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Planned Parenthood

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Planned Parenthood
AbbreviationPPFA
Formation1916 to 1942[note 1]
Legal statusFederation
PurposeReproductive health
HeadquartersNew York City & Washington, D.C.
Location
  • ~820 locations[1]
Region served
United States
Membership
~85 independent affiliates[1]
President
Cecile Richards
AffiliationsInternational Planned Parenthood Federation
Budget
US$1.04 billion (as of 2008–09)[2]
Websitewww.plannedparenthood.org

Planned Parenthood Federation of America (PPFA), usually referred to simply as Planned Parenthood, is a non-profit organization that provides reproductive health as well as maternal and child health services. PPFA is the U.S. affiliate of the International Planned Parenthood Federation (IPPF) and one of its larger members. PPFA has its roots in Brooklyn, New York, where Margaret Sanger opened the first birth-control clinic in the U.S. She founded the American Birth Control League in 1921, which changed its name to "Planned Parenthood" in 1942. It has since grown and consists of approximately 85 affiliates and 820 clinics in the United States,[3] with a total budget of US$1 billion. PPFA provides services to over three million people in the country, and supports services for over one million people outside the United States.

PPFA is the largest provider of reproductive health services in the United States, with clinical interactions focused on breast and cervical cancer screening, HIV screening and counseling, contraception, and abortion.[4][5][6][7] PPFA performs roughly 300,000 abortions annually, among the 3 million people the organization serves.[8][9][10] Throughout its history PPFA has experienced support, controversy, protests,[11] and violent attacks.[12]

History

See also: Birth control movement in the United States

Early history

Margaret Sanger (1922), the first president and founder of Planned Parenthood

The origins of Planned Parenthood date to October 16, 1916, when Margaret Sanger, her sister Ethel Byrne, and Fania Mindell opened the first birth control clinic in the U.S. in the Brownsville section of Brooklyn, New York.[13] All three women were arrested and jailed for violating provisions of the Comstock Act, accused of distributing "obscene materials" at the clinic. The so-called "Brownsville trials" brought national attention and support to their cause. Sanger and her co-defendants were convicted on misdemeanor charges, and they appealed this through two subsequent appeals courts. While the convictions were not overturned,[14] the Judge that issued the final ruling also modified the law to permit physician prescribed birth control. Their campaign overall, then, led to major changes in the laws governing birth control and sex education in the United States.[15]

In 1938, the clinic was organized into the American Birth Control League, the core of the only national birth control organization in the US until the 1960s. By 1941 it was operating 222 centers and had served 49,000 clients.[16] However, some found its title offensive and "against families" so the League began discussions for a new name.[17] In 1942 the League became known as the Planned Parenthood Federation of America.[17]

Largely relying on a volunteer workforce, by 1960 the Federation had provided family planning counseling in hundreds of communities across the country.[16] Planned Parenthood was one of the founding members of the International Planned Parenthood Federation when it was launched at a conference in Bombay, India in 1952.[16][18]

After Sanger

Following Margaret Sanger, Alan Frank Guttmacher became president of Planned Parenthood, and served from 1962 until 1974.[19] During his tenure, the Food and Drug Administration approved the sale of the original birth control pill, giving rise to new attitudes towards women's reproductive freedom.[16] Also during his presidency, Planned Parenthood lobbied the federal government to support reproductive health, culminating with President Richard Nixon's signing of Title X to provide governmental subsidies for low-income women to access family planning services.[20] The Center for Family Planning Program Development was also founded as a semi-autonomous division during this time.[21] The center became an independent organization and was renamed the Guttmacher Institute in 1977.[21]

Faye Wattleton was the first woman named president of the Planned Parenthood Federation of America in 1978, and served until 1992.[22] She was also the first African-American to serve as president, and the youngest president in Planned Parenthood's history.[23] During her term, Planned Parenthood grew to become the seventh largest charity in the country, providing services to four million clients each year through its 170 affiliates, whose activities were spread across 50 states.[24]

A Planned Parenthood supporter participates in a demonstration in support of the organization.

From 1996 to 2006, Planned Parenthood was led by Gloria Feldt.[25][26] Feldt activated the Planned Parenthood Action Fund (PPAF), the organization's political action committee, launching what was the most far reaching electoral advocacy effort in its history.[27] The PPAF serves as the nonpartisan advocacy arm of PPFA.[28] It engages in educational and electoral activity, including legislative advocacy, voter education, and grassroots organizing to promote the PPFA mission. Feldt also launched the Responsible Choices Action Agenda, a nationwide campaign to increase services to prevent unwanted pregnancies, improve quality of reproductive care and ensure access to safe and legal abortions.[16] Another initiative was the commencement of a "Global Partnership Program", with the aim of building a vibrant activist constituency in support of family planning.[16]

On February 15, 2006, Cecile Richards became president of the organization.[29]

Margaret Sanger Awards

Main article: Margaret Sanger Awards

In 1966, PPFA began awarding the Margaret Sanger Award annually to honor, in their words: "individuals of distinction in recognition of excellence and leadership in furthering reproductive health and reproductive rights." In the first year, it was awarded to four men, Carl G. Hartman, William H. Draper, Lyndon Baines Johnson, and Martin Luther King.[30][31][32][33] Later recipients have included John D. Rockefeller III, Katharine Hepburn, Jane Fonda, Hillary Rodham Clinton, and Ted Turner.[34][35][36]

Services and facilities

Location in Houston, Texas

PPFA is a federation of nearly 85 independent Planned Parenthood affiliates around the U.S.[1] These affiliates together operate more than 820 health centers in all 50 states and the District of Columbia.[1][37] The largest of these facilities, a $26 million, 78,000-square-foot (7,200 m2) structure, was completed in Houston, Texas in May 2010.[38] This serves as a headquarters for 12 clinics in Texas and Louisiana.[38] Together, they are the largest family planning services provider in the U.S. with over four million activists, supporters and donors.[39][40][41] Planned Parenthood is staffed by 27,000 staff members and volunteers.[42]

They serve over five million clients a year, 26% of which are teenagers under the age of 19.[43] According to PPFA, 75% of their clients have incomes at or below 150 percent of the federal poverty level.[42]

Services provided at locations include contraceptives (birth control); Long-acting reversible contraception;[44] emergency contraception; screening for breast, cervical and testicular cancers; pregnancy testing and pregnancy options counseling; testing and treatment for sexually transmitted diseases; comprehensive sexuality education, menopause treatments; vasectomies, tubal ligations, and abortion.[citation needed]

In 2009, PPFA provided 4,009,549 contraceptive services, 3,955,926 sexually transmitted disease services, 1,830,811 cancer related services, 1,178,369 pregnancy/prenatal/midlife services, 332,278 abortion services, and 76,977 other services, for a total of 11,383,900 services.[10][42][45][46][47][48] Given that a single patient may receive multiple services, such as a pap smear and contraceptives, it is impossible given publicly available data to accurately determine what percentage each service comprises in the organization's total services.[4] The organization also said its doctors and nurses annually conduct 1 million screenings for cervical cancer, and 830,000 breast exams,[49][50] which makes PPFA the largest U.S. provider of reproductive health services. 97% of clinical interactions focus on breast and cervical cancer screening, HIV screening and counseling, contraception, and 3% on abortion.[5][51][52][53] PPFA conducts roughly 300,000 abortions annually, among the 3 million people the organization serves.[8][9][10] Planned Parenthood does not use federal funds for abortions except in the limited circumstances allowed under the Hyde Amendment.[54]

Funding

Planned Parenthood headquarters on Massachusetts Avenue in Washington, D.C.

Planned Parenthood has received federal funding since 1970, when President Richard Nixon signed into law the Family Planning Services and Population Research Act, amending the Public Health Service Act. Title X of that law provides funding for family planning services, including contraception and family planning information. The law had bipartisan support from liberals, who saw contraception access as increasing families' control over their lives, [citation needed] and conservatives who saw it as a way to keep people off welfare.[citation needed] Nixon described Title X funding as based on the premise that "no American woman should be denied access to family planning assistance because of her economic condition."[55]

In the fiscal year ending June 30, 2011, total (consolidated) revenue was $201 million: clinic revenue totaling $2 million, grants and donations of $190 million, investment income of $2 million, and $7 million other income.[56] Approximately two-thirds of the revenue is put towards the provision of health services, while non-medical services such as sex education and public policy work make up another 16%; management expenses, fundraising, and international family planning programs account for most of the rest.[citation needed]

Planned Parenthood receives about a third of its money in government grants and contracts (about $360 million in 2009).[54] By law, federal funding cannot be allocated for abortions,[57] but some opponents of abortion have argued that allocating money to Planned Parenthood for the provision of other medical services "frees up" funds to be re-allocated for abortion.[52][58]

A coalition of national and local pro-life groups have lobbied federal and state governments to stop funding Planned Parenthood. As a result, federal and state legislators have proposed legislation to reduce funding levels.[57][59] Six states have gone ahead with such proposals.[52][60][61][62] In some cases, the courts have overturned such actions, citing conflict with federal or other state laws, and in others, the federal executive branch has provided funding in lieu of the states.[61][62][63] In other cases, complete or partial defunding of Planned Parenthood has gone through successfully.[64][65] Louisiana Governor Bobby Jindal has attempted to sever the contract with Planned Parenthood in his state (where no abortions are provided), at a time when there is an epidemic of syphilis in New Orleans, and where Louisiana ranks first among the states in cases of gonorrhea, second in chlamydia, and third in syphilis and HIV, according to the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention.[66] Planned Parenthood clinics in Louisiana last year administered approximately 20,000 tests for these infections, and provided gynecological examinations, contraceptives, screening for cancer, and other services for nearly 10,000 mostly low-income patients, and there is insufficient access to medical care for the people who now can't be seen at Planned Parenthood clinics.[66] Planned Parenthood and three patients are suing Louisiana, with the US Justice Department siding with Planned Parenthood.[67]

Planned Parenthood is also funded by private donors, with a membership base of over 700,000 active donors, whose contributions account for approximately one quarter of the organization's revenue.[68] Large donors also contribute a substantial portion of the organization's budget. Past donors have included the Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation, the Buffett Foundation, the Ford Foundation, the Turner Foundation, the Cullmans, and others.[69][70][71][72] The Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation's contributions to the organization have been specifically marked to avoid funding abortions.[69] Some, such as the Buffett Foundation, have supported reproductive health that can include abortion services.[69] Pro-life groups have advocated the boycott of donors to Planned Parenthood.[73]

Political positions

Planned Parenthood and its predecessor organizations have provided and advocated for access to birth control. The modern organization of Planned Parenthood America is also an advocate for reproductive rights.[74] This advocacy includes contributing to sponsorship of abortion rights, and to women's rights events.[75] The Federation opposes restrictions on women's reproductive health services, including parental consent laws. To justify their opposition, Planned Parenthood has cited the case of Becky Bell, who died following an illegal abortion, rather than seek parental consent for a legal one.[76][77] Planned Parenthood also takes the position that laws requiring parental notification before an abortion is performed on a minor are unconstitutional on privacy grounds.[78]

The organization also opposes laws requiring ultrasounds before abortions, stating that their only purpose is to make abortions more difficult to obtain.[79] Planned Parenthood has also opposed initiatives that require waiting periods before abortions,[80] and bans on late-term abortions including intact dilation and extraction, which has been illegal in the U.S. since 2003.[81]

Planned Parenthood argues for the wide availability of emergency contraception (EC) measures.[82] It opposes conscience clauses, which allow pharmacists to refuse to dispense drugs against their beliefs. In support of their position, they have cited cases where pharmacists have refused to fill life saving drugs under the laws.[83] Planned Parenthood has also been critical of hospitals that do not provide access to EC for rape victims.[84]

Citing the need for medically accurate information in sex education, Planned Parenthood opposes abstinence-only education in public schools. Instead, Planned Parenthood is a provider of, and endorses, comprehensive sex education, which includes discussion of both abstinence and birth control.[85]

Political Action Committee

Planned Parenthood also has a political action committee called Planned Parenthood Action Fund. The committee was founded in 1996, by then new president Gloria Feldt, for the purpose of maintaining reproductive health rights and supporting political candidates of the same mindset. In the 2012 election cycle the committee gained prominence based on its effectiveness of spending on candidates.[86]

Before the U.S. Supreme Court

Former Planned Parenthood President Gloria Feldt with Congressman Albert Wynn in front of the U.S. Supreme Court

Planned Parenthood regional chapters have been active in the American courts. A number of cases in which Planned Parenthood has been a party have reached the U.S. Supreme Court. Notable among these cases is the 1992 case Planned Parenthood v. Casey, the case that sets forth the current constitutional abortion standard. In this case, "Planned Parenthood" was the Southeast Pennsylvania Chapter, and "Casey" was Robert Casey, the governor of Pennsylvania. The ultimate ruling was split, and Roe v. Wade was narrowed but upheld in an opinion written by Sandra Day O'Connor, Anthony Kennedy, and David Souter. Harry Blackmun and John Paul Stevens concurred with the main decision in separately written opinions. The Supreme Court struck down spousal consent requirements for married women to obtain abortions, but found no "undue burden"—an alternative to strict scrutiny which tests the allowable limitations on rights protected under the Constitution—from the other statutory requirements. Dissenting were William Rehnquist, Antonin Scalia, Clarence Thomas, and Byron White. Blackmun, Rehnquist, and White were the only justices who voted on the original Roe v. Wade decision in 1973 who were still on the Supreme Court to rule on this case, and their votes on this case were consistent with their votes on the original decision that legalized abortion.[87] Only Blackmun voted to maintain Roe v. Wade in its entirety.

Other related cases include:

  • Planned Parenthood of Central Missouri v. Danforth (1976). Planned Parenthood challenged the constitutionality of a Missouri law encompassing parental consent, spousal consent, clinic bookkeeping and allowed abortion methods. Portions of the challenged law were held to be constitutional, others not.[88]
  • Planned Parenthood Association of Kansas City v. Ashcroft (1983). Planned Parenthood challenged the constitutionality of a Missouri law encompassing parental consent, clinic record keeping, and hospitalization requirements. Most of the challenged law was held to be constitutional.[89]
  • Planned Parenthood v. ACLA (2001). The American Coalition of Life Activists (ACLA) released a flier and "Wanted" posters with complete personal information about doctors who performed abortions. A civil jury and the Ninth Circuit Court of Appeals both found that the material was indeed "true threats" and not protected speech.[90]
  • Gonzales v. Planned Parenthood (2003). Planned Parenthood sued Attorney General Gonzales for an injunction against the enforcement of the Partial-Birth Abortion Ban Act of 2003. Planned Parenthood argued the act was unconstitutional because it violated the Fifth Amendment, namely in that it was overly vague, violated women's constitutional right to have access to abortion, and did not include language for exceptions for the health of the mother. Both the district court and the US Court of Appeals for the Ninth Circuit agreed,[91][92] but that decision was overturned in a 5–4 ruling by the Supreme Court.[93]
  • Ayotte v. Planned Parenthood of Northern New England (2006). Planned Parenthood et al. challenged the constitutionality of a New Hampshire parental notification law related to access to abortion.[94][95] In Sandra Day O'Connor's final decision before retirement, the Supreme Court sent the case back to lower courts with instructions to seek a remedy short of wholesale invalidation of the statute. New Hampshire ended up repealing the statute via the legislative process.[96]

Court cases

In some states, Attorneys General have subpoenaed medical records of patients treated by Planned Parenthood. Planned Parenthood has gone to court to keep from turning over these records, citing medical privacy and concerns about the motivation for seeking the records.[97]

In 2006, Kansas Attorney General Phill Kline, a strongly anti-abortion advocate, released some sealed patient records obtained from Planned Parenthood to the public. His actions were described as "troubling" by the state Supreme Court, but Planned Parenthood was compelled to turn over the medical records, albeit with more stringent court-mandated privacy safeguards for the patients involved.[97] In 2007, Kline's successor, Paul J. Morrison, notified the clinic that no criminal charges would be filed after a three-year investigation, as "an objective, unbiased and thorough examination" showed no wrongdoing. Morrison stated that he believed Kline had politicized the attorney general's office.[98] In 2012, a Kansas district attorney dropped all of the remaining criminal charges against the Kansas City-area Planned Parenthood clinic accused of performing illegal abortions, citing a lack of evidence of wrongdoing.[99] In all, the Planned Parenthood clinic had faced 107 criminal charges from Kline and other Kansas prosecutors, all of which were ultimately dropped for lack of evidence.[99]

In Indiana, Planned Parenthood was not required to turn over its medical records in an investigation of possible child abuse.[100] In 2005, Planned Parenthood Minnesota/North Dakota/South Dakota was fined $50,000 for violating a Minnesota state parental consent law.[101] In 2012, Judge Gary Harger ruled that the state of Texas may exclude otherwise qualified doctors and clinics from receiving state funding, if the doctors or clinics advocate for abortion rights.[102]

Debate and activism

Abortion

Planned Parenthood has occupied a central position in the abortion debate in the U.S., and has been among the most prominent targets of U.S. pro-life activists for decades. Some members of Congress, overwhelmingly Republicans, have attempted since the 1980s to defund the organization,[54] nearly leading to a government shutdown over the issue in 2011.[103] Planned Parenthood has consistently maintained that federal money received by Planned Parenthood is not used to fund abortion services, but pro-life activists have argued that the federal funding frees up other resources that are, in turn, used to provide abortions.[54]

Planned Parenthood is the largest single provider of abortions in the U.S.[8] According to PPFA's own estimates, its contraceptive services prevent approximately 612,000 unintended pregnancies and 291,000 abortions annually.[42][104] Planned Parenthood president Cecile Richards has argued that the organization's family planning services reduce the need for abortions.[105] Megan Crepeau of the Chicago Tribune said that, because of its birth control and family planning services, PPFA could be "characterized as America's largest abortion preventer."[106] Anti-abortion activists dispute the evidence that greater access to contraceptives reduces abortion frequency.[107]

Margaret Sanger and eugenics

Further information: Margaret Sanger § Eugenics

In the 1920s, various theories of eugenics were popular among intellectuals in the United States. (For example, 75% of colleges offered courses on eugenics.)[108] Sanger, in her campaign to promote birth control, teamed with eugenics organizations such as the American Eugenics Society, although she argued against many of their positions.[109][110][111] Scholars describe Sanger as believing that birth control and sterilization should be voluntary, and not based on race.[112] Sanger advocated for "voluntary motherhood"—the right to choose when to be pregnant—for all women, as an important element of women's rights.[113][114]

As part of her efforts to promote birth control, however, Sanger found common cause with proponents of eugenics, believing that she and they both sought to "assist the race toward the elimination of the unfit."[115]

Critics of Planned Parenthood often refer to Sanger's connection with supporters of eugenics to discredit the organization by associating it, and birth control, with the more negative modern view of eugenics.[116][117] Planned Parenthood has responded to this effort directly in a leaflet acknowledging that Sanger agreed with some of her contemporaries who advocated the voluntary hospitalization or sterilization of people with untreatable, disabling, hereditary conditions, and limits on the immigration of the diseased. The leaflet also states that Planned Parenthood "finds these views objectionable and outmoded" but says that it was compelled to discuss the topic because "anti-family planning activists continue to attack Sanger . . . because she is an easier target" than Planned Parenthood.[118]

Undercover videos

Periodically, pro-life advocates and activists have tried to demonstrate that Planned Parenthood does not follow applicable state or federal laws, but a 2005 review by the Bush administration's Department of Health and Human Services "yielded no evidence of clinics around the nation failing to comply with laws on reporting child abuse, child molestation, sexual abuse, rape or incest."[119] The groups called or visited Planned Parenthood health centers posing as victims of statutory rape,[120] minors who by law need parental notification before abortion,[119][121] racist donors seeking to earmark donations to reduce the African-American population,[51][122] or pimps seeking abortions for underage prostitutes.[123] As a result of the pro-life entrapments, several PP workers were disciplined or fired.[122][123]

By Live Action

Beginning in 2010, Live Action has released several series of undercover videos filmed in Planned Parenthood centers. Live Action said one series showed Planned Parenthood employees at multiple affiliates actively assisting or being complicit in aiding a prostitution ring,[124] advising patients on how to procure sex-selective abortions,[125] and one who said they would immerse a child born alive after a botched abortion in a chemical solution to make it stop moving and breathing.[126]

No criminal convictions resulted,[127] but some Planned Parenthood employees and volunteers were fired for not following procedure, and the organization committed to retraining its staff.[128] Additionally, one center was placed on probation.[129]

By CMP

Main article: Planned Parenthood 2015 undercover videos controversy

In July and August 2015 the anti-abortion organization The Center for Medical Progress (CMP) released a number of edited videos.[130][131][132] They were secretly recorded by hired actors who discussed acquiring tissue samples from aborted fetuses with Planned Parenthood officials.[133][134][135]

CMP founder David Daleiden alleged the videos provide evidence of "criminal conspiracy to make money off of aborted baby parts reach[ing] to the very highest levels of [the] organization."[133] Planned Parenthood condemned these as false accusations, stating that all donations are made "with full, appropriate consent from patients and under the highest ethical and legal standards," and "there is no financial benefit for tissue donation for either the patient or for Planned Parenthood."[133][134]

The CMP videos and allegations attracted widespread media coverage as part of the long-term American political abortion debate,[136] and sparked protests at hundreds of PPFA affiliates nationwide as well as calls for investigation by Republican members of Congress.[137][138][139] On September 18, 2015 the House of Representatives passed legislation to defund Planned Parenthood,[140] though an earlier effort in the Senate failed to gather enough support.[141] On September 24, 2015 the Senate blocked a plan that would have denied federal funding for Planned Parenthood.[142] Several states cut contracts and funding for Planned Parenthood following the videos.[143][144][145]

Violence by anti-abortion activists

Main article: Anti-abortion violence

In the US, abortion providers have been threatened with death, and facilities that provide abortions have been attacked or vandalized.[146][147] Planned Parenthood clinics have been the target of a number of instances of violence by anti-abortion activists, including bombing, arson, and attacks with chemical weaponry.[161] In 1994, John Salvi entered a Brookline, Massachusetts Planned Parenthood clinic and opened fire, murdering receptionist Shannon Elizabeth Lowney and wounding three others. He fled to another Planned Parenthood clinic where he murdered Leane Nichols and wounded two others.[162] In 2012, a Grand Chute, Wisconsin, Planned Parenthood clinic was subject to a bombing perpetrated by an unknown individual.[147] In 2015, a Planned Parenthood clinic in Pullman, Washington was heavily damaged by arson.[163]

See also

Notes

  1. ^ Planned Parenthood "dates its beginnings to 1916" but a predecessor, the American Birth Control League, was not founded until 1921 and the organization did not adopt its name until 1942

References

  1. ^ a b c d Livio, Susan (January 16, 2011). "Planned Parenthood may double the number of N.J. abortion clinics while expanding nationwide". NJ.com. Retrieved February 14, 2011.
  2. ^ "Planned Parenthood 2008–09 Annual Report" (PDF). Planned Parenthood. p. 29. Archived from the original (PDF) on January 18, 2013. Retrieved February 21, 2011. (For 2008–09, Planned Parenthood's total revenue was $1,100.8 million and their total expenses were $1,037.4 million.){{cite web}}: CS1 maint: postscript (link)
  3. ^ "Planned Parenthood at a Glance". plannedparenthood.org.
  4. ^ a b Lee, Michelle Ye Hee (August 12, 2015). "For Planned Parenthood abortion stats, '3 percent' and '94 percent' are both misleading". The Washington Post. Retrieved August 12, 2015.
  5. ^ a b Largest provider of reproductive health services:
    • The Planned Parenthood women's health encyclopedia, p vii
    • Jewish Choices, Jewish Voices: Sex and Intimacy, p 149
    • Maternal and child health: programs, problems, and policy in public health, p 104–105
    • Playing it safe: how the Supreme Court sidesteps hard cases, p 226
    • American journal of public health, Volume 83, Issues 7–12, p 1093
  6. ^ Number of abortions:
  7. ^ Ross, Janell. August 4, 2015. How Planned Parenthood actually uses its federal funding. The Washington Post. Retrieved: 22 August 2015.
  8. ^ a b c "Planned Parenthood, abortion and the budget fight". Seattle Times. April 8, 2011. Retrieved November 3, 2012.
  9. ^ a b Conan, Neal (March 8, 2011). "Manning Up and Planned Parenthood". NPR. Retrieved July 12, 2011.
  10. ^ a b c "Planned Parenthood Federation of America 2008–2009 Annual Report" (PDF). Planned Parenthood. 2011. Retrieved April 14, 2011.
  11. ^
  12. ^
  13. ^ The Sanger Years Planned Parenthood. Accessed August 27, 2011.
  14. ^ "People v. Sanger", 179 App. Div. 939, 166 N.Y.S. 1107 (1917)
  15. ^ McVeigh, Frank; Loreen, Wolfer (2004), Brief history of social problems: a critical thinking approach (Illustrated ed.), University Press of America, ISBN 0-7618-2831-1
  16. ^ a b c d e f Balter, Lawrence (2000), Parenthood in America: an encyclopedia, vol. 1st (Illustrated ed.), ABC-CLIO, ISBN 1-57607-213-4
  17. ^ a b Gordon, Linda (2002), The moral property of women: a history of birth control politics in America (3rd ed.), University of Illinois Press, ISBN 0-252-02764-7
  18. ^ "Birth Control Organizations: International Planned Parenthood Federation". Margaret Sanger Papers. New York University. Retrieved February 11, 2011.
  19. ^ "Alan Guttmacher", Toledo Blade, p. 28, March 19, 1974, retrieved February 9, 2011
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  21. ^ a b "The History of the Guttmacher Institute". Official Website. The Guttmacher Institute. Retrieved February 9, 2011.
  22. ^ "The Trustees of Columbia University". Office of the Secretary of the University. Columbia University. Retrieved February 10, 2011.
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  26. ^ "New President: Battle over abortion must be refought", Gadsden Times, pp. A5, April 10, 1996, retrieved February 10, 2011
  27. ^ Lewin, Tamar (April 28, 1996), "Shifting gears as the world turns, Planned Parenthood will too under helm of new president", The Chicago Tribune, p. 9
  28. ^ "Planned Parenthood's file". Politifact.
  29. ^ Johnson, Darragh (March 25, 2006). "Cecile Richards, Planned Parenthood's Choice Leader". Washington Post. pp. C01.
  30. ^ "Author Wins Sanger Prize". Pittsburgh Post-Gazette. April 27, 1966.
  31. ^ "Population Planner Honored". Los Angeles Times. November 28, 1971.
  32. ^ "LBJ Birth Policy Cited". Associated Press via the Pittsburgh Post-Gazette. October 11, 1966.
  33. ^ "Mrs. King receives award for husband". The Afro American. May 21, 1966.
  34. ^ "Rockefeller 3d Wins Sanger Award". New York Times. October 9, 1967. Retrieved February 14, 2011.
  35. ^ "REMINDER/Planned Parenthood Salutes Visionary Leaders in the Fight for Reproductive Freedom." Business Wire March 29, 2003: 5006. General OneFile. Web. February 11, 2011.
  36. ^ Lozano, Juan (March 27, 2009). "Clinton champions women's rights worldwide". Houston Chronicle. Retrieved February 14, 2011.
  37. ^ Davis, Tom (2005). Sacred work: Planned Parenthood and its clergy alliances. Rutgers University Press. ISBN 0-8135-3493-3.
  38. ^ a b Planned Parenthood debuts new building Houston Chronicle May 20, 2010, 10:27PM retrieved June 28, 2010
  39. ^ Lerner, Sharon (January 18, 2011), "Does Contraception Count as Prevention?", The Nation, retrieved February 11, 2011
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  45. ^ Planned Parenthood Services as of March 2011, Planned Parenthood,
  46. ^ Jon Kyl says abortion services are "well over 90 percent of what Planned Parenthood does", PolitiFact.com at St. Petersburg Times, April 8, 2011
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  51. ^ a b Beaucar Vlahos, Kelley (April 24, 2008). "Pastors Accuse Planned Parenthood for 'Genocide' on Blacks". Fox News. Retrieved July 30, 2015.
  52. ^ a b c Eckholm, Erik (February 17, 2011). "Planned Parenthood Financing Is Caught in Budget Feud". New York Times.
  53. ^ Number of abortions:
    PPFA affiliates: "Only 50 of its 178 affiliates perform abortions"; and PPFA affiliates performed "104,000 of the 1.6 million abortions in the United States."
  54. ^ a b c d Rovner, Julie (April 13, 2011). "Planned Parenthood: A Thorn In Abortion Foes' Sides". Morning Edition. NPR. Retrieved April 13, 2011.
  55. ^ Halloran, Liz (March 21, 2011). "Abortion Foes Target Family Planning Program". NPR.
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  57. ^ a b "Groups unite vs. Planned Parenthood". Politico. February 2, 2011.
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  61. ^ a b Landrigan, Kevin (September 14, 2011). "Family planning contracts OK'd". Nashua Telegraph. Retrieved September 20, 2011.
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Further reading

  • Manon Perry, Broadcasting Birth Control: Mass Media and Family Planning. New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press, 2013.
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