-út̪-ꜜɪ́

skin-PST-CV

dɛ́ɛl

goat

ŋʌ̀

NOM

t̪áarák.

person

"The man skinned a goat with the knife." (or "The knife was skinned a goat with by the man.")

Notes

Glosses

Here is a list of the abbreviations used in the glosses:

1

first person

DEF

definite

LIG

ligature

RL

realis mood

2

second person

DET

determiner

LV

locative voice

RV

reason voice

3

third person

DIR

direct case

M

masculine

SG

singular

ACC

accusative case

ERG

ergative case

NAV

non-actor voice

TR

transitive

AN

animate

F

feminine

NMLZ

nominalizer

¿?

morpheme of unknown semantics

ASP

aspect

GEN

genitive case

NOM

nominative case

AV

actor voice

GV

goal voice

OBL

oblique case

AUX

auxiliary verb

INAN

inanimate

PL

plural

BV

benefactive voice

IND

indirect case

PREP

preposition

CV

circumstantial voice

INDF

indefinite

PST

past tense

D

declarative

IV

instrument voice

PV

patient voice

Endnotes

^ Blust (2013), p. 436.
^ Beguš, Gašper. (2016). "The Origins of the Voice/Focus System in Austronesian". Presented at the 42nd Annual Meeting of the Berkeley Linguistics Society (BLS42).
^ Himmelmann, N. P. (2002). Voice in western Austronesian: An update. In F. Wouk & M. Ross (Eds.), The History and Typology of western Austronesian voice systems (pp. 7-15). Canberra, ACT: Australian National University.
^ Starosta, Stanley. (2002). Austronesian ‘Focus’ as Derivation: Evidence from Nominalization. Language and Linguistics, 3(2), 427-479.
^ Masumi Katagiri (2020) 'Tagalog'. In Tasaku Tsunoda (ed.) Mermaid Construction: A Compound-Predicate Construction with Biclausal Appearance. De Gruyter. P. 786.
^ Hemmings, Charlotte. (2015). Kelabit Voice: Philippine‐Type, Indonesian‐Type or Something a Bit Different? Transactions of the Philological Society, 113(3), 383-405.
^ Liao, Liao, H. C. (2011). Some morphosyntactic differences between Formosan and Philippine languages. Language and Linguistics, 12(4), 845-876.
^ Kroeger, Paul. (2007). Morphosyntactic vs. morphosemantic functions of Indonesian –kan. In A. Zaenen et al. (Eds.), Architectures, Rules, and Preferences: Variations on Themes of Joan Bresnan (pp. 229-251).
^ Huang, Shuan-fan. (2002). The pragmatics of focus in Tsou and Seediq. Language and Linguistics, 3(4), 665-694.
^ Fortin, Catherine. (2003). Syntactic and Semantic Valence: Morphosyntactic Evidence from Minangkabau. In Proceedings of the Twenty-Ninth Annual Meeting of the Berkeley Linguistics Society (BLS 29).
^ Ross (2002, p. 20)
^ Taken from Shiohara (2012)'s examples in (4a-b) on page 60, and in (12) on page 63. Glosses and translations modified for the Wikipedia article.
^ Taken from Blust (2013)'s Table 7.2 on page 439. Glosses and translations modified for the Wikipedia article.
^ Taken from Liu (2011)'s examples in (2.5) on page 27. Glosses and translation modified for the Wikipedia article.
^ Taken from Liu (2011)'s examples in (2.30) on page 44. Glosses and translation modified for the Wikipedia article.
^ Taken from Liu (2017)'s examples in (52) to (56). Glosses and translations modified for the Wikipedia article.
^ Taken from Pan (2012)'s examples in (3.16b), (3.23a), (3.32d) and (3.33a). Glosses and translation modified for the Wikipedia article.
^ The orthography used in this subsection does not conform to the orthography used in Pan (2012) with respect to the consonant /ɬ/. Whereas Pan (2012) represents this sound as ‹lh›, this sound is represented here as ‹hl› (Pan (2012; page 50)).
^ Taken from Liu (2014)'s examples in (5a), (5c), (17a), and (20a). Glosses and translation modified for the Wikipedia article.
^ Taken from Lee (2016)'s examples in (24), and (25). Glosses and translations modified for the Wikipedia article.
^ Taken from Ross and Teng (2005)'s examples in (2). Glosses and translations modified for the Wikipedia article.
^ Taken from Li (2000)'s examples in (22), (39), and (58), and Li (2002)'s example in (15). Glosses and translations modified for the Wikipedia article.
^ Taken from Aldridge (2015)'s examples in (7), and Cauquelin (1991)'s example on page 44. Glosses and translations modified for the Wikipedia article.
^ While this example may come from Cauquelin (1991), the orthography used here conforms to the orthography used in Aldridge (2015).
^ Taken from Kuo (2015)'s examples in (2.1) on page 14. Glosses and translations modified for the Wikipedia article.
^ Taken from Tsukida (2012)'s examples in (3). Glosses and translations modified for the Wikipedia article.
^ Taken from Huang and Huang (2007)'s examples in III in the Appendix, pages 449-450. Glosses and translations modified for the Wikipedia article.
^ Zeitoun (2005), page 266
^ Zeitoun (2005), page 267 ("actor voice" and "undergoer voice", respectively, in her terminology).
^ In their gloss for this example, Huang and Huang (2007, page 450) suggest that the benefactive voice suffix attaches to a stem composed of the verb and the locative voice ("locative voice" in their terminology).
^ Taken from Reid (1966)'s examples on pages 26 and 27. Glosses and translation modified for the Wikipedia article.
^ The orthography used for the data here reflects the transcription system used by Reid (1966). It seems that, from the Wikipedia article on Ivatan, this may not be the actual spelling system that the speakers of this language use. The sound represented by ‹q› is /ʔ/.
^ Reid (1966; pp 25-27) presents an alternative form for the verb in locative voice. Instead of appearing with the 'pang-' prefix, a verb of this class in locative voice form may appear with just the '-an' suffix. For this example, instead of 'pangamoqmoan', the verb would be 'qamoqmoan'. Reid indicates that the distinction between these two forms is that the patient of the action must be explicit for the form appearing without the 'pang-' prefix.
^ Reid (1966; pp 25-27) presents an alternative form for the verb in circumstantial voice, when it selects for instrument subjects. Instead of appearing with the 'pang-' prefix, a verb of this class in circumstantial voice form may appear with just the 'qi-' prefix. For this example, instead of 'qipangamoqmo', the verb would be 'qimoqmo'. Reid indicates that the distinction between these two forms is that the patient of the action must be explicit for the form appearing without the 'pang-' prefix.
^ Reid (1966; pp 25-27) does not present any alternative form for verbs of this class in circumstantial voice, when they select for benefactee subjects.
^ Taken from Huang (2014)'s examples in (3a-d) on page 251. Glosses and translations modified for the Wikipedia article.
^ Taken from Abrams (1970)'s examples on page 2. Glosses and translations modified for the Wikipedia article.
^ Abrams (1970, pages 1-2) indicates that Blaan verbs are classified into three types of prefocus bases, each of which has an inherent voice without bearing any voice affixes. An agent prefocus base is a bare verb that is inherently in Actor Voice voice. A patient prefocus base is inherently in patient voice, and an instrument prefocus base is inherently in instrument voice.
^ Blaan has two morphemes which, when attached to a prefocus base, change the inherent voice of the base. These morphemes are the Actor Voice affix, m-/-am-, and the non-Actor Voice affix, n-/-an- ("subject focus" and "non-subject focus" in Abrams (1970, page 1)'s terminology, respectively).
^ Abrams (1970, page 2) has not found many examples of an agent prefocus base taking either of the voice-changing morphemes. However, in that rare example in which an agent prefocus base does, both voice-changing morphemes transitivize the intransitive agent prefocus base. In addition, the Actor Voice affix keeps the base in Actor Voice voice, while the non-Actor Voice affix changes the voice of the base to non-Actor Voice voice, and allows for the selection of a patient subject.
^ Without any voice-changing morphemes, patient prefocus bases take patient subjects. The Actor Voice affix changes the voice of the base to Actor Voice voice, allowing the verb to take an agent subject. The non-Actor Voice affix allows a patient prefocus base to take location subjects.
^ The Actor Voice affix changes the inherent instrument voice of the base to Actor Voice voice, whereas the non-Actor Voice affix changes the voice to non-Actor Voice voice, and allows for the selection of a patient subject.
^ Taken from Bell (1976)'s examples on pages 8, 9, and 11. Glosses and translations modified for the Wikipedia article.
^ Taken from Travis (2010)'s examples in (46) on page 42. Glosses and translations modified for the Wikipedia article.
^ Taken from Mirikitani (1972)'s examples in (64), (95), (96), (100), (101) and (106). Glosses and translations modified for the Wikipedia article.
^ In the examples, the word to which the accusative case marker attaches is a pronoun or portmanteau pronoun that is obligatorily present in the same clause as the noun with which it is co-referential. In sentences with an Actor Voice, the pronoun co-refers with the agent subject. In sentences with a non-Actor Voice, the portmanteau pronoun co-refers with both the ergative agent and the non-agent subject, which is marked with direct case.
^ Taken from Ferreirinho (1993)'s examples in (100), (245), (246), (247) and (248). Glosses and translations modified for the Wikipedia article.
^ The patient voice suffix surfaces either as -on or as -∅. The choice of allomorph depends on whether or not the verb is marked with the -in- aspectual infix. When the aspectual infix is present, the -∅ allomorph surfaces.
^ Taken from McKaughan (1962)'s examples on pages 48 and 50, and from McKaughan (1970)'s example in (4). Glosses and translations modified for the Wikipedia article.
^ Taken from Tryon (1994)'s examples on pages 35 and 36. Glosses and translations modified for the Wikipedia article.
^ Taken from Estioca (2020)'s examples on page 123. Glosses and translations modified for the Wikipedia article.
^ The patient voice suffix surfaces either as -in or as -∅. The choice of allomorph depends on whether or not the verb is marked with the -in- aspectual infix. When the aspectual infix is present, the -∅ allomorph surfaces.
^ The subject in (6a) is the nominalization of the adverbial clause in (6b).
^ Taken from Sneddon (1970)'s examples on page 13, and from Sneddon (1975)'s examples on pages 63 and 66. Glosses and translations modified for the Wikipedia article.
^ Taken from Boutin (2002)'s examples in (3), and (4) on page 211, (6) and (7) on page 212, and in (44) on page 222. Glosses and translations modified for the Wikipedia article.
^ Boutin (2002; pp. 211-212) presents other voice-related data. However, because these are periphrastic constructions, they are of no interest for the purposes of this Wikipedia article.
^ The patient voice suffix surfaces either as -idn or as -∅. The choice of allomorph depends on whether or not the verb is marked with the -in- realis mood morpheme. When the realis mood morpheme is present, the -∅ allomorph surfaces.
^ Hemmings (2016), p. 270: "Taken from examples in (39). Glosses and translations modified for the Wikipedia article."
^ Hemmings (2016), p. 200: "Taken from examples in (189a-c). Glosses and translations modified for the Wikipedia article."
^ Hemmings (2016) presents examples in which the subject in patient voice appears before the verb, and in which the subject in Actor Voice voice appears after the verb
^ Hemmings (2016), pp. 202–203.
^ The patient voice suffix has two allomorphs, -en and -∅. The former occurs in non-perfective contexts, whereas the latter in perfective contexts.
^ Taken from Kroeger (2005)'s examples in (20a-c), page 405, and from Kroeger (2017)'s examples in (5), (6a) and (7). The orthography used here conforms to the orthography used in Kroeger (2017). Glosses and translations modified for the Wikipedia article.
^ Kroeger (2017), page 5.
^ According to Kroeger (2005; page 415, table (45)), the patient voice suffix has two allomorphs, -on and -∅. The former occurs in non-past contexts, whereas the latter in past contexts. The locative voice suffix does not exhibit such allomorphy, and can appear in both past and non-past contexts.
^ According to Kroeger (2010; page 8), the instrument voice prefix has two allomorphs, i-, and ∅-. The latter surfaces in the presence of the transitivity prefix, poN-.
^ The sentence in this example exhibits a pseudocleft construction with a relative clause as the subject, and a WH-word as the predicate. The instrument voice prefix selects a null operator within the relative clause. This null operator serves as the head of the relative clause, which can be interpreted as "the thing that...".
^ The sentence in this example exhibits a pseudocleft construction with a relative clause as the subject, and a WH-word as the predicate. The locative voice suffix selects a null operator within the relative clause. This null operator serves as the head of the relative clause, which can be interpreted as "the thing that...".
^ Taken from Prentice (1965)'s examples on pages 130 and 131. Glosses and translations for the Wikipedia article.
^ Taken from Pearson (2005)'s examples in (2) and (10c). Glosses and translations modified for the Wikipedia article.
^ Taken from Andersen (1991)'s example (74) on page 286. Glosses and translations modified for the Wikipedia article.
^ Taken from Andersen (1991)'s example (71) on page 285. Glosses and translations modified for the Wikipedia article.
^ Taken from van Urk (2015)'s example (2) on page 61. Glosses and translations modified for the Wikipedia article.
^ Van Urk (2015, page 69) indicates that the circumstantial voice suffix is attached to a stem composed of the verb and the patient voice ("object voice" in van Urk's terminology).
^ Taken from Andersen (2015)'s example (1) on page 510. Glosses and translations modified for the Wikipedia article.

References

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Aldridge, Edith. 2015. "A Minimalist Approach to the Emergence of Ergativity in Austronesian Languages". Linguistics Vanguard 1(1):313-326.
Andersen, Torben. 1991. "Subject and Topic in Dinka". Studies in Language 15(2):265-294.
Andersen, Torben. 2015. "Syntacticized topics in Kurmuk: A ternary voice-like system in Nilotic". Studies in Language 39(3):508-554.
Bell, Sarah Johanna. 1976. Cebuano Subjects in Two Frameworks. PhD dissertation: Massachusetts Institute of Technology.
Blust, Robert (2013), The Austronesian languages (Revised edition), Canberra: Australian National University, ISBN 9781922185075
Boutin, Michael E. 2002. "Nominative and genitive case alternations in Bonggi". The history and typology of western Austronesian voice systems. eds. Fay Wouk and Malcolm Ross, pp 209-239. Pacific Linguistics 518. Canberra: Australian National University.
Cauquelin, Josiane. 1991. "The Puyuma Language". Bijdragen tot de Taal-, Land- en Volkenkunde 147(1):17-60.
Estioca, Sharon Joy. 2020. A Grammar of Western Subanon. PhD Dissertation: University of Hawai’i at Mānoa.
Ferreirinho, Naomi. 1993. Selected Topics in the Grammar of Limos Kalinga, the Philippines. Pacific Linguistics B-109. Canberra: Australian National University.
Hemmings, Charlotte (2016), The Kelabit Language, Austronesian Voice and Syntactic Typology (Doctoral dissertation) (Ph.D), SOAS, University of London, doi:10.25501/SOAS.00023792
Huang, Stacy Wan Tin. 2014. "Tao Voice Affixes: Derivation or Inflection or Both?". Argument realisations and related constructions in Austronesian languages: papers from 12-ICAL, Volume 2. eds. I.W. Arka and N.L.K.M. Indrawati, pp 175-195. Asia-Pacific Linguistics 013 / Studies on Austronesian languages 002. Canberra: Australian National University. [1]
Huang, Huei-ju and Shuanfan Huang. 2007. "Lexical Perspectives on Voice Constructions in Tsou". Oceanic Linguistics 46.2:424-455.
Kroeger, Paul R. 2005. "Kimaragang". The Austronesian languages of Asia and Madagascar. eds. K.A. Adelaar and N. Himmelmann, pp 397–428. New York: Routledge.
Kroeger, Paul R. 2010. "The Grammar of hitting, breaking, and cutting in Kimaragang Dusun". Oceanic Linguistics 49.1:1-20.
Kroeger, Paul. 2017. "Frustration, culmination, and inertia in Kimaragang grammar". Glossa: a journal of general linguistics 2(1):56, 1-29.
Kuo, Jonathan Cheng-Chuen. 2015. Argument Alternation and Argument Structure in Symmetrical Voice Languages: A case study of transfer verbs in Amis, Puyuma, and Seediq. PhD Dissertation: University of Hawai’i at Mānoa.
Lee, Wei-Wei. 2016. The Expression and Conceptualization of Time in Kavalan (Austronesian, Taiwan). MA thesis: Universiteit Leiden.
Li, Paul Jen-kuei. 2000. "Some Aspects of Pazeh Syntax". Oceanic Linguistics Special Publications 29:89-108.
Li, Paul Jen-kuei. 2002. "Nominalization in Pazih". Language and Linguistics 3.2:227-239.
Liu, (Adlay) Kun-Long. 2017. Syntactic Interactions with Information Structure in Squliq Atayal. PhD dissertation: Australian National University.
Liu, Tsai-hsiu (2011), Complementation in Three Formosan Languages—Amis, Mayrinax Atayal and Tsou (Doctoral dissertation) (Thesis), Honolulu: University of Hawai'i at Mānoa, hdl:10125/101742
Liu, Dorinda Tsai-hsiu. 2014. "Neutral and Imperfective Forms in Kanakanavu". Argument realisations and related constructions in Austronesian languages: papers from 12-ICAL, Volume 2. eds. I.W. Arka and N.L.K.M. Indrawati, pp 175-195. Asia-Pacific Linguistics 013 / Studies on Austronesian languages 002. Canberra: Australian National University. [2]
McKaughan, Howard. 1962. "Overt Relation Markers in Maranao". Language 38.1:47-51.
McKaughan, H. 1970. "Topicalization in Maranao - an addendum". Pacific linguistic studies in honour of Arthur Capell. eds. S.A. Wurm, and D.C. Laycock, pp 291-300. Pacific Linguistics C-13. Canberra: Australian National University.
Mirikitani, Leatrice T. 1972. Kapampangan Syntax. Oceanic Linguistics Special Publication, 10. Honolulu: University of Hawai’i Press.
Pan, Chia-jung. 2012. A Grammar of Lha’alua, an Austronesian Language of Taiwan. PhD dissertation: James Cook University.
Pearson, Matt. 2005. "Voice morphology, case, and argument structure in Malagasy". Proceedings of AFLA 11. ed. P. Law, pp 229-243. Zentrum für Allgemeine Sprachwissenschaft, Berlin.
Prentice, D.J. 1965. "Form and Function in the Verbs of Sabah Murut: A Preliminary Analysis". Oceanic Linguistics 4.1/2:127-156.
Reid, Lawrence Andrew. 1966. An Ivatan Syntax. PhD dissertation: University of Hawai'i.
Ross, Malcolm. 2002. "The history and transitivity of western Austronesian voice and voice-marking". The history and typology of western Austronesian voice systems. eds. Fay Wouk and Malcolm Ross, pp 17-62. Pacific Linguistics 518. Canberra: Australian National University.
Ross, Malcolm and Stacy Fang-ching Teng. 2005. "Formosan Languages and Linguistic Typology". Language and Linguistics 6.4:739-781.
Schachter, Paul and Fé T. Otanes. 1972. Tagalog Reference Grammar. Berkeley: University of California Press.
Shiohara, Asako. 2012. "Applicatives in Standard Indonesian". Objectivization and Subjectivization: A Typology of Voice Systems. eds. W. Nakamura and R. Kikusawa, pp 59-76. Senri Ethnological Studies 77. Osaka: National Museum of Ethnology.
Sneddon, J.N. 1970. "The languages of Minahasa, North Celebes". Oceanic Linguistics 9:11-36.
Sneddon, J.N. 1975. Tondano phonology and grammar. Pacific Linguistics B-38. Canberra: Australian National University.
Travis, Lisa. 2010. Inner Aspect: the articulation of VP. Dordrecht: Springer.
Tryon, Darrell T. 1994. "The Austronesian Languages". Comparative Austronesian dictionary: An introduction to Austronesian studies. ed. D.T. Tryon, pp 5-45. Berlin; New York: Mouton de Gruyter.
Tsukida, Naomi. 2012. "Goal Voice and Conveyance Voice of Seediq". Objectivization and Subjectivization: A Typology of Voice Systems. eds. W. Nakamura and R. Kikusawa, pp 77-95. Senri Ethnological Studies 77. Osaka: National Museum of Ethnology.
van Urk, Coppe. 2015. A uniform syntax for phrasal movement: A case study of Dinka Bor. PhD dissertation: Massachusetts Institute of Technology.
Zeitoun, Elizabeth. 2005. "Tsou". The Austronesian languages of Asia and Madagascar. eds. K.A. Adelaar and N. Himmelmann, pp 259-290. New York: Routledge.

[FOOTNOTEBlust2013436-1] Blust (2013), p. 436.

[2] Beguš, Gašper. (2016). "The Origins of the Voice/Focus System in Austronesian". Presented at the 42nd Annual Meeting of the Berkeley Linguistics Society (BLS42).

[3] Himmelmann, N. P. (2002). Voice in western Austronesian: An update. In F. Wouk & M. Ross (Eds.), The History and Typology of western Austronesian voice systems (pp. 7-15). Canberra, ACT: Australian National University.

[4] Starosta, Stanley. (2002). Austronesian ‘Focus’ as Derivation: Evidence from Nominalization. Language and Linguistics, 3(2), 427-479.

[5] Masumi Katagiri (2020) 'Tagalog'. In Tasaku Tsunoda (ed.) Mermaid Construction: A Compound-Predicate Construction with Biclausal Appearance. De Gruyter. P. 786.

[6] Hemmings, Charlotte. (2015). Kelabit Voice: Philippine‐Type, Indonesian‐Type or Something a Bit Different? Transactions of the Philological Society, 113(3), 383-405.

[7] Liao, Liao, H. C. (2011). Some morphosyntactic differences between Formosan and Philippine languages. Language and Linguistics, 12(4), 845-876.

[8] Kroeger, Paul. (2007). Morphosyntactic vs. morphosemantic functions of Indonesian –kan. In A. Zaenen et al. (Eds.), Architectures, Rules, and Preferences: Variations on Themes of Joan Bresnan (pp. 229-251).

[9] Huang, Shuan-fan. (2002). The pragmatics of focus in Tsou and Seediq. Language and Linguistics, 3(4), 665-694.

[10] Fortin, Catherine. (2003). Syntactic and Semantic Valence: Morphosyntactic Evidence from Minangkabau. In Proceedings of the Twenty-Ninth Annual Meeting of the Berkeley Linguistics Society (BLS 29).

[11] Ross (2002, p. 20)

[12] Taken from Shiohara (2012)'s examples in (4a-b) on page 60, and in (12) on page 63. Glosses and translations modified for the Wikipedia article.

[13] Taken from Blust (2013)'s Table 7.2 on page 439. Glosses and translations modified for the Wikipedia article.

[14] Taken from Liu (2011)'s examples in (2.5) on page 27. Glosses and translation modified for the Wikipedia article.

[15] Taken from Liu (2011)'s examples in (2.30) on page 44. Glosses and translation modified for the Wikipedia article.

[16] Taken from Liu (2017)'s examples in (52) to (56). Glosses and translations modified for the Wikipedia article.

[17] Taken from Pan (2012)'s examples in (3.16b), (3.23a), (3.32d) and (3.33a). Glosses and translation modified for the Wikipedia article.

[18] The orthography used in this subsection does not conform to the orthography used in Pan (2012) with respect to the consonant /ɬ/. Whereas Pan (2012) represents this sound as ‹lh›, this sound is represented here as ‹hl› (Pan (2012; page 50)).

[19] Taken from Liu (2014)'s examples in (5a), (5c), (17a), and (20a). Glosses and translation modified for the Wikipedia article.

[20] Taken from Lee (2016)'s examples in (24), and (25). Glosses and translations modified for the Wikipedia article.

[21] Taken from Ross and Teng (2005)'s examples in (2). Glosses and translations modified for the Wikipedia article.

[22] Taken from Li (2000)'s examples in (22), (39), and (58), and Li (2002)'s example in (15). Glosses and translations modified for the Wikipedia article.

[23] Taken from Aldridge (2015)'s examples in (7), and Cauquelin (1991)'s example on page 44. Glosses and translations modified for the Wikipedia article.

[24] While this example may come from Cauquelin (1991), the orthography used here conforms to the orthography used in Aldridge (2015).

[25] Taken from Kuo (2015)'s examples in (2.1) on page 14. Glosses and translations modified for the Wikipedia article.

[26] Taken from Tsukida (2012)'s examples in (3). Glosses and translations modified for the Wikipedia article.

[27] Taken from Huang and Huang (2007)'s examples in III in the Appendix, pages 449-450. Glosses and translations modified for the Wikipedia article.

[28] Zeitoun (2005), page 266

[29] Zeitoun (2005), page 267 ("actor voice" and "undergoer voice", respectively, in her terminology).

[30] In their gloss for this example, Huang and Huang (2007, page 450) suggest that the benefactive voice suffix attaches to a stem composed of the verb and the locative voice ("locative voice" in their terminology).

[31] Taken from Reid (1966)'s examples on pages 26 and 27. Glosses and translation modified for the Wikipedia article.

[32] The orthography used for the data here reflects the transcription system used by Reid (1966). It seems that, from the Wikipedia article on Ivatan, this may not be the actual spelling system that the speakers of this language use. The sound represented by ‹q› is /ʔ/.

[33] Reid (1966; pp 25-27) presents an alternative form for the verb in locative voice. Instead of appearing with the 'pang-' prefix, a verb of this class in locative voice form may appear with just the '-an' suffix. For this example, instead of 'pangamoqmoan', the verb would be 'qamoqmoan'. Reid indicates that the distinction between these two forms is that the patient of the action must be explicit for the form appearing without the 'pang-' prefix.

[34] Reid (1966; pp 25-27) presents an alternative form for the verb in circumstantial voice, when it selects for instrument subjects. Instead of appearing with the 'pang-' prefix, a verb of this class in circumstantial voice form may appear with just the 'qi-' prefix. For this example, instead of 'qipangamoqmo', the verb would be 'qimoqmo'. Reid indicates that the distinction between these two forms is that the patient of the action must be explicit for the form appearing without the 'pang-' prefix.

[35] Reid (1966; pp 25-27) does not present any alternative form for verbs of this class in circumstantial voice, when they select for benefactee subjects.

[36] Taken from Huang (2014)'s examples in (3a-d) on page 251. Glosses and translations modified for the Wikipedia article.

[37] Taken from Abrams (1970)'s examples on page 2. Glosses and translations modified for the Wikipedia article.

[38] Abrams (1970, pages 1-2) indicates that Blaan verbs are classified into three types of prefocus bases, each of which has an inherent voice without bearing any voice affixes. An agent prefocus base is a bare verb that is inherently in Actor Voice voice. A patient prefocus base is inherently in patient voice, and an instrument prefocus base is inherently in instrument voice.

[39] Blaan has two morphemes which, when attached to a prefocus base, change the inherent voice of the base. These morphemes are the Actor Voice affix, m-/-am-, and the non-Actor Voice affix, n-/-an- ("subject focus" and "non-subject focus" in Abrams (1970, page 1)'s terminology, respectively).

[40] Abrams (1970, page 2) has not found many examples of an agent prefocus base taking either of the voice-changing morphemes. However, in that rare example in which an agent prefocus base does, both voice-changing morphemes transitivize the intransitive agent prefocus base. In addition, the Actor Voice affix keeps the base in Actor Voice voice, while the non-Actor Voice affix changes the voice of the base to non-Actor Voice voice, and allows for the selection of a patient subject.

[41] Without any voice-changing morphemes, patient prefocus bases take patient subjects. The Actor Voice affix changes the voice of the base to Actor Voice voice, allowing the verb to take an agent subject. The non-Actor Voice affix allows a patient prefocus base to take location subjects.

[42] The Actor Voice affix changes the inherent instrument voice of the base to Actor Voice voice, whereas the non-Actor Voice affix changes the voice to non-Actor Voice voice, and allows for the selection of a patient subject.

[43] Taken from Bell (1976)'s examples on pages 8, 9, and 11. Glosses and translations modified for the Wikipedia article.

[44] Taken from Travis (2010)'s examples in (46) on page 42. Glosses and translations modified for the Wikipedia article.

[45] Taken from Mirikitani (1972)'s examples in (64), (95), (96), (100), (101) and (106). Glosses and translations modified for the Wikipedia article.

[46] In the examples, the word to which the accusative case marker attaches is a pronoun or portmanteau pronoun that is obligatorily present in the same clause as the noun with which it is co-referential. In sentences with an Actor Voice, the pronoun co-refers with the agent subject. In sentences with a non-Actor Voice, the portmanteau pronoun co-refers with both the ergative agent and the non-agent subject, which is marked with direct case.

[47] Taken from Ferreirinho (1993)'s examples in (100), (245), (246), (247) and (248). Glosses and translations modified for the Wikipedia article.

[48] The patient voice suffix surfaces either as -on or as -∅. The choice of allomorph depends on whether or not the verb is marked with the -in- aspectual infix. When the aspectual infix is present, the -∅ allomorph surfaces.

[49] Taken from McKaughan (1962)'s examples on pages 48 and 50, and from McKaughan (1970)'s example in (4). Glosses and translations modified for the Wikipedia article.

[50] Taken from Tryon (1994)'s examples on pages 35 and 36. Glosses and translations modified for the Wikipedia article.

[51] Taken from Estioca (2020)'s examples on page 123. Glosses and translations modified for the Wikipedia article.

[52] The patient voice suffix surfaces either as -in or as -∅. The choice of allomorph depends on whether or not the verb is marked with the -in- aspectual infix. When the aspectual infix is present, the -∅ allomorph surfaces.

[53] The subject in (6a) is the nominalization of the adverbial clause in (6b).

[54] Taken from Sneddon (1970)'s examples on page 13, and from Sneddon (1975)'s examples on pages 63 and 66. Glosses and translations modified for the Wikipedia article.

[55] Taken from Boutin (2002)'s examples in (3), and (4) on page 211, (6) and (7) on page 212, and in (44) on page 222. Glosses and translations modified for the Wikipedia article.

[56] Boutin (2002; pp. 211-212) presents other voice-related data. However, because these are periphrastic constructions, they are of no interest for the purposes of this Wikipedia article.

[57] The patient voice suffix surfaces either as -idn or as -∅. The choice of allomorph depends on whether or not the verb is marked with the -in- realis mood morpheme. When the realis mood morpheme is present, the -∅ allomorph surfaces.

[FOOTNOTEHemmings2016270-58] Hemmings (2016), p. 270: "Taken from examples in (39). Glosses and translations modified for the Wikipedia article."

[FOOTNOTEHemmings2016200-59] Hemmings (2016), p. 200: "Taken from examples in (189a-c). Glosses and translations modified for the Wikipedia article."

[60] Hemmings (2016) presents examples in which the subject in patient voice appears before the verb, and in which the subject in Actor Voice voice appears after the verb

[FOOTNOTEHemmings2016202–203-61] Hemmings (2016), pp. 202–203.

[62] The patient voice suffix has two allomorphs, -en and -∅. The former occurs in non-perfective contexts, whereas the latter in perfective contexts.

[63] Taken from Kroeger (2005)'s examples in (20a-c), page 405, and from Kroeger (2017)'s examples in (5), (6a) and (7). The orthography used here conforms to the orthography used in Kroeger (2017). Glosses and translations modified for the Wikipedia article.

[64] Kroeger (2017), page 5.

[65] According to Kroeger (2005; page 415, table (45)), the patient voice suffix has two allomorphs, -on and -∅. The former occurs in non-past contexts, whereas the latter in past contexts. The locative voice suffix does not exhibit such allomorphy, and can appear in both past and non-past contexts.

[66] According to Kroeger (2010; page 8), the instrument voice prefix has two allomorphs, i-, and ∅-. The latter surfaces in the presence of the transitivity prefix, poN-.

[67] The sentence in this example exhibits a pseudocleft construction with a relative clause as the subject, and a WH-word as the predicate. The instrument voice prefix selects a null operator within the relative clause. This null operator serves as the head of the relative clause, which can be interpreted as "the thing that...".

[68] The sentence in this example exhibits a pseudocleft construction with a relative clause as the subject, and a WH-word as the predicate. The locative voice suffix selects a null operator within the relative clause. This null operator serves as the head of the relative clause, which can be interpreted as "the thing that...".

[69] Taken from Prentice (1965)'s examples on pages 130 and 131. Glosses and translations for the Wikipedia article.

[70] Taken from Pearson (2005)'s examples in (2) and (10c). Glosses and translations modified for the Wikipedia article.

[71] Taken from Andersen (1991)'s example (74) on page 286. Glosses and translations modified for the Wikipedia article.

[72] Taken from Andersen (1991)'s example (71) on page 285. Glosses and translations modified for the Wikipedia article.

[73] Taken from van Urk (2015)'s example (2) on page 61. Glosses and translations modified for the Wikipedia article.

[74] Van Urk (2015, page 69) indicates that the circumstantial voice suffix is attached to a stem composed of the verb and the patient voice ("object voice" in van Urk's terminology).

[75] Taken from Andersen (2015)'s example (1) on page 510. Glosses and translations modified for the Wikipedia article.

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