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==Early life==
==Early life==
===Childhood===
===Childhood===
Sitting Bull was born with the name Ȟoká-Psíče (Jumping Badger), which was understood by members of his tribe as only a temporary name.<ref>[[#Reference-idUtley1993|Utley 1993]], p.6.</ref> His father was named Tȟatȟáŋka Íyotake (Sitting Bull, after whom he would later be named), his mother was named Her-Holy-Door (Tȟathíyopa Wakȟáŋ), and he had a sister, six years older than he, named Good Feather. As a youth, Sitting Bull excelled at foot races, was an expert [[equestrianism|horseback rider]] and was very accurate with a [[bow (weapon)|bow and arrow]].<ref>[[#Reference-idUtley1993|Utley 1993]], p. 10.</ref>
Shitting Bull was born with the name Ȟoká-Psíče (Jumping Badger), which was understood by members of his tribe as only a temporary name.<ref>[[#Reference-idUtley1993|Utley 1993]], p.6.</ref> His father was named Tȟatȟáŋka Íyotake (Sitting Bull, after whom he would later be named), his mother was named Her-Holy-Door (Tȟathíyopa Wakȟáŋ), and he had a sister, six years older than he, named Good Feather. As a youth, Sitting Bull excelled at foot races, was an expert [[equestrianism|horseback rider]] and was very accurate with a [[bow (weapon)|bow and arrow]].<ref>[[#Reference-idUtley1993|Utley 1993]], p. 10.</ref>
At about the age of 14, Sitting Bull participated in a war party that met [[Crow Nation|Crow]] warriors.<ref>[[#Reference-idUtley1993|Utley 1993]], p.14-5.</ref> He overtook one of the warriors during their retreat, and knocked the Crow off his horse. For this, Sitting Bull earned a white eagle [[feather]], symbol of a first coup, and also received the name of his father. His father changed his name to Jumping Bull and henceforth Sitting Bull would be known as Tȟatȟáŋka Íyotake, or Sitting Bull (usually misspelled as Tatanka Iyotanka or Tatanka Yotanka).<ref>[[#Reference-idUtley1993|Utley 1993]], p. 15.</ref> It was also at this ceremony that Sitting Bull received a personalized shield from his father, which was richly decorated with a scene depicting one of his father's dreams and consecrated by the band's medicine man.
At about the age of 14, Sitting Bull participated in a war party that met [[Crow Nation|Crow]] warriors.<ref>[[#Reference-idUtley1993|Utley 1993]], p.14-5.</ref> He overtook one of the warriors during their retreat, and knocked the Crow off his horse. For this, Sitting Bull earned a white eagle [[feather]], symbol of a first coup, and also received the name of his father. His father changed his name to Jumping Bull and henceforth Sitting Bull would be known as Tȟatȟáŋka Íyotake, or Sitting Bull (usually misspelled as Tatanka Iyotanka or Tatanka Yotanka).<ref>[[#Reference-idUtley1993|Utley 1993]], p. 15.</ref> It was also at this ceremony that Sitting Bull received a personalized shield from his father, which was richly decorated with a scene depicting one of his father's dreams and consecrated by the band's medicine man.

Revision as of 16:10, 19 October 2009

For the western film, see Sitting Bull (film).
Sitting Bull
Tȟatȟaŋka Iyotȟaŋka (born Hoka Psice)
Sitting Bull in 1885
Hunkpapa leader
Personal details
Bornc. 1831[1]
Grand River, South Dakota
Died(1890-12-15)December 15, 1890 (Age 59)
Grand River, Standing Rock Indian Reservation
Cause of deathShot by Indian Police
Resting placeSouth Dakota
Spouse(s)Light Hair
Four Robes
Snow-on-Her
Seen-by-her-Nation
Scarlet Woman
RelationsBig Foot (half brother)
White Bull (nephew)
ChildrenOne Bull (adopted son)
Crow Foot (son)
Many Horses (daughter)
Walks Looking (daughter)
(adopted daughter)
Parent(s)Jumping Bull (father)
Her-Holy-Door (mother)
Known forBattle of Little Big Horn, resistance to USA
Signature
Military service
Battles/warsBattle of Cedar Creek

Sitting Bull (Lakota: Tȟatȟáŋka Íyotake (in Standard Lakota Orthography), also nicknamed Slon-he or "Slow"; ca. 1831 – December 15, 1890) was a Hunkpapa Lakota Sioux holy man, born near the Grand River in South Dakota and killed by Indian agency police on the Standing Rock Indian Reservation during an attempt to arrest him and prevent him from supporting the Ghost Dance movement. Sitting Bull was originally named "Jumping Badger" but was given his father's name "Sitting Bull" when he was a teenager, after killing his first bison (buffalo).

He is notable in American and Native American history for his role in the major victory at the Battle of the Little Bighorn against Lt. Col. George Armstrong Custer and the U.S. 7th Cavalry Regiment on June 25, 1876, where Sitting Bull's premonition of defeating the cavalry became reality. Seven months after the battle, Sitting Bull and his group left the United States to Wood Mountain, Saskatchewan, where he remained until 1881, at which time he surrendered to US forces. A small remnant of his band under Chief Waŋblí Ǧí decided to stay at Wood Mountain. After his return to the United States, he briefly toured as a performer in Buffalo Bill's Wild West show.

After working as a performer, Sitting Bull returned to the Standing Rock Agency in South Dakota. Because of fears that he would use his influence to support the Ghost Dance movement, Indian Service agent James McLaughlin at Fort Yates ordered his arrest. During an ensuing struggle between Sitting Bull's followers and the agency police, Sitting Bull was shot in the side and head by Standing Rock policemen Tatankapah (Bull Head) and Marcelus Chankpidutah (Red Tomahawk) after the police were fired upon by Sitting Bull's supporters. His body was taken to nearby Fort Yates for burial, but in 1953, his remains were possibly exhumed and reburied near Mobridge, South Dakota, by his Lakota family who wanted his body to be nearer to his birthplace. However, some Sioux and historians dispute this claim and believe that any remains that were moved were not those of Sitting Bull.

Early life

Childhood

Shitting Bull was born with the name Ȟoká-Psíče (Jumping Badger), which was understood by members of his tribe as only a temporary name.[2] His father was named Tȟatȟáŋka Íyotake (Sitting Bull, after whom he would later be named), his mother was named Her-Holy-Door (Tȟathíyopa Wakȟáŋ), and he had a sister, six years older than he, named Good Feather. As a youth, Sitting Bull excelled at foot races, was an expert horseback rider and was very accurate with a bow and arrow.[3]

At about the age of 14, Sitting Bull participated in a war party that met Crow warriors.[4] He overtook one of the warriors during their retreat, and knocked the Crow off his horse. For this, Sitting Bull earned a white eagle feather, symbol of a first coup, and also received the name of his father. His father changed his name to Jumping Bull and henceforth Sitting Bull would be known as Tȟatȟáŋka Íyotake, or Sitting Bull (usually misspelled as Tatanka Iyotanka or Tatanka Yotanka).[5] It was also at this ceremony that Sitting Bull received a personalized shield from his father, which was richly decorated with a scene depicting one of his father's dreams and consecrated by the band's medicine man.

Sitting Bull, 1882

He was also known as Húŋkešni, meaning "slow" for thinking before acted.[6]

Marriage and family

Sitting Bull's early family history is not clear, but his first marriage likely took place in 1851 to a woman named Pretty Door or Light Hair.[7] By 1857, Sitting Bull's marriage to Light Hair produced a son (who died of disease at a young age), but Light Hair died during childbirth. Sitting Bull adopted his nephew, One Bull, at the time of his biological son's death. Also in 1857, Sitting Bull adopted a young Assiniboine as his brother, and he came to be known as Jumping Bull (a tribute to Sitting Bull's father).[8]

Status as holy man

Sitting Bull became a Sioux holy man, or wičháša wakȟáŋ, during his early twenties. His responsibilities as a holy man included understanding the complex religious rituals and beliefs of the Sioux, and also learning about natural phenomena that were related to the Sioux beliefs. Sitting Bull had an "intense spirituality that pervaded his entire being in his adult years and that fueled a constant quest for an understanding of the universe and of the ways in which he personally could bring its infinite powers to the benefit of his people."[9] Sitting Bull also knew techniques of healing and carried medicinal herbs, known commonly as a medicine man.

Because of his status as a wichasha wakan, Sitting Bull was a member of the Buffalo Society, a dream society for those who dreamt of buffalo. He also was a member of the Heyókȟa, a society for those who dreamed of thunderbirds.[10]

Warrior life

Sitting Bull adorned with eagle feathers

Dakota War of 1862 and its aftermath

Further information: Dakota War of 1862

As a result of treaty violations by the United States during the late 1850s and early 1860s, eastern bands of the Dakota (one of the three major divisions of the Sioux, along with the Lakota and Nakota) became increasingly agitated with both white settlers and traders alike. On August 17, 1862, a skirmish between Dakota hunters and white settlers resulted in a Dakota war council decision to attack white settlements throughout southern Minnesota. However, by late 1862, the Dakota were forced to surrender and were expelled from Minnesota.

Although the Lakota largely were unaffected by the war, some Dakota refugees (some of whom had refused to surrender to United States forces) from Minnesota moved into Lakota territory along the Missouri River, and Minnesota regiments pursued them. In 1863, Hunkpapa warriors joined with Dakota refugee warriors to fight against the military. However, Col. Henry Sibley defeated them at the Battle of Dead Buffalo Lake on July 26, 1863 and at the Battle of Stony Lake on July 28, 1863.[11] Sitting Bull likely participated in both of these battles, and also possibly took part among other Hunkpapa warriors in the Battle of Whitestone Hill on September 3, 1863.[12] As in the previous battles, the Army prevailed, killing about 100 Sioux and capturing about 160.[13][14]

The Hunkpapa retreated after this defeat, though the Lakota were aware of the military's intentions to continue the fighting. In June 1864, Gen. Alfred Sully led American forces out from Fort Sully (a few miles south of Fort Pierre, South Dakota). To counter their advance up the Cannonball River, several bands of the Lakota and Dakota Sioux had assembled in camp at the foot of the Killdeer mountains. Among these several thousand warriors were both Sitting Bull and his elder nephew White Bull, who was preparing to fight in his first battle.[15]

At the Battle of Killdeer Mountain, which took place July 28, 1864, the Sioux attacked Sully's assembled forces, but were defeated overwhelmingly by the soldiers' combined artillery and rifles. Sitting Bull's uncle, Four Horns, was wounded though survived, and the Sioux retreated. However, they attacked Sully's forces again from August 7 to August 9, 1864, and were defeated again. Sitting Bull made efforts to persuade the Sioux forces to withdraw, and as a result of his pleas and Sully's second victory, the Sioux pulled back from attacking Sully's column as it continued through the Badlands.[16] The several bands broke up after Killdeer Mountain, and Sitting Bull and a group of Hunkpapas moved southeast.

On September 2, 1864, Sitting Bull and the Hunkpapas attacked a wagon train of emigrants led by Capt. James L. Fisk that was traveling through Sioux lands.[17] Sitting Bull again was wounded, this time through the hip and back. The emigrants forted up and a standoff ensued until the Sioux eventually gave up and retreated to track buffalo. The fighting from 1863 to 1864 caused Sitting Bull to harden his views about the presence of whites in Sioux lands, and he assumed a sense of uncompromising militancy against whites that would characterize him for the rest of his life.[18]

Red Cloud's War

Sitting Bull led numerous war parties against Fort Berthold, Fort Stevenson, and Fort Buford and their environs from 1865 through 1868.[19] Although Red Cloud was a leader of the Oglala Sioux, his leadership and attacks against forts in the Powder River Country were accompanied by Sitting Bull's guerrilla attacks on emigrant parties and smaller forts throughout the upper Missouri River region.

By early 1868, the U.S. government desired a peaceful settlement to Red Cloud's War, and agreed to Red Cloud's demands that Forts Phil Kearny and C.F. Smith be abandoned. Chief Gall of the Hunkpapas (among other representatives of the Hunkpapas, Blackfeet, and Yankton Sioux) signed a form of the Treaty of Fort Laramie on July 2, 1868 at Fort Rice (near Bismarck, North Dakota).[20] However, Sitting Bull did not agree to the treaty and continued his hit-and-run attacks on forts in the upper Missouri area throughout the late 1860s and early 1870s.[21]

The events of 1867-8 mark a historically debated period of Sitting Bull's life. According to historian Stanley Vestal who conducted interviews with Hunkpapa still alive in 1930, Sitting Bull was made "Supreme Chief of the whole Sioux Nation" at this time. However later historians have refuted this concept of constitutional authority in a society that was inherently individualistic and decentralised.

Sketch of Sitting Bull which appeared in the December 8, 1877 issue of Harper's Weekly

The Great Sioux War of 1868-1877

Further information: Great Sioux War of 1876-77

Sitting Bull's band of the Hunkpapas continued to make attacks on emigrant parties and forts in the late 1860s, but in 1871, the Northern Pacific Railway conducted a survey for a route across the northern plains directly through Hunkpapa lands.[22] The 1871 survey encountered stiff Sioux resistance, and in 1872, the surveyors were accompanied by federal troops. This survey party also was resisted by Sitting Bull and the Hunkpapa, and was forced to turn back.[23] In 1873, the military accompaniment for the surveyors was considerably larger, but Sitting Bull's forces resisted this survey "most vigorously."[24]

However, the Panic of 1873 forced the backers (such as Jay Cooke) of the Northern Pacific Railway's into bankruptcy. This halted the construction of the railroad through Sioux territory, but also encouraged interest in the possibility of gold mining in the Black Hills. A military expedition led by Lt. Col. George Armstrong Custer in 1874 left from Fort Abraham Lincoln, near Bismarck, to explore the Black Hills for gold and to determine a suitable location for a military fort in the Hills.[25] Custer's announcement of gold in the Black Hills triggered the Black Hills Gold Rush and increased tensions between the Sioux and whites seeking to move into the Black Hills.[26]

Although Sitting Bull did not attack Custer's expedition in 1874, the government was increasingly pressured to open the Black Hills to mining and settlement based on reports of Sioux depredations (encouraged by Sitting Bull). In November 1875, the government accordingly ordered all Sioux bands outside the Great Sioux Reservation to move onto the reservation, with the knowledge that these bands would not comply. These bands living off the reservation were certified by the Interior Department as hostile on February 1, 1876.[27] This certification allowed the military to pursue the Sioux and Sitting Bull.

Little Bighorn battlefield

Battle of Little Bighorn

Further information: Battle of the Little Bighorn

The period between 1868-1876 should be seen as the time over which Sitting Bull developed into the most important of Native American Chiefs. After the Laramie Treaty of 1868 and the creation of the Great Sioux Reservation, many traditional Sioux warriors such as Red Cloud of the Oglala and Spotted Tail of the Brule came to reside permanently on the reservations and lived a life of dependency upon the Native American Agencies. Many other chiefs, including members of Sitting Bull's own Hunkpapa band such as Gall, at times temporarily adopted a residence at the agencies. This was because they offered supplies at a time when the white encroachment and the depletion of the buffalo stock challenged a life of complete Native American independence. Sitting Bull, however, intransigently refused to adopt any sort of dependence on the white man. During this period, at times this meant that Sitting Bull was left isolated on the plains with a small band of warriors. However at times when the Native Americans and Native American land came under threat from the United States, Native Americans of a multitude of Sioux bands and other Native American tribes such as the North Cheyenne came to Sitting Bull's camp. His reputation for "strong medicine" developed as he continued to evade the whites. After the January 1st Ultimatum, when the United States army tracked down Native Americans living off the reservation for extermination, Native Americans flocked to Sitting Bull's camp. Sitting Bull also took an active role in encouraging this "unity camp", sending scouts to the reservations to try and lure away agency Native Americans and also telling his Hunkpapa to share their supplies with the Native Americans that joined them. An example of this generosity is Sitting Bull's response to Wooden Leg's Northern Cheyenne tribe. Where the North Cheyenne who had been impoverished by Captain Reynold's attack, fled to Sitting Bull's camp for safety. The Hunkpapa chief duly provided the resources to sustain his new recruits. This was clearly self fulfilling, with Native Americans being attracted to the safety of this growing camp and its reputation for generosity. Over the course of the first half of 1876, Sitting Bull's camp continually expanded as the Native Americans sought safety in numbers. It was this camp that Custer found on June 25 1876. Sitting Bull did not take a direct military role in the ensuing battle, as a head chief he was charged with defensive responsibilities. Nevertheless it was his intransigence and leadership abilities that had attracted such a large village together in the first place capable of defeating Custer.

On June 25, 1876, Custer’s 7th Cavalry advance party of General Alfred Howe Terry’s column attacked Native American tribes at their camp on the Little Big Horn River expecting a similar victory. The U.S. army did not realize that before the battle began, more than 2,000 Native Americans had left their reservations to follow Sitting Bull. The attacking Sioux, inspired by a vision of Sitting Bull’s, in which he saw U.S. soldiers being killed as they entered the tribe’s camp, fought back. Custer's badly outnumbered troops lost ground quickly and were forced to retreat, as they began to realize the true numbers of the Native American force. The tribes then led a counter-attack against the soldiers on a nearby ridge, ultimately annihilating the soldiers.

The Native Americans' celebrations were short-lived, however, as public outrage at Custer's death and defeat and the heightened awareness of the remaining Sioux brought thousands more soldiers to the area. Over the next year, the new American military forces pursued the Lakota, forcing many of the Native Americans to surrender. Sitting Bull refused to surrender and in May 1877 led his band across the border into Saskatchewan, Canada where he remained in exile for many years near Wood Mountain, refusing a pardon and the chance to return.[28]

Sitting Bull in Pierre, South Dakota on his way to Standing Rock Agency from Fort Randall

Surrender

Hunger and cold eventually forced Sitting Bull, his family, and nearly 200 other Sioux in his band to return to the United States and surrender on July 19, 1881. Sitting Bull had his young son Crow Foot surrender his rifle to the commanding officer of Fort Buford, and he told the soldiers he wished to regard them and the white race as friends. Two weeks later, Sitting Bull and his band were transferred to Fort Yates, the military post located adjacent to the Standing Rock Agency.

Arriving with 185 people, his band was kept separate from the other Hunkpapa gathered at the agency. Army officials remained concerned that the famed Hunkpapa chief would use his influence to stir up trouble among the recently surrendered northern bands. Consequently, the military decided to transfer him and his band to Fort Randall to be held as prisoners of war. Again loaded on a steamboat, Sitting Bull's band, now totaling 172 people, were sent downriver to Fort Randall where they spent the next 20 months. He was finally allowed to return to the Standing Rock Agency with his band in May 1883.

Wild West Show participation

Sitting Bull and Buffalo Bill, 1885

In 1885, Sitting Bull was allowed to leave the reservation to join Buffalo Bill Cody’s Wild West show. He earned about $50 a week for riding once around the arena, where he was a popular attraction. Although it is rumored that he often cursed his audiences in his native tongue during the show, some historians argue that he did not,[29] and there have been reports that Sitting Bull in fact gave speeches relaying his desire for education for the young and the normalization of relations between the Sioux and whites.[30] Sitting Bull also was reported to have cursed his audience during an opening address celebrating the completion of the Northern Pacific Railway in 1884.[31]

Sitting Bull only stayed with the show for four months before returning home. However, during that time, he had become somewhat of a celebrity and a romanticized freedom fighter. He earned a small fortune by charging for his autograph and picture, although he often gave away his money to the homeless and beggars.[32] During this time, Sitting Bull realized that his enemies were not limited to the small military and settler communities he had encountered in his homelands, but in fact they were numerous and possessed technological advancements.[citation needed] He also realized that the Sioux would be overwhelmed if they continued to fight.[citation needed]

Death and burial

Sitting Bull returned to the Standing Rock Agency in South Dakota after 4 months in Buffalo Bill's Wild West Show. In 1890 James McLaughlin, the U.S. Indian Agent at Fort Yates on Standing Rock Agency, feared that the Lakota leader was about to flee the reservation with the Ghost Dancers, so he ordered the police to arrest Sitting Bull.[33] On 14 December 1890, McLaughlin drafted a letter to Lt. Bullhead that included instructions and an outlined plan to capture the chief. The plan called for the attack to happen during dawn on December 15, and also advised the use of a light spring wagon to facilitate the chief's removal before his followers could rally. Lt. Bullhead decided, however, not to use the wagon. Instead, the police officers would force Sitting Bull to mount a horse as soon as the arrest was made.[34]

At around 5:30 a.m. on December 15, 1890, a freezing drizzle fell as 39 police officers and 4 volunteers moved towards Sitting Bull's house. They surrounded the house, knocked and entered. Lt. Bullhead told Sitting Bull that he was under arrest and led him outside.[35] At this time the camp was awake and they converged at the house of their chief. As Lt. Bullhead ordered Sitting Bull to mount the horse, he explained that the Indian affairs agent needed to see him and then he could come back to his house. However, Sitting Bull refused and the police used force on him. The Sioux in the village were enraged. A Sioux man known as Catch-the-Bear shouldered his rifle and shot Lt. Bullhead who, in return, fired his revolver into the chest of Sitting Bull.[36] Another police officer, Red Tomahawk, shot Sitting Bull in the head and the chief dropped to the ground. A terrible close-quarters fight erupted and within minutes it was over. Six policemen were killed immediately and two more died shortly after the fight. Sitting Bull and seven of his supporters lay dead along with two horses. As the guns went off, a circus horse presented to Sitting Bull at the conclusion of his tour with Buffalo Bill Cody's Wild West Tour responded to its cue, sitting down on its haunches and offering a hoof to "shake hands."[37]

Sitting Bull's body was taken to Fort Yates for a coffin (made by the Army carpenter[38]) and burial. It is possible that in 1953 his remains were exhumed and reburied near Mobridge, South Dakota by Lakota family members who wanted his body to be nearer to his birthplace.[39] However, some Sioux and historians dispute this claim and believe that any remains that were moved were not those of Sitting Bull.[40]

Legacy

Sitting Bull's grave at Fort Yates, ca. 1906
Sitting Bull's other alleged grave, Mobridge, South Dakota, 2003

Following his death, his cabin on the Grand River was taken to Chicago to become part of the 1893 World's Columbian Exposition. The cabin was exhibited along with Native American dances and a sign that said "War Dance Given Daily."[41] Later, Sitting Bull became the subject of, or a character in, several Hollywood motion pictures, such as Sitting Bull: The Hostile Sioux Indian Chief (1914), Sitting Bull at the Spirit Lake Massacre (1927), Sitting Bull (1954), Buffalo Bill and the Indians or Sitting Bull's History Lesson (1976), and Bury My Heart at Wounded Knee (2007).

As time passed, Sitting Bull's legacy became a product of the public's lasting perception of him as an archetype of Native American resistance movements. Legoland Billund, the first Legoland park, contains a Lego sculpture of Sitting Bull, which is the largest sculpture in the park. On September 14, 1989, the United States Postal Service released a postage stamp featuring a likeness of Sitting Bull with a denomination of 28¢.[42] On March 6, 1996, the Standing Rock Sioux tribal council voted to rename Standing Rock College (formerly Standing Rock Community College) as Sitting Bull College in honor of Sitting Bull.

See also

Footnotes

  1. ^ Encyclopedia Britannica. Vol. 20. 1955. p. 723.
  2. ^ Utley 1993, p.6.
  3. ^ Utley 1993, p. 10.
  4. ^ Utley 1993, p.14-5.
  5. ^ Utley 1993, p. 15.
  6. ^ "Chiefs - Sioux, Sitting Bull Biography". Galafilm, Montreal. Retrieved 2009-02-02.
  7. ^ Utley 1993, p.20.
  8. ^ Utley 1993, p.24.
  9. ^ Utley 1993, p.27.
  10. ^ Utley 1993, p.29.
  11. ^ Utley 1993, p.52-3.
  12. ^ Utley 1993, p.52-3. Utley wrote that "Sitting Bull most probably fought in these actions."
  13. ^ Utley 1993, p.53.
  14. ^ Prairie Public Radio, 2004.
  15. ^ Utley 1993, p.55.
  16. ^ Utley 1993, p.58-9.
  17. ^ Utley 1993, p.62-3.
  18. ^ Utley 1993, p.64.
  19. ^ Utley 1993, p.66-72.
  20. ^ Utley 1993, p.80.
  21. ^ Utley 1993, p.82.
  22. ^ Utley, Frontier Regulars 1973, p.242.
  23. ^ Bailey 1979, p.84-5.
  24. ^ Utley Frontier Regulars 1973, p.242.
  25. ^ Utley Frontier Regulars 1973, p.244.
  26. ^ Bailey 1979, p.106-7.
  27. ^ Utley Frontier Regulars 1973, p.248.
  28. ^ Wood Mountain, Saskatchewan official site
  29. ^ Utley 1993, p.263
  30. ^ Standing Bear 1975, p.185
  31. ^ Lazarus 1991, p.106
  32. ^ Utley 1993, p.264
  33. ^ Nichols, Roger L. (2003). "American Indians in U.S. History". Norman Press. p. 160. {{cite news}}: |access-date= requires |url= (help); Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
  34. ^ Utley, Robert M. (2004). "The Last Days of the Sioux Nation, 2nd Edition". Yale University Press. p. 155,157. {{cite news}}: |access-date= requires |url= (help); Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help)
  35. ^ Utley, Robert M. (2004). "The Last Days of the Sioux Nation, 2nd Edition". Yale University Press. p. 158. {{cite news}}: |access-date= requires |url= (help); Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help)
  36. ^ Utley, Robert M. (2004). "The Last Days of the Sioux Nation, 2nd Edition". Yale University Press. p. 160. {{cite news}}: |access-date= requires |url= (help); Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help)
  37. ^ Dippie, Brian W. The Vanishing American: White Attitudes and U.S. Indian Policy. Middleton, Conn.: Wesleyan University Press, 1982.
  38. ^ Snider, G.L., A Maker of Shavings, the life of Edward Forte, formerly 1st Sergeant, troop "D", 7th Cavalry 1936
  39. ^ "Bones of Sitting Bull Go South From One Dakota to the Other". Associated Press in New York Times. April 9, 1953. Retrieved 2008-05-29. A group of South Dakotans today lifted the bones of Sitting Bull, famed Sioux Indian medicine man, from the North Dakota burial ground in which they had been buried sixty-three years and reburied them across the state line in South Dakota near the Chief's boyhood home. {{cite news}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help)
  40. ^ "Restoring Dignity to Sitting Bull, Wherever He Is". New York Times. January 28, 2007. Retrieved 2008-05-29. Then, in 1953, some Chamber of Commerce types from the small South Dakota city of Mobridge executed a startling plan. With the blessing of a few of Sitting Bull's descendants, they crossed into North Dakota after midnight and exhumed what they believed were Sitting Bull's remains. {{cite news}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help)
  41. ^ Barker 1994, p.165.
  42. ^ United States Postal Service, Postal History Web site

References

Further reading

External links

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