Preschool education

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For the South Park episode, see Pre-School (South Park). For the Gang Green compilation album, see Preschool (album).
Look up preschool in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.
A young girl graduating from preschool.

Preschool education (or infant education) is the provision of learning to children before the commencement of formal education, usually between the ages of three and five, varying by jurisdiction. In the United States, preschool precedes kindergarten. In others, including much of Europe, preschool and kindergarten programs are considered a single early childhood education program. Preschool may be part of or separate from child care services. They may be government-run or private. Some countries subsidize program costs.

In the United Kingdom nursery school (or 'playgroup') is the form of preschool education. In the United States the terms 'preschool' and 'Pre-K' are used, while "nursery school" is an older term.

Preschool systems observe standards for structure (administration, class size, student–teacher ratio, services), process (quality of classroom environments, teacher-child interactions, etc.) and alignment (standards, curriculum, assessments) components. Curriculum is designed for differing ages. For example, counting to 10 is generally after the age of four.[1]

History

Friedrich Fröbel created the name Kindergarten in German in 1840.

In an age when school was restricted to children who had already learned to read and write at home, many attempts to make school accessible to the children of women who worked in factories or were orphans. In 1779, Johann Friedrich Oberlin and Louise Scheppler founded in Strassbourg the first known establishment for caring for and educating pre-school children whose parents were absent during the day.[2] At about the same time, in 1780, similar infant schools were established in Bayern[3] In 1802, Pauline zur Lippe established a preschool center in Detmold.

In 1816, Robert Owen, a philosopher and pedagogue, opened the first British and probably globally the first infant school in New Lanark, Scotland.[4][5][6] In conjunction with his venture for cooperative mills Owen wanted the children to be given a good moral education so that they would be fit for work. His system was successful in producing obedient children with basic literacy and numeracy.[7]

Hungarian countess Theresa Brunszvik followed in 1828.[8][9] In 1837, Friedrich Fröbel opened a school in Germany, coining the term "kindergarten".[6] Another was opened by Samuel Wilderspin in London in 1819.[10] His work became the model for infant schools throughout England. In 1823 Wilderspin published On the Importance of Educating the Infant Poor, based on the school. He began working for the Infant School Society the next year, informing others about his views. He also wrote "The Infant System, for developing the physical, intellectual, and moral powers off all children from 1 to seven years of age". Play was an important part of Wilderspin's system of education. He is credited with inventing the playground.

Countess Theresa Brunszvik (1775–1861), who had known and been influenced by Johann Heinrich Pestalozzi, was influenced by this example to open an Angyalkért ('angel garden' in Hungarian) on May 27, 1828 in her residence in Buda, the first of eleven care centers that she founded for young children. In 1836 she established an institute for the foundation of preschool centers. The idea became popular among the nobility and the middle class and was copied throughout the Hungarian kingdom.

Friedrich Fröbel (1782–1852) opened a Play and Activity institute in 1837 in the village of Bad Blankenburg in the principality of Schwarzburg-Rudolstadt, Thuringia, which he renamed Kindergarten on June 28, 1840 to mark the four-hundredth anniversary of Gutenberg's invention of movable type. The women trained by Fröbel opened Kindergartens throughout Europe and around the World.

The first kindergarten in the United States was founded in Watertown, Wisconsin, by Margarethe Meyer-Schurz in 1856 and was conducted in German. Her sister had founded the first kindergarten in London, England.[11] In some systems kindergarten is called Grade 0,[12] which is also sometimes classified as "a mixture between kindergarten and a school regime."[13]

In 1860, Elizabeth Peabody founded America's first English-language kindergarten in Boston, after visiting Watertown and travelling to Europe. The first free kindergarten in America was founded in 1870 by Conrad Poppenhusen, a German industrialist and philanthropist who settled in College Point, NY, where he established the Poppenhusen Institute. The first publicly financed kindergarten in the United States was established in St. Louis in 1873 by Susan Blow. Elizabeth Harrison wrote extensively on the theory of early childhood education and worked to enhance educational standards for kindergarten teachers by establishing what became the National College of Education in 1886.

Canada's first private kindergarten was opened by the Wesleyan Methodist Church in Charlottetown, Prince Edward Island in 1870. By the end of the decade, they were common in large Canadian towns and cities.[14][15] The country's first public-school kindergartens were established in Berlin, Ontario in 1882 T Central School).[16] In 1885, the Toronto Normal School (teacher training) opened a department for Kindergarten teaching.[16]

Head Start was the first publicly funded preschool program in the US, created in 1965 by President Johnson for low-income families - only 10% of children were then enrolled in preschool. Due to large demand, various states subsidized preschool for low-income families in the '80s.

Developmental areas

The areas of development that preschool education covers varies. However, the following main themes are typically offered.[17][18]

  • Personal, social, economic and emotional development
  • Communication, (including sign language), talking and listening
  • World knowledge and understanding
  • Creative and aesthetic development
  • Mathematical awareness
  • Physical development
  • Physical health
  • Play
  • Teamwork
  • Self-help skills
  • Social skills
  • Scientific thinking
  • Literacy

Allowing preschool aged children to discover and explore freely within each of these areas of development is the foundation for developmental learning. The National Association for the Education of Young Children (NAEYC) and the National Association of Child Care Professionals (NACCP) publicize and promote the idea of developmentally appropriate practice, although many institutions have not taken that approach. NAEYC ca=kauned that although 80% of kindergarten classrooms claim to be developmentally appropriate, only 20% actually are.[citation needed]

Age and importance

The most important years of learning begin at birth.[19] During these early years, humans are capable of absorbing more information then later on. The brain grows most rapidly in the early years. High quality teachers and preschools have a long term effect on improving outcomes, especially for disadvantaged students.[20][21]

Some studies dispute the benefits of preschool education, finding that preschool can be detrimental to cognitive and social development.[22][23] A study by UC Berkeley and Stanford University on 14,000 Kindergarteners revealed that while there is a temporary cognitive boost in pre-reading and math, preschool holds detrimental effects on social development and cooperation.[24]

The Universal Preschool movement is an international effort to make preschool available to families as it is for primary education. Various jurisdictions and advocates have differing priorities for access, availability and funding sources.

National variations

Preschool education, like all other forms of education, is intended by the society that controls it to transmit important cultural values to the participants. As a result, different cultures make different choices about preschool education. Despite the variations, there are a few common themes. Most significantly, preschool is universally expected to increase the young child's ability to perform basic self-care tasks such as dressing, feeding, and toileting.[25]

Japan

In Japan, development of social skills and a sense of group belonging are major goals. Classes tend to have up to 40 students, to decrease the role of the teacher and increase peer interactions. Participation in group activities is highly valued, leading some schools to for example, count a child who is standing still near a group an exercise session as participating. Children are taught to work harmoniously in large and small groups, and to develop cooperativeness, kindness and social consciousness. The most important goal is to provide a rich social environment that increasingly isolated nuclear families do not provide, unstructured play time is valued.

Children are allowed to resolve disputes with each other, including physical fighting. Most behavioral problems are attributed to the child's inappropriately expressed emotional dependency. Remedies involve accepting the child, rather than treatment with drugs or punishment. Japanese culture attributes success to effort rather than inborn talent, leading teachers to ignore innate differences between children by encouraging and praising perseverance. They work to ensure that all students meet the standard rather that each reaches his or her own potential. Although preschools exhibit great variety, most target age-appropriate personal development, such as learning empathy, rather than academic programs. Academic programs tend to be more common among Westernized and Christian preschools.[26]

China

In China preschool programs are highly variable. Some amount to little more than babysitting, while others are university-run programs with high-quality curricula. Some are showpieces designed to impress foreign visitors, while others have very limited resources. Staff qualifications and their beliefs about early childhood education are also highly variable. Many are associated with an employer and some provide overnight care during the week, supporting parents who work at night or in jobs requiring travel.[26]

Because of China's one-child policy, most students have no siblings and are seen as lonely, selfish and prone to anti-social behavior. Parents are reluctant to use discipline, worrying that it may cost them their child's affection and leave them unwilling to care for the parents in their old age. Teachers are tasked with replacing that parental function. The government channels health services through preschools, employing on-site nurses to examine children after weekends.[26]

Children are taught to form an orderly, regimented collective that is obedient to its leader. Children eat meals silently and sit quietly for long periods of time during the school day while the teacher instructs or reads to them. Group dynamics are authoritarian, with the relationship between the teacher and the children more important than the relationships between the children. Teachers stop inappropriate behavior before it escalates to disruption, usually by verbally criticism. Positive reinforcement through publicly praising examples of proper behavior is also typical. Little time is left unstructured. For example, a lesson may have children use building blocks to construct pre-determined structures exactly matching a printed diagram, rather than to use their imagination. Academic subjects and public speaking are valued. Taiwanese parents have similar attitudes. Many of the concerns and goals related to child rearing in the modern era echo those found in ancient Confucian writings.[27]

In the United States, preschool education emphasizes individuality. Children are frequently permitted to choose from a variety of activities, using a learning center approach. During these times, some children draw or paint, some play house, some play with puzzles while some listen to the teacher read a story aloud. Activities vary in each session. Each childr is assumed to have particular strengths and weaknesses to be encouraged or ameliorated by the teachers. A typical belief is that "children's play is their work" and that allowing them to select the type of play, the child will meet his or her developmental needs. Preschools also adopt American ideas about justice, such as the rule of law and the idea that everyone is innocent until proven guilty. Teachers actively intervene in disputes and encourage children to resolve them verbally ("use your words") rather than physically. Children may be punished with a time out or required to apologize or make reparations for misbehavior. Teachers assist children to explain what happened, before any decision to punish is made. Self-expressive language skills are emphasized through informal interactions with teachers and through structured group activities such as show and tell exercises to enable the child to describe an experience to an adult. Resources vary depending on the wealth of the students, but generally are better equipped than other cultures. Most programs are not subsidized by government, making preschools relatively expensive even though the staff is typically poorly compensated. Student-teacher ratios are lower than in other cultures, ideally about 15 students per group. Parents and teachers see teachers as extensions of or partial substitutes for parents and consequently emphasize personal relationships and consistent expectations at home and at school.[28]

North Korea

Children in North Korea are taught to enjoy military games and to hate the miguk nom, or "American bastard".[29]

Methods

Preschools have adopted various methods of teaching, such as Montessori, Waldorf, Head Start, HighScope,[30] Reggio Emilia approach, Bank Street and Forest kindergartens.

In the United States, most preschool advocates support the National Association for the Education of Young Children's Developmentally Appropriate Practices.[citation needed]

Funding

While a majority of American preschool programs remain tuition-based, support for some public funding of early childhood education has grown over the years. As of 2008, 38 states and the District of Columbia invested in at least some pre-kindergarten programs, and many school districts were providing preschool services on their own, using local and federal funds.[31]

The benefits and challenges of a public preschool reflect the available funding. Funding can range from federal, state, local public allocations, private sources, and parental fees.[32] The problem of funding a public preschool occurs not only from limited sources but from the cost per child. As of 2007 the average cost across the lower 48 states is $6,582.[33] Four categories determine the costs of public preschools: personnel ratios, personnel qualifications, facilities and transportation, and health and nutrition services. These costs depend heavily on the cost and quality of services provided.[34] The main personnel factor related to cost is teacher qualifications. Another determinant of cost is the length of the school day. Longer sessions cost more.[33]

Collaboration has helped fund programs in several districts. Collabortions with area Head Start and other private preschools helped fund a public preschool in one district. "We’re very pleased with the interaction. It’s really added a dimension to our program that’s been very positive".[35] The National Head Start Bureau has been looking for more opportunities to partner with public schools. Torn Schultz of the Bureau states, "We’re turning to partnership as much as possible, either in funds or facilities to make sure children get everything necessary to be ready for school".[36]

Special education

In the United States, students who may benefit from special education receive services in preschools. Since the enactment of the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA) Public Law 101-476 in 1975 and its amendments, PL 102-119 and PL 105-17 in 1997, the educational system has moved away from self-contained special education classrooms to inclusion, leading special education teachers to practice in a wider variety of settings. As with other stages in the life of a child with special needs, the Individualized Education Plan (IEP) or an Individual Family Service Plan (IFSP) is an important way for teachers, administrators and parents to set guidelines for a partnership to help the child succeed in preschool.

Notable persons

  • Miriam Roth (1910–2005) - Israeli writer and scholar of children's books, kindergarten teacher, and educator

See also

3

References

  1. ^ Age Appropriate Curriculum, Developmental Milestones, and Readiness: What My Child Should Be Learning and When
  2. ^ Samuel Lorenzo Knapp (1846), ‘’Female biography: containing notices of distinguished women’’ Philadelphia: Thomas Wardle. p. 230
  3. ^ Manfred Berger, "Kurze Chronik der ehemaligen und gegenwärtigen Ausbildungsstätten für Kleinkindlehrerinnen, Kindergärtnerinnen, Hortnerinnen ... und ErzieherInnen in Bayern“ in '‘Kindergartenpädagogik - Online-Handbuch‘‘, ed. Martin R. Textor
  4. ^ Vag, Otto (March 1975). "The Influence of the English Infant School in Hungary". International Journal of Early Childhood. 7 (1). Springer: 132–136.
  5. ^ New Lanark Kids: Robert Owen
  6. ^ a b Education in Robert Owen's New Society: the New Lanark Institute and schools
  7. ^ "Socialist - Courier: Robert Owen and New Lanark". Socialist-courier.blogspot.co.uk. Retrieved 27 November 2013.
  8. ^ Budapest Lexikon, 1993
  9. ^ Public Preschool Education In Hungary: A Historical Survey, 1980
  10. ^ Wilderspin, Samuel (1823). The Importance of Educating the Infant Poor. London.
  11. ^ Watertownhistory.org
  12. ^ Turner, Martin; Rack, John Paul (2004). The study of dyslexia. Birkhäuser, ISBN 978-0-306-48531-2
  13. ^ Dustmann, Christian; Fitzenberger, Bernd; Machin, Stephen (2008). The economics of education and training. Springer, ISBN 978-3-7908-2021-8
  14. ^ Olsen, M.I. 1955. "The development of play schools and kindergartens and an analysis of a sampling of these institutions in Alberta. Master’s thesis, University of Alberta."
  15. ^ Larry Prochner, "A History of Early Education and Child Care in Canada, 1820-1966" in Early Childhood Care and Education in Canada (eds. Larry Prochner and Nina Howe), Vancouver: UBC Press, 2000
  16. ^ a b Larry Prochner, History of Early Childhood Education in Canada, Australia and New Zealand, UBC Press 2009
  17. ^ The foundation stage: education for children aged 3 to 5
  18. ^ A Curriculum Framework for Children 3 to 5
  19. ^ The Early Years Framework (PDF). Scottish Government. 2008. ISBN 978-0-7559-5942-6.
  20. ^ Schaefer, Stephanie; Cohen, Julie. (2000-12). "Making Investments in Young Children: What the Research on Early Care and Education Tells Us". National Association of Child Advocates. {{cite web}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
  21. ^ Hanford, Emily (2009-10). "Early Lessons". American Radio Works. Retrieved 2009-11-08. {{cite web}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
  22. ^ 542
  23. ^ John, Martha Tyler (1986). "Can Preschool Be Detrimental to Cognitive Growth?". {{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help); Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
  24. ^ "University of California - UC Newsroom | New report examines effects nationwide of preschool on kids' development". Universityofcalifornia.edu. 2 November 2005. Retrieved 27 November 2013.
  25. ^ Davidson, Tobin & Wu 1989, pp. 188–221.
  26. ^ a b c Davidson, Tobin & Wu 1989, pp. 12–71.
  27. ^ Davidson, Tobin & Wu 1989, pp. 72–125.
  28. ^ Davidson, Tobin & Wu 1989, pp. 126–187.
  29. ^ Lee, Jean H. (24 June 2012). "In North Korea, learning to hate US starts early". Associated Press.
  30. ^ High Scope
  31. ^ Wat, Albert (July 2009). Beyond the School Yard: Pre-K Collaborations with Community-Based Partners (Report). Washington, D.C.: Pew Center on the States. pp. 24 pp. Retrieved 31 January 2010. {{cite report}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
  32. ^ Levin & Schwartz 2007, p. 4.
  33. ^ a b Levin & Schwartz 2007.
  34. ^ Levin & Schwartz 2007, p. 14.
  35. ^ Reeves 2000.
  36. ^ Reeves 2000, p. 6.

Sources

Davidson, Dana H.; Tobin, Joseph Jay; Wu, David Y. H. (1989). Preschool in three cultures: Japan, China, and the United States. New Haven, Conn: Yale University Press. pp. 188–221. ISBN 0-300-04235-3. {{cite book}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)

Further reading

  • Buysee, V. (2005). Consultation in Early Childhood Settings. Baltimore: Paul H. Brookes Publishing. ISBN 1-55766-774-8. {{cite book}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
  • Center for Public Education. (2007, March). Retrieved July 2, 2009, from http://www.centerforpubliceducation.org/Main-Menu/Pre-kindergarten/Pre-Kindergarten/Pre-kindergarten-What-the-research-shows.html
  • Condillac, E. B. (1746/1970, 2001). Essai sur l'origine des connaissances [Essay on the origin of human knowledge] in Oeuvres Completes Tome 1. Genève: Slatkine reprints. Retrieved from http://www.slatkine.com/. In addition, translated from the French of the Abbé de Condillac by Hans Aarsleff, Cambridge, MA: Cambridge University Press.
  • Condillac, E. B. (1749/1970, 1982). Traité des systèmes [Treatise on the systems] in Oeuvres Completes Tome 2. Genève: Slatkine reprints. Retrieved from http://www.slatkine.com/. In addition, translated from the French of the Abbé de Condillac by Franklin Philip, Philosophical Writings of Etienne Bonnot, Abbé de Condillac (Vol. I), Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.
  • Condillac, E. B. (1754/1982). Traité des sensations [Treatise on the sensations]. Genève: Slatkine reprints. Retrieved from http://www.slatkine.com/. In addition, translated from the French of the Abbé de Condillac by Franklin Philip, Philosophical Writings of Etienne Bonnot, Abbé de Condillac, and (Vol. I), Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.
  • Condillac, E. B. (1756). An essay on the origin of human knowledge. In Locke’s Essay on the Human Understanding. Translated from the French of the Abbé de Condillac by Thomas Nugent. London, England: J. Nourse. Retrieved 23 September 2008 from http://books.google.com/books?id=rp_go5DhQqQC .
  • Fay, J. & Funk, D. (1995). Teaching with love & logic. Golden, CO: The Love & Logic Press, Inc.
  • Glasser, W. (1984). Self-importance boosts learning. The School Administrator 45, 16-18.
  • Glasser, W. (1996). "Then and now. The theory of choice". Learning. 25 (3): 20–22. Retrieved 30 September 2013.
  • Heyman, G., Dweck, C., & Cain, K. (1992). Young children’s vulnerability to self-blame and helplessness: Relationship to beliefs about goodness. Child Development, 63, 401-415.
  • Individuals with Disabilities Individualizing Education Act (IDEA) Data. (2006). Part B child count data [Table]. Retrieved May 25, 2008, from https://www.ideadata.org/PartBdata.asp
  • Itard, J. M. G. (1962). The wild boy of Aveyron. (G. Humphrey & M. Humphrey, Trans.). New York: Appleton-Century-Crofts. (Original works published 1801 and 1806).
  • Levin, H. M.; Schwartz, H. L. (2007b). "Educational vouchers for universal pre-schools" (PDF). Economics of Education Review. 26: 3–16.
  • Levin, H.M.; Schwartz, H.L. (2007). "What is the cost of a preschool program?". National Center for the study of Privatization in Education. {{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help); Invalid |ref=harv (help) Symposium conducted at the meeting of the AEFA Annual Conference, Baltimore, Maryland.
  • McCollum, J. A. (1994). "Dyad as focus, triad as means: A family-centered approach to supporting parent-child interactions". Infants and Young Children. 6 (4): 54–63. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
  • Reeves, K. (2000). Preschool in the public schools. American Association of School Administrators. {{cite book}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help) 1-9
  • Skinner, B. F. (1954). "The science of learning and the art of teaching". Harvard Educational Review. 24 (2): 86–87.
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