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This article is about the type of food store. For other meanings, see Supermarket (disambiguation).

Produce section in a Brazilian supermarket
Packaged food aisles in a hypermarket

A supermarket, a large form of the traditional grocery store, is a self-service shop offering a wide variety of food and household products, organized into aisles. It is larger and has a wider selection than a traditional grocery store, but is smaller and more limited in the range of merchandise than a hypermarket or big-box market.

The supermarket typically comprises meat, fresh produce, dairy, and baked goods aisles, along with shelf space reserved for canned and packaged goods as well as for various non-food items such as kitchenware, household cleaners, pharmacy products and pet supplies. Some supermarkets also sell a variety of other household products that are consumed regularly, such as new condoms (where permitted), medicine, and clothes, and some stores sell a much wider range of non-food products: DVDs, sporting equipment, board games, and seasonal items (e.g., Christmas wrapping paper in December).

The traditional supermarket occupies a large amount of floor space, usually on a single level. It is usually situated near a residential area in order to be convenient to consumers. The basic appeal is the availability of a broad selection of goods under a single roof, at relatively low prices. Other advantages include ease of parking and frequently the convenience of shopping hours that extend into the evening or even 24 hours of day. Supermarkets usually allocate large budgets to advertising, typically through newspapers. They also present elaborate in-shop displays of products. The shops are usually part of corporate chains that own or control (sometimes by franchise) other supermarkets located nearby—even transnationally—thus increasing opportunities for economies of scale.

Supermarkets typically are supplied by the distribution centres of their parent companies, usually in the largest city in the area. Supermarkets usually offer products at relatively low prices by using their buying power to buy goods from manufacturers at lower prices than smaller stores can. They also minimise financing costs by paying for goods at least 30 days after receipt and some extract credit terms of 90 days or more from vendors. Certain products (typically staple foods such as bread, milk and sugar) are very occasionally sold as loss leaders, that is, with negative profit margins so as to attract shoppers to their store. There is some debate as to the effectiveness of this tactic. To maintain a profit, supermarkets make up for the lower margins by a higher overall volume of sales, and with the sale of higher-margin items bought by the intended higher volume of shoppers. Customers usually shop by placing their selected merchandise into shopping carts (trolleys) or baskets (self-service) and pay for the merchandise at the check-out. At present, many supermarket chains are attempting to further reduce labor costs by shifting to self-service check-out machines, where a single employee can oversee a group of four or five machines at once, assisting multiple customers at a time.

A larger full-service supermarket combined with a department store is sometimes known as a hypermarket. Other services offered at some supermarkets may include those of banks, cafés, childcare centres/creches, Insurance(and other financial services), Mobile Phone services, photo processing, video rentals, pharmacies and/or petrol stations.

History

A supermarket in Sweden in 1941
Consumers shopping for produce and fruit.

In the early days of retailing, all products generally were fetched by an assistant from shelves behind the merchant's counter while customers waited in front of the counter and indicated the items they wanted. Also, most foods and merchandise did not come in individually wrapped consumer-sized packages, so an assistant had to measure out and wrap the precise amount desired by the consumer. This also offered opportunities for social interaction: many regarded this style of shopping as "a social occasion" and would often "pause for conversations with the staff or other customers."[1] These practices were by nature very labor-intensive and therefore also quite expensive. The shopping process was slow, as the number of customers who could be attended to at one time was limited by the number of staff employed in the store.

Shopping for groceries also often involved trips to multiple specialty shops, such as a greengrocer, butcher, bakery, fishmonger and dry goods store, in addition to a general store, while milk was delivered by a milkman.

The concept of an inexpensive food market relying on large economies of scale was developed by Vincent Astor. He founded the Astor Market in 1915, investing $750,000 ($18 million in 2015 currency) of his fortune into a 165' by 125' corner of 95th and Broadway, Manhattan, creating, in effect, an open air mini-mall that sold meat, fruit, produce and flowers. The expectation was that customers would come from great distances ("miles around"), but in the end even attracting people from ten blocks away was difficult, and the market folded in 1917.[2][3][4]

The concept of a self-service grocery store was developed by entrepreneur Clarence Saunders and his Piggly Wiggly stores. His first store opened in 1916. Saunders was awarded a number of patents for the ideas he incorporated into his stores.[5][6][7][8] The stores were a financial success and Saunders began to offer franchises. The Great Atlantic & Pacific Tea Company, which was established in 1859, was another successful early grocery store chain in Canada and the United States, and became common in North American cities in the 1920s. The general trend in since then has been to stock shelves at night so that customers, the following day, can obtain their own goods and bring them to the front of the store to pay for them. Although there is a higher risk of shoplifting, the costs of appropriate security measures ideally will be outweighed by reduced labor costs.[citation needed]

Early self-service grocery stores did not sell fresh meats or produce. Combination stores that sold perishable items were developed in the 1920s.[9]

Historically, there has been debate about the origin of the supermarket, with King Kullen and Ralphs of California having strong claims.[10] Other contenders included Weingarten's Big Food Markets and Henke & Pillot.[11] To end the debate, the Food Marketing Institute in conjunction with the Smithsonian Institution and with funding from H.J. Heinz, researched the issue. It defined the attributes of a supermarket as "self-service, separate product departments, discount pricing, marketing and volume selling."[citation needed]

It has been determined that the first true supermarket in the United States was opened by a former Kroger employee, Michael J. Cullen, on 4 August 1930, inside a 6,000-square-foot (560 m2) former garage in Jamaica, Queens in New York City.[12] The store, King Kullen, operated under the slogan "Pile it high. Sell it low." At the time of Cullen's death in 1936, there were seventeen King Kullen stores in operation. Although Saunders had brought the world self-service, uniform stores and nationwide marketing, Cullen built on this idea by adding separate food departments, selling large volumes of food at discount prices and adding a parking lot.

A Safeway advertisement from the 1950s

Other established American grocery chains in the 1930s, such as Kroger and Safeway at first resisted Cullen's idea, but eventually were forced to build their own supermarkets as the economy sank into the Great Depression, while consumers were becoming price-sensitive at a level never experienced before.[13] Kroger took the idea one step further and pioneered the first supermarket surrounded on all four sides by a parking lot.[citation needed]

As larger chain supermarkets began to dominate the market in the USA, able to supply consumers with the desired lower prices as opposed to the smaller "mom and pop" stands with considerable more overhead costs, the backlash of this infrastructure alteration was seen through numerous anti-chain campaigns. The idea of "monopsony," proposed by Cambridge economist Joan Robinson in 1933, that a single buyer could out-power the market of multiple sellers, became a strong anti-chain rhetorical device. With public backlash came political pressure to even the playing field for smaller vendors without the luxuries of economies of scale. In 1936, the Robinson-Patman Act was implemented as a way of preventing such larger chains from using this buying power to reap advantages over smaller, although the act was not well enforced and did not have much impact in the prevention of larger chains overtaking power in the markets.[14]

Supermarkets proliferated across Canada and the United States with the growth of automobile ownership and suburban development after World War II. Most North American supermarkets are located in suburban strip shopping centers as an anchor store along. They are generally regional rather than national in their company branding. Kroger is perhaps the most nationally oriented supermarket chain in the United States but it has preserved most of its regional brands, including Ralphs, City Market, King Soopers, Fry's, Smith's, and QFC.[citation needed]

Pyatorochka supermarket in Moscow, Russia

In Canada, the largest such company is Loblaw, which operates stores under a variety of banners targeted to different segments and regions, including Fortinos, Zehrs, No Frills, the Real Canadian Superstore, and Loblaws, the foundation of the company. Sobeys is Canada's second largest supermarket with locations across the country, operating under many banners (Sobeys IGA in Quebec).[citation needed] Québec's first supermarket opened in 1934 in Montréal, under the banner Steinberg's.[15]

In the United Kingdom, self-service shopping took longer to become established. Even in 1947, there were just ten self-service shops in the country.[1] In 1951, ex-US Navy sailor Patrick Galvani, son-in-law of Express Dairies chairman, made a pitch to the board to open a chain of supermarkets across the country. The UK's first supermarket under the new Premier Supermarkets brand opened in Streatham, South London,[16] taking ten times as much per week as the average British general store of the time. Other chains caught on, and after Galvani lost out to Tesco's Jack Cohen in 1960 to buy the 212 Irwin's chain, the sector underwent a large amount of consolidation, resulting in 'the big four' dominant UK of today: Tesco, Asda (owned by Wal-Mart), Sainsbury's and Morrisons.

In the 1950s, supermarkets frequently issued trading stamps as incentives to customers. Today, most chains issue store-specific "membership cards," "club cards," or "loyalty cards". These typically enable the card holder to receive special members-only discounts on certain items when the credit card-like device is scanned at check-out.[citation needed] Sales of selected data generated by clubcards is becoming a significant revenue stream for some supermarkets.

Traditional supermarkets in many countries face intense competition from discounters such as Wal-Mart, and Tesco in the UK, which typically are non-union and operate with better buying power. Other competition exists from warehouse clubs such as Costco that offer savings to customers buying in bulk quantities. Superstores, such as those operated by Wal-Mart and Asda, often offer a wide range of goods and services in addition to foods. The proliferation of such warehouse and superstores has contributed to the continuing disappearance of smaller, local grocery stores; increased dependence on the automobile; suburban sprawl because of the necessity for large floorspace and increased vehicular traffic. For example, in 2009 51% of Wal-Mart's $251 Billion domestic sales were recorded from grocery goods.[17] Some critics consider the chains' common practice of selling loss leaders to be anti-competitive. They are also wary of the negotiating power that large, often multinational have with suppliers around the world.[citation needed]

Growth in developing countries

There has been a rapid transformation of the food sector in developing countries, beginning in the 1990s. This applies particularly to Latin America, South-East Asia, India, China and South Africa. However, growth is being witnessed in nearly all countries. With growth, has come considerable competition and some amount of consolidation.[18] The growth has been driven by increasing affluence and the rise of a middle class; the entry of women into the workforce; with a consequent incentive to seek out easy-to-prepare foods; the growth in the use of refrigerators, making it possible to shop weekly instead of daily; and the growth in car ownership, facilitating journeys to distant stores and purchases of large quantities of goods. The opportunities presented by this potential have encouraged several European companies to invest in these markets (mainly in Asia) and American companies to invest in Latin America and China. Local companies also entered the market.[19] Initial development of supermarkets has now been followed by hypermarket growth. In addition there were investments by companies such as Makro and Metro in large-scale Cash-and-Carry operations.

While the growth in sales of processed foods in these countries has been much more rapid than the growth in fresh food sales, the imperative nature of supermarkets to achieve economies of scale in purchasing, means that the expansion of supermarkets in these countries has important repercussions for small farmers, particularly those growing perishable crops. New supply chains have developed involving cluster formation; development of specialized wholesalers; leading farmers organizing supply; and farmer associations or cooperatives.[20] In some cases supermarkets have organized their own procurement from small farmers; in others wholesale markets have adapted to meet supermarket needs.[21]

Typical supermarket merchandise

Inside an Asda supermarket in Keighley, West Yorkshire
Sainsbury's supermarket front end
Fruit on display in a supermarket in Japan
Inside a Serbian supermarket

Larger supermarkets in North America and in Europe typically sell a great number of items among many brands, sizes and varieties, including:

In some countries, the range of supermarket merchandise is more strictly focused on food products, although the range of goods for sale is expanding in many locations as typical store sizes continue to increase globally.[citation needed]

Typical store architecture

A Kroger store, Kroger of the Villages, in Hedwig Village, Texas (Greater Houston)

While branding and store advertising will differ from company to company, the layout of a supermarket remains virtually unchanged. Although big companies spend time giving consumers a pleasant shopping experience, the design of a supermarket is directly connected to the in-store marketing that supermarkets must conduct in order to get shoppers to spend more money while there.

The exterior of a supermarket in Norrköping, Sweden

Every aspect of the store is mapped out and attention is paid to color, wording and even surface texture. The overall layout of a supermarket is a visual merchandising project that plays a major role. Stores can creatively use a layout to alter customers’ perceptions of the atmosphere. Alternatively, they can enhance the store’s atmospherics through visual communications (signs and graphics), lighting, colors, and even scents.[22] For example, to give a sense of the supermarket being healthy, fresh produce is deliberately located at the front of the store. In terms of bakery items, supermarkets usually dedicate 30 to 40 feet of store space to the bread aisle.[23]

Supermarkets are designed to "give each product section a sense of individual difference and this is evident in the design of what are called the anchor departments; fresh produce, dairy, delicatessen, meat and the bakery".[24] Each section has different floor coverings, style, lighting and sometimes even individual services counters to allow shoppers to feel as if there are a number of markets within this one supermarket.[25]

Exterior of a supermarket in Kulim, Kedah, Malaysia.

Marketers use well researched techniques to try to control purchasing behaviour. The layout of a supermarket is considered by some to consist of a few rules of thumb and three layout principles.[26] The high-draw products are placed in separate areas of the store to keep drawing the consumer through the store. High impulse and high margin products are placed in the most predominant areas to grab attention. Power products are placed on both sides of the aisle to create increased product awareness, and end caps are used to receive high exposure of a certain product whether on special, promotion or in a campaign, or a new line.

The first principle of layout is circulation. Circulation is created by arranging product so the supermarket can control the traffic flow of the consumer. Along this path there will be high-draw, high-impulse items that will influence the consumer to purchase which he or she did not intend. Service areas such as rest rooms are placed in a location which draws the consumer past certain products to create extra buys. Necessity items such as bread and milk are found at the rear of the store to increase the start of circulation. Cashiers' desks are placed in a position to promote circulation. The entrance will be on the right-hand side because research has shown that consumers who travel in a counter-clockwise direction spend more.[27]

The second principle of layout is coordination. Coordination is the organised arrangement of product that promotes sales. Products such as fast-selling and slow-selling lines are placed in strategic positions in aid of the overall sales plan. Managers sometimes place different items in fast-selling places to increase turnover or to promote a new line.

The third principle is consumer convenience. The layout of a supermarket is designed to create a high degree of convenience to the consumer to make the shopping experience pleasant. This is done through the character of merchandising and product placement. There are many different ideas and theories in relation to layout and how product layout can influence the purchases made.

One theory suggests that certain products are placed together or near one another that are of a similar or complementary nature to increase the average customer spend.[28] This strategy is used by to create cross-category sales similarity. In other words, the toothpaste is next to or adjacent the tooth brushes and the tea and coffee are down the same isle as the sweet biscuits. These products complement one another and placing them near is one way marketers try to increase purchases.[28]

Consumer psychologists suggest that most buyers tend to enter the store and shop to their right first.[29] Some supermarkets therefore choose to place the entrance to the left-hand side as the consumer will likely turn right upon entry, and this allows the consumer to do a full anticlockwise circle around the store before returning to the checkouts. This suggests that supermarket marketers should use this theory to their advantage by placing their temporary displays of products on the right-hand side to entice you to make an unplanned purchase. Furthermore, aisle ends are extremely popular with product manufacturers, who pay top dollar to have their products located there.[30] These aisle ends are used to lure customers into making a snap purchase and to also entice them to shop down the aisle. The most obvious place supermarket layout influences consumers is at the checkout. Small displays of chocolates, magazines and drinks are located at each checkout to tempt shoppers while they wait to be served.[29]

Criticisms

  • The large scale of supermarkets, while often improving cost and efficiency for customers, can place significant economic pressure on suppliers and smaller shopkeepers.[31][32][33][34][35]
  • Supermarkets often generate considerable food waste, although modern technologies such as biomethanation units may be able to process the waste into an economical source of energy.[36][37][38]

See also

References

  1. ^ a b Hamlett, Jane (April 2008). "Regulating UK supermarkets: an oral-history perspective". History & Policy. United Kingdom: History & Policy. Retrieved 9 December 2010.
  2. ^ "The Retailer". The Western Fruit Jobber. IV (3). July 1917.
  3. ^ Gray, Christopher (10 September 2006). "The Astor Legacy in Brick and Stone". The New York Times.
  4. ^ Gray, Christopher (5 July 1987). "Streetscapes: Thalia Theater; a closed revival house that may itself be revived". The New York Times.
  5. ^ CLABENCB SAOTTDEBS, CLABENCB SAOTTDEBS
  6. ^ Patent US1407680 - CLARENCE SAUNDERS - Google Patents
  7. ^ Patent US1704061 - OP MEMPHIS - Google Patents
  8. ^ Patent US1647889 - PORATION - Google Patents
  9. ^ Strasser, Susan Never Done: A History of American Housework Holt Paperbacks, 2000.
  10. ^ Ralphs Grocery Company : Groceteria.com | Supermarket History
  11. ^ Supermarket News, 29 August 2005, p. 10
  12. ^ Anonymous, "The place where supermarketing was born," Mass Market Retailers 19, no. 9 (17 June 2002): 172.
  13. ^ Ryan Mathews, "1926–1936: Entrepreneurs and Enterprise: A Look at Industry Pioneers like King Kullen and J. Frank Grimes, and the Institution They Created (Special Report: Social Change & the Supermarket)," Progressive Grocer 75, no. 12 (December 1996): 39–43.
  14. ^ Hamilton, Shane Supermarkets, Free markets, and the Problem of Buying Power in Postwar United States, in What's Good For Business: Business and Politics Since World War II, ed. Julian Zelizer and Kim Phillips-Fein (Oxford University Press, 2012).
  15. ^ The Canadian Encyclopedia
  16. ^ Helen Gregory (3 November 2001). "It's a super anniversary: it's 50 years since the first full size self-service supermarket was unveiled in the UK". The Grocer. Retrieved 30 June 2010.
  17. ^ Csipak, James J., Rohit Rampal, and Laurent Josien. "The Effect Of A Wal-Mart Supercenter On Supermarket Food Prices: The Case Of The City Of Plattsburgh In Upstate New York." Academy Of Marketing Studies Journal 2 (2014): 251. Academic OneFile. Web. 5 Nov. 2015.
  18. ^ Thomas Reardon, Peter Timmer and Julio Berdegue, 2004. "The rapid rise of supermarkets in developing countries". Journal of Agricultural and Development Economics, Vol 1 No 2.
  19. ^ Reardon et al, op cit
  20. ^ Kevin Chen, Andrew W. Shepherd & Carlos A. da Silva, "Changes in food in Asia".
  21. ^ Andrew W. Shepherd and Eva Gálvez. "The response of traditional marketing channels to the growth of supermarkets and to the demand for safer and higher quality fruit and vegetables, with particular reference to Asia". Proceedings of the International Symposium on Fresh Produce Supply Chain Management, Chiang Mai 2006. pp. 304–313. FAO, Bangkok.[1]
  22. ^ Gajanayake, R., Gajanayake, S., Surangi, H 2011, "The impact of selected visual merchandising techniques on patronage intentions in supermarkets", International Conference on Business and Economic Research, p. 1130–1165
  23. ^ NACS Magazine | Category Close Up: Take Bread to the Bank
  24. ^ Browne, Karen (April 2010). "Trolley Psychology: Choice unlocks the psychological secrets of the supermarket and shows you how to avoid spending more than you mean to". Australian Consumer's Association Choice Magazine (4): 60.
  25. ^ 2 Browne, K 2010, "Trolley Psychology: Choice unlocks the psychological secrets of the supermarket and shows you how to avoid spending more than you mean to", Choice, Australasian Consumers' Association, Chippendale, NSW, Australia, no. 4, April, p60, retrieved 14 October, Expanded Academic Database
  26. ^ Aghazedah, S 2005, "Layout strategies for some of a operations", Management Research News, vol. 28, no. 10, pp. 31–46, retrieved 8 May 2012, Business Source Complete, EBSCO host.
  27. ^ Browne, p. 60.
  28. ^ a b Bezawada, R Balachander, S Kannan, PK Venkatesh, S 2009, "Cross-Category Effects of Aisle and Display Placements: A Spatial Modeling Approach and Insights", Journal of Marketing, vol. 73, no. 3, pp. 99–117, 3 May 2012, Business Source Complete.
  29. ^ a b Browne, K 2012, "Trolley Psychology: Choice Unlocks the Psychological Secrets of the Supermarket and Shows You How to Avoid Spending More Than You Mean To", Choice, no. 4, p. 60, 3 May 2012, expanded academic database.
  30. ^ Browne, 2010
  31. ^ Bucklin, Louis P. (November 1967). "Competitive Impact of a New Supermarket". Journal of Marketing Research. 4 (4): 356–361. doi:10.2307/3149873.
  32. ^ "Senate takes look at slotting fees". Associated Press. 15 September 1999.
  33. ^ "Unfair trading practices / supply chain". European Economic and Social Committee. 11 July 2013.
  34. ^ "Ten Reasons Supermarket Mergers Are Bad for Consumers" (Press release). Friends of the Earth. 13 January 2003. Archived from the original on 5 April 2004. {{cite press release}}: Unknown parameter |deadurl= ignored (|url-status= suggested) (help)
  35. ^ "Growers demand inquiry, ombudsman sought". TVNZ. 5 July 2010. Archived from the original on 8 July 2010. {{cite news}}: Unknown parameter |deadurl= ignored (|url-status= suggested) (help)
  36. ^ Mukherjee SN, Kumar S (December 2007). "Leachate from market refuse and biomethanation study". Environmental Monitoring and Assessment. 135 (1): 49–53. doi:10.1007/s10661-007-9703-5. PMID 17505906.
  37. ^ Colruyt Belgium already using biomethanation units in Halle and Gellingen[dead link]
  38. ^ "Biomethanation". Asia Biomass Handbook. Japan Institute of Energy. 2008. {{cite book}}: External link in |chapterurl= (help); Unknown parameter |chapterurl= ignored (|chapter-url= suggested) (help)

Further reading

  • Petroski, Henry (November–December 2005). "Shopping by Design". American Scientist 93 (6): 491.
  • William Greer, America the Bountiful: How the Supermarket Came to Main Street, Food Marketing Institute, 1986. ISBN 999925568X OCLC 14357784
  • Sowell, Thomas. Basic Economics (Third Edition, 2007 Basic Books). Pages 92–94 describe the competition between the dominant grocery chains in the United States through the 20th century and beyond.
  • Mack, Adam. "The Politics of Good Taste: Whole Foods Markets and Sensory Design." The Senses and Society. Volume 7: March 2012: 87–94.
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