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===Epigraphic review===
===Epigraphic review===
[[File:Jambai Tamil Brahmi.jpg|thumb|left|Jambai Tamil Brahmi inscription]]
[[File:Jambai Tamil Brahmi.jpg|thumb|left|Jambai Tamil Brahmi inscription]]

⚫
====Post-3rd-century BCE dispersal====
⚫
Based on epigraphic review, several hypotheses have been proposed, with the theory suggested by epigraphist [[Iravatham Mahadevan]] having consensus.<ref name=Mahadevan>Iravatham Mahadevan, ed., 2003, ''Early Tamil Epigraphy from the Earliest Times to the Sixth Century A.D.'' Harvard Oriental Series 62.</ref><ref name=S37/> According to Mahadevan, Brahmi script reached the Tamil country due the southern spread of [[Jainism]] and [[Buddhism]] from [[North India]], and was adapted to suit the Tamil phonetic system.<ref name=Z294/> This theory presupposes that Brahmi script itself was either invented or originated within the imperial courts of Mauryan kingdom and it was dispersed to [[South India]] and Sri Lanka post 3rd century BCE. The time line of dispersal is either post Ashokan or early Mauryan period.<ref name=Z294>{{Harvnb|Zvelebil|2002|page=94}}</ref> [[Ahmed Hassan Dani]] questioned the 3rd BCE date and suggested 1st century CE as the probable date but this has been discounted by others such as T.V. Mahalingam<ref name=Senarat>{{Harvnb| Prematilleka & Indrapala|1978|page=277}}</ref> and Richard Salmon.<ref name=S37>{{Harvnb|Salmon|1999|page=37}}</ref> A 2012 discovery of a second-century BCE Tamil Brahmi inscription in Samanamalai (Jaina hill), [[Madurai district]] indicates widespread use in Tamil country post 3rd BCE period.<ref>[http://www.thehindu.com/arts/history-and-culture/article3220674.ece 2,200-year-old Tamil-Brahmi inscription found on Samanamalai]. The Hindu (2012-03-24). Retrieved on 2013-07-28.</ref>


====Pre-3rd-century BCE dispersal====
====Pre-3rd-century BCE dispersal====
The evidence for pre-Ashokan dispersal comes from Sri Lanka and Tamil Nadu. The earliest attested Brahmi inscriptions in [[South Asia]] are found in the [[citadel]] of [[Anuradhapura]] in Sri Lanka and are dated to the 4th century BCE.<ref name="Anura">{{cite web|url=http://www.dur.ac.uk/arch.projects/anuradhapura/english/phase1.html|title=Anuradhapura (Sri Lanka) Project, Phase I: ASW2|last=Coningham|first=Robin|coauthors=Prishanta Gunawardhana, Gamini Adikari, Ian Simpson,|publisher=Arts and Humanities Research Council|accessdate=7 October 2011}}</ref><ref name=Allchin>{{Citation|last=Coningham|first=R.A.E|last2=Allchin|first2=F.R.|last3=Batt|first3=C.M.|title=Passage to India?Anuradhapura and the early use of Brahmi Script|journal=Cambridge Archaeological Journal|volume=6|issue=|pages=73–97}}</ref> According to Allchin et al., Brahmi developed before the southern spread of Ashokan missionary activities and spread across South Asia due to trade networks.<ref name="Anura"/><ref>{{Citation|last=Tripathi|first=Sila|year=2011|title=Ancient maritime trade on the eastern Indian littoral|journal=Current Science|volume=100|issue=7|page=1084}}</ref> There have been few inscriptions found in [[Tamil Nadu]] that have been tentatively dated to 5th century BCE in [[Porunthal]].<ref name="Palani">{{cite news|url=http://www.thehindu.com/news/states/tamil-nadu/article2408091.ece|title=Palani excavation triggers fresh debate|last=Subramanian|first=T.S|date=29 August 2011|work=The Hindu|publisher=The Hindu|accessdate=7 October 2011}}</ref><ref>A team from Department of History, [[Pondicherry University]] excavated a [[Megalith]]ic cist-burial in 2009 CE at Porunthal a village, on the foothills of the [[Western Ghats]], 12 km from [[Palani]] in Tamil Nadu. They found two underground chambers that contained a grave. The grave had a skull and skeletal bones, a four-legged jar with two kg of [[Rice|paddy]] inside, two ring-stands inscribed with the Tamil-Brahmi script reading “va-y-ra” (meaning [[diamond]]) and a symbol of a [[Gemstone|gem]] with a thread passing through it, 7,500 beads made of [[carnelian]], [[steatite]], [[quartz]] and [[agate]], three pairs of iron stirrups, iron swords, knives, four-legged jars of heights ranging from few centimeters to one meter, urns, vases, plates and bowls. [[Accelerator Mass Spectrometry]] (AMS) dating of the paddy done by Beta Analysis Inc., [[Miami]], [[U.S.A]], assigned the paddy to 490 BCE. According to Prof. Rajan of Pondicherry University, as all goods were placed at the same time, he dated the Tamil-Brahmi writing to the same 490 BCE date.</ref><ref name="Poruthal 2">{{cite news|url=http://www.thehindu.com/news/states/tamil-nadu/article2538550.ece|title=Porunthal excavations prove existence of Indian scripts in 5th century BC: expert|last=Kishore|first=Kavitha|date=15 October 2011|work=The Hindu|publisher=The Hindu Group|accessdate=17 October 2011}}</ref> The post Ashokan dispersal theory developed by Mahadevan fails to take into account the Anuradhapura findings<ref name=O123>{{Harvnb|Olivelle|2006|page=123}}</ref> and is solely based on epigraphic review and does not take into account relevant archeological data.<ref name="Rajan">{{Citation|last=Rajan|first=K|year=2008|title= Situating the Beginning of Early Historic Times in Tamil Nadu: Some Issues and Reflections |journal= Social Scientist |volume=36|issue=1/2|pages=40–78}}</ref>
The evidence for pre-Ashokan dispersal comes from Sri Lanka and Tamil Nadu. The earliest attested Brahmi inscriptions in [[South Asia]] are found in the [[citadel]] of [[Anuradhapura]] in Sri Lanka and are dated to the 4th century BCE.<ref name="Anura">{{cite web|url=http://www.dur.ac.uk/arch.projects/anuradhapura/english/phase1.html|title=Anuradhapura (Sri Lanka) Project, Phase I: ASW2|last=Coningham|first=Robin|coauthors=Prishanta Gunawardhana, Gamini Adikari, Ian Simpson,|publisher=Arts and Humanities Research Council|accessdate=7 October 2011}}</ref><ref name=Allchin>{{Citation|last=Coningham|first=R.A.E|last2=Allchin|first2=F.R.|last3=Batt|first3=C.M.|title=Passage to India?Anuradhapura and the early use of Brahmi Script|journal=Cambridge Archaeological Journal|volume=6|issue=|pages=73–97}}</ref> According to Allchin et al., Brahmi developed before the southern spread of Ashokan missionary activities and spread across South Asia due to trade networks.<ref name="Anura"/><ref>{{Citation|last=Tripathi|first=Sila|year=2011|title=Ancient maritime trade on the eastern Indian littoral|journal=Current Science|volume=100|issue=7|page=1084}}</ref> There have been few inscriptions found in [[Tamil Nadu]] that have been tentatively dated to 5th century BCE in [[Porunthal]].<ref name="Palani">{{cite news|url=http://www.thehindu.com/news/states/tamil-nadu/article2408091.ece|title=Palani excavation triggers fresh debate|last=Subramanian|first=T.S|date=29 August 2011|work=The Hindu|publisher=The Hindu|accessdate=7 October 2011}}</ref><ref>A team from Department of History, [[Pondicherry University]] excavated a [[Megalith]]ic cist-burial in 2009 CE at Porunthal a village, on the foothills of the [[Western Ghats]], 12 km from [[Palani]] in Tamil Nadu. They found two underground chambers that contained a grave. The grave had a skull and skeletal bones, a four-legged jar with two kg of [[Rice|paddy]] inside, two ring-stands inscribed with the Tamil-Brahmi script reading “va-y-ra” (meaning [[diamond]]) and a symbol of a [[Gemstone|gem]] with a thread passing through it, 7,500 beads made of [[carnelian]], [[steatite]], [[quartz]] and [[agate]], three pairs of iron stirrups, iron swords, knives, four-legged jars of heights ranging from few centimeters to one meter, urns, vases, plates and bowls. [[Accelerator Mass Spectrometry]] (AMS) dating of the paddy done by Beta Analysis Inc., [[Miami]], [[U.S.A]], assigned the paddy to 490 BCE. According to Prof. Rajan of Pondicherry University, as all goods were placed at the same time, he dated the Tamil-Brahmi writing to the same 490 BCE date.</ref><ref name="Poruthal 2">{{cite news|url=http://www.thehindu.com/news/states/tamil-nadu/article2538550.ece|title=Porunthal excavations prove existence of Indian scripts in 5th century BC: expert|last=Kishore|first=Kavitha|date=15 October 2011|work=The Hindu|publisher=The Hindu Group|accessdate=17 October 2011}}</ref> The post Ashokan dispersal theory developed by Mahadevan fails to take into account the Anuradhapura findings<ref name=O123>{{Harvnb|Olivelle|2006|page=123}}</ref> and is solely based on epigraphic review and does not take into account relevant archeological data.<ref name="Rajan">{{Citation|last=Rajan|first=K|year=2008|title= Situating the Beginning of Early Historic Times in Tamil Nadu: Some Issues and Reflections |journal= Social Scientist |volume=36|issue=1/2|pages=40–78}}</ref>

⚫
====Post-3rd-century BCE dispersal====
⚫
Based on epigraphic review, several hypotheses have been proposed, with the theory suggested by epigraphist [[Iravatham Mahadevan]] having consensus.<ref name=Mahadevan>Iravatham Mahadevan, ed., 2003, ''Early Tamil Epigraphy from the Earliest Times to the Sixth Century A.D.'' Harvard Oriental Series 62.</ref><ref name=S37/> According to Mahadevan, Brahmi script reached the Tamil country due the southern spread of [[Jainism]] and [[Buddhism]] from [[North India]], and was adapted to suit the Tamil phonetic system.<ref name=Z294/> This theory presupposes that Brahmi script itself was either invented or originated within the imperial courts of Mauryan kingdom and it was dispersed to [[South India]] and Sri Lanka post 3rd century BCE. The time line of dispersal is either post Ashokan or early Mauryan period.<ref name=Z294>{{Harvnb|Zvelebil|2002|page=94}}</ref> [[Ahmed Hassan Dani]] questioned the 3rd BCE date and suggested 1st century CE as the probable date but this has been discounted by others such as T.V. Mahalingam<ref name=Senarat>{{Harvnb| Prematilleka & Indrapala|1978|page=277}}</ref> and Richard Salmon.<ref name=S37>{{Harvnb|Salmon|1999|page=37}}</ref> A 2012 discovery of a second-century BCE Tamil Brahmi inscription in Samanamalai (Jaina hill), [[Madurai district]] indicates widespread use in Tamil country post 3rd BCE period.<ref>[http://www.thehindu.com/arts/history-and-culture/article3220674.ece 2,200-year-old Tamil-Brahmi inscription found on Samanamalai]. The Hindu (2012-03-24). Retrieved on 2013-07-28.</ref>


===Archeological review===
===Archeological review===

Revision as of 14:22, 25 December 2013

Tamil Brahmi
Tamil ⟨தமிழ்⟩ in Brahmi
Script type
Time period
5th c. BCE[1] – 6th c. CE
DirectionLeft-to-right Edit this on Wikidata
LanguagesArchaic Tamil
Related scripts
Parent systems
Child systems
Vatteluttu
Sister systems
Bhattiprolu script
 This article contains phonetic transcriptions in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA). For an introductory guide on IPA symbols, see Help:IPA. For the distinction between [ ], / / and ⟨ ⟩, see IPA § Brackets and transcription delimiters.

Tamil-Brahmi, or Damili, is a variant of the Brahmi script used to write the Tamil language. These are the earliest documents of a Dravidian language, and the script was well established in the Chera and Pandyan states, in what is now Tamil Nadu, Kerala, Andhra Pradesh, and northern Sri Lanka. Inscriptions have been found on cave beds, pot sherds, Jar burials, coins, seals, and rings. The language is Archaic Tamil, and lead to classical Sangam literature. Prakrit borrowings and an influence of Old Kannada attest to the presence of northern Jainism.[2] The authoritative interpretation of the inscriptions is that of Mahadevan.[3]

Tamil Brahmi differs in several ways from Ashokan Brahmi. It adds several letters for sounds not found in Prakrit: ṉ ṟ ṛ ḷ. Secondly, in many of the inscriptions the inherent vowel has been discarded: A consonant written without diacritics represents the consonant alone, whereas the Ashokan diacritic for long ā is used for both ā and short a in Tamil Brahmi. This is unique to Tamil Brahmi and Bhattiprolu among the early Indian scripts.[4] This appears to be an adaptation to Dravidian phonotactics, where words commonly end in consonants, as opposed to Prakrit, where this never occurs. According to Mahadevan, in the earliest stages of the script the inherent vowel was either abandoned, as above, or the bare consonant was ambiguous as to whether in included a short a or not. Later stages of Tamil Brahmi returned to the inherent vowel that was the norm in India.[3]

Origins

The origins of the Brahmi in general and Tamil-Brahmi specifically are unclear. There are number of inscriptions whose dates have not been settled yet. Nevertheless a number of theories has been put forward with literary, epigraphic and archeological evidence. The received consensus is a 3rd-century "post-Ashokan" dispersal, but that since the year 2000, there have been two serious candidates for a pre-Ashokan date.

Literary review

The earliest mention of a script for writing the Tamil language is found in the Jaina work Samavayanga Sutta (300 BCE) and Pannavana Sutta (168 BCE) where a script called Damilli is mentioned.[5] In the Buddhist work, Lalitavistara (translated into Chinese in 308 CE), a script called Dravidalipi is mentioned.[5][6] According to Kamil Zvelebil, Damilli and Dravidalipi are synonymous for Tamil writing.[5] References to writing are also available in early Tamil literature. Tolkappiyam in stanza 16 and 17 mentions dots added to consonants. The author of Tolkappiyam displays awareness of a writing system and the graphic system as he knew it corresponds with later writing systems. Other works such as Tirukkural mentions writing using the word eluttu.[5] Cilappatikaram mentions kanneluttu that was used to mark merchandise imported at the port emporium of Kaveripattinam, it also mentions kanneluttalar or scribes.[5] A reference to palm leaf manuscript writing is found in Nalatiyar and Purananuru mentions a hero stone that has the name of the hero etched in it. Based on the literature analysis, Kamil Zvelebil believes writing was known to Tamil people at least from the 3rd century BCE.[5]

Epigraphic review

Jambai Tamil Brahmi inscription

Pre-3rd-century BCE dispersal

The evidence for pre-Ashokan dispersal comes from Sri Lanka and Tamil Nadu. The earliest attested Brahmi inscriptions in South Asia are found in the citadel of Anuradhapura in Sri Lanka and are dated to the 4th century BCE.[7][8] According to Allchin et al., Brahmi developed before the southern spread of Ashokan missionary activities and spread across South Asia due to trade networks.[7][9] There have been few inscriptions found in Tamil Nadu that have been tentatively dated to 5th century BCE in Porunthal.[10][11][1] The post Ashokan dispersal theory developed by Mahadevan fails to take into account the Anuradhapura findings[12] and is solely based on epigraphic review and does not take into account relevant archeological data.[13]

Post-3rd-century BCE dispersal

Based on epigraphic review, several hypotheses have been proposed, with the theory suggested by epigraphist Iravatham Mahadevan having consensus.[2][14] According to Mahadevan, Brahmi script reached the Tamil country due the southern spread of Jainism and Buddhism from North India, and was adapted to suit the Tamil phonetic system.[15] This theory presupposes that Brahmi script itself was either invented or originated within the imperial courts of Mauryan kingdom and it was dispersed to South India and Sri Lanka post 3rd century BCE. The time line of dispersal is either post Ashokan or early Mauryan period.[15] Ahmed Hassan Dani questioned the 3rd BCE date and suggested 1st century CE as the probable date but this has been discounted by others such as T.V. Mahalingam[16] and Richard Salmon.[14] A 2012 discovery of a second-century BCE Tamil Brahmi inscription in Samanamalai (Jaina hill), Madurai district indicates widespread use in Tamil country post 3rd BCE period.[17]

Archeological review

Artifacts such as inscribed potsherds, coins or any other that are found in Tamil Nadu in successive undisturbed cultural layers are dated based stratigraphy.[13] The layer on the top is considered younger than the layer that is found below. Thus, a succession of layers provides a relative chronological sequence from earliest to latest.[13] The inscribed potsherds recovered from Kodumanal when analyzed on the basis of stratigraphical sequences are dated to 4th century BCE at the lowermost level.[13] The lowermost level potsherd had the scripts peculiar to Tamil characters and in addition distinctive paleographic shape for letter m. Further, there is omission of voiced consonants, aspirates and sibilants peculiar to Tamil-Brahmi. This phenomenon is not confined to the Kodumanal in Kongu Nadu but found throughout the Tamil Nadu, Kerala and in Jaffna peninsula of Sri Lanka. The evolution and uniform adoption of this peculiar script would have taken considerable time to spread widely. According K. Rajan, the introduction or evolution or origin of script in Tamil Nadu might well be beyond 4th century BCE due to the uniformity of the script, lack of grammatical errors and the widespread usage.[13]

The script

Tamil-Brahmi inscriptions mixed with Megalithic Graffiti Symbols found on the Annaicoddai seal in Annaikottai, Sri Lanka

Tamil-Brahmi had notable peculiarities when compared to the Standard Brahmi.[18] It had four different characters to represent Dravidian language phonemes not represented in the standard northern-based Brahmi used to write Indo-Aryan Prakrits. It was also the first Indic writing system that moved towards alphabetization.The attempt at alphabetization eventually failed due strong influence from neighboring Indic abugida writing systems.[19] The closest resemblance to Tamil-Brahmi is to its neighboring Sinhala-Brahmi. Both seem to use similar letters to indicate phonemes’ that are unique to Dravidian languages although Sinhala-Brahmi was used to write an Indo-Aryan Prakrit used in the island of Sri Lanka. Apart from Sinhala-Brahmi, there are Tamil-Brahmi writings found in Sri Lanka from Kantharodai in the north to Tissamaharama in the south. All these are dated to 2nd century BCE. There is Sinhala-Brahmi inscriptions found in Tamil Nadu as well.[19]

The Bhattiprolu inscription found in present day Andhra Pradesh also shows systemic but not paleographic similarity to Tamil Brahmi.[18] According to Richard Salmon, the Bhattiprolu script was originally invented to write a Dravidian language but was reapplied to inscribe in an Indo-Aryan Prakrit. Hence both the Bhattiprolu and Tamil Brahmi share common modifications to represent Dravidian languages.[19][20] Bhattiprolu script is also considered the Rosetta Stone of Tamil Brahmi decipherment.[19] According to Iravatham Mahathevan there are three stages in the development of the script. The early stage is dated from 3rd/2nd century BCE to 1st century BCE. The later stage is dated from 1st century CE to 2nd century CE. The third stage is dated from 2nd century CE to 3rd/4th century CE.[6] According to Gift Siromony, the types of Tamil Brahmi writings do not follow a very clear chronology and can lead to confusion in dating.[21] According to K. Rajan, the Ashokan Brahmi corresponds with the Stage II of Tamil Brahmi per Mahadevan’s classification. Hence according to him, Stage I may have to be reassessed from the proposed time line.[13] From 5th century CE onwards Tamil is written in Vatteluttu in the Chera and Pandya country and Grantha or Tamil script in the Chola and Pallava country.[19] Tamil Brahmi inscriptions in cave beds and coins have provided historians with identifying some kings and chiefs mentioned in the Cankam Tamil corpus as well as related Ashokan pillar inscriptions.[19][22]

Usage

There is currently no consensus as to whether Tamil Brahmi usage began amongst Jaina religious adherents or common people using it for secular purposes. Epigraphist believe that it was initially restricted to inscriptions of religious nature but archeologists postulating that the earliest writings are secular in nature as they are found in Menhirs, Hero Stones commemorating raids and deaths in raids and in burial urns.[23] Notwithstanding its beginnings, it soon spread throughout the country with kings, chiefs, potters, toddy tappers and merchants using it extensively throughout Tamilakam and abroad.[24][25]

According to archeological findings, the script was widely used along with Megalithic Graffiti Symbols for funerary and other purposes and such usage predates the use by different religious sects.[13] The language used in most of religious inscriptions betray a thorough assimilation of Prakrit elements per rules established by Tamil grammarians.[26][27] Few of the early inscriptions also show potential Kannada influences from what is today Karnataka. In its usage, it differed considerably from other scripts used in contemporary South Asia as its use was widespread in rural and urban areas and across different social classes.[19][28]

Decipherment

Tamil Brahmi was not deciphered as a separate script until the mid 20th century CE. Until then it was assumed to have been Standard Brahmi writing of Prakrit language. The deciphering of the Grantha, Vatteluttu, Nagari and Tamil scripts of the south Indian inscriptions dating from the 7th century A.D. and their evolutionary stages, based on their resemblance to the modern forms of the scripts, seemed relatively easier and more successful than that of the early Brahmi inscriptions. The early Tamil-Brahmi inscriptions posed a greater challenge on account of their archaic characters and orthographic conventions, which were different from the original Brahmi used for Prakrit.[19]

A.C. Burnell (1874), attempted the earliest work on South Indian paleography, but it was due to the efforts of K. V. Subrahmanya Ayyar (1924), H. K Krishna Sastri and K.K. Pillai that it was understood to be written in an early form of Tamil, not Prakrit.[22] The early attempts assumed more Prakrit loan words than what was actually used, hence the decipherment was not entirely successful. Iravatham Mahathevan identified the writings as mostly consisting of Tamil words in the late 1960s and published them in seminars and proceedings.[19][22] This was further expanded by T.V. Mahalingam (1967), R. Nagaswamy (1972), R. Panneerselvam (1972) and M. S. Venkataswamy (1981).[6]

Significant Tamil Brahmi findings

  • A broken storage jar with inscriptions in Tamil Brahmi script in Quseir-al-Qadim, (Leukos Limen) Egypt, 1st century BCE. Two earlier Tamil Brahmi inscription discoveries at the same site, 1st century CE.[25][29] The inscriped text is "பானை ஒறி” (paanai oRi) which means 'pot suspended in a rope net'.[30]
  • An inscribed amphora fragment in Tamil at the ancient Ptolemic-Roman settlement of Berenice Troglodytica, Egypt, 1st century BCE- 1st century CE.[29]
  • Tamil-Brahmi inscription on pottery found in Phu Khao Thong, Thailand, 2nd century CE. Touchstone (uraikal) engraved in Tamil in the Tamil-Brahmi script at Khuan Luk Pat, 3rd-4th century CE.[31]
  • Potsherds with Tamil Brahmi inscriptions found in Poonagari, Jaffna, 2nd century BCE.[32]
  • Black and red ware potsherd with Tamil Brahmi inscriptions in Ucchapanai, Kandarodai, Jaffna, 3rd century BCE.[33][34]
  • Tamil Brahmi inscriptions on a pot rim at Pattanam, central Kerala, 2nd century CE.[35][36]
  • Four Tamil-Brahmi inscriptions, 3rd century CE, found on Edakal cave, Ambukuthi hill, Kerala. One contained the word ‘Chera' (‘kadummipudha chera'), the earliest inscriptional evidence of the dynasty Chera.[37]
  • Potsherd with Tamil-Brahmi script found in Oman .The script reads “nantai kiran” and it can be dated to first century CE.[38]
  • A fragment of black and red ware flat dish inscribed in Tamil in the Tamil Brahmi script excavated at the earliest layer in southern eastern town of Tissamaharama in Sri Lanka. It is dated to approximately 200 BC by German scholars who undertook the excavation.
  • Tamil Brahmi script dating to 500 BC found at Kodumanal, Chennimalai near Erode[39]
  • Tamil-Brahmi script dating to 500 BC found at Porunthal site is located 12 km South West of Palani[40]
  • Tamil-Brahmi script found on Tirupparankundram hill, Madurai it read as “Muu-na-ka-ra” and “Muu-ca-ka-ti, First century BC.[41]
  • Fifth ‘hero’ stone found with Tamil Brahmi inscriptions at Porpanakkottai[42]
  • Tamil-Brahmi script dating back to 3rd century BCE near Thenur, Madurai. Script is written in gold bar.[43]

See also

Notes

  1. ^ a b Kishore, Kavitha (15 October 2011). "Porunthal excavations prove existence of Indian scripts in 5th century BC: expert". The Hindu. The Hindu Group. Retrieved 17 October 2011.
  2. ^ a b Iravatham Mahadevan, ed., 2003, Early Tamil Epigraphy from the Earliest Times to the Sixth Century A.D. Harvard Oriental Series 62.
  3. ^ a b Richard Salomon (1998) Indian Epigraphy: A Guide to the Study of Inscriptions in Sanskrit, Prakrit, and the other Indo-Aryan Languages
  4. ^ Tamil Brahmi does not, however, share the odd forms of letters such as gh in Bhattiprolu.
  5. ^ a b c d e f Zvelebil 1975, p. 17
  6. ^ a b c Mahadevan, Iravatham (1994). "Recent discoveries of Jaina cave inscriptions in Tamilnadu". Rishabh Dev Foundation. Retrieved 14 October 2011.
  7. ^ a b Coningham, Robin. "Anuradhapura (Sri Lanka) Project, Phase I: ASW2". Arts and Humanities Research Council. Retrieved 7 October 2011. {{cite web}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)CS1 maint: extra punctuation (link)
  8. ^ Coningham, R.A.E; Allchin, F.R.; Batt, C.M., "Passage to India?Anuradhapura and the early use of Brahmi Script", Cambridge Archaeological Journal, 6: 73–97
  9. ^ Tripathi, Sila (2011), "Ancient maritime trade on the eastern Indian littoral", Current Science, 100 (7): 1084
  10. ^ Subramanian, T.S (29 August 2011). "Palani excavation triggers fresh debate". The Hindu. The Hindu. Retrieved 7 October 2011.
  11. ^ A team from Department of History, Pondicherry University excavated a Megalithic cist-burial in 2009 CE at Porunthal a village, on the foothills of the Western Ghats, 12 km from Palani in Tamil Nadu. They found two underground chambers that contained a grave. The grave had a skull and skeletal bones, a four-legged jar with two kg of paddy inside, two ring-stands inscribed with the Tamil-Brahmi script reading “va-y-ra” (meaning diamond) and a symbol of a gem with a thread passing through it, 7,500 beads made of carnelian, steatite, quartz and agate, three pairs of iron stirrups, iron swords, knives, four-legged jars of heights ranging from few centimeters to one meter, urns, vases, plates and bowls. Accelerator Mass Spectrometry (AMS) dating of the paddy done by Beta Analysis Inc., Miami, U.S.A, assigned the paddy to 490 BCE. According to Prof. Rajan of Pondicherry University, as all goods were placed at the same time, he dated the Tamil-Brahmi writing to the same 490 BCE date.
  12. ^ Olivelle 2006, p. 123
  13. ^ a b c d e f g Rajan, K (2008), "Situating the Beginning of Early Historic Times in Tamil Nadu: Some Issues and Reflections", Social Scientist, 36 (1/2): 40–78
  14. ^ a b Salmon 1999, p. 37
  15. ^ a b Zvelebil 2002, p. 94
  16. ^ Prematilleka & Indrapala 1978, p. 277
  17. ^ 2,200-year-old Tamil-Brahmi inscription found on Samanamalai. The Hindu (2012-03-24). Retrieved on 2013-07-28.
  18. ^ a b Salmon 1999, p. 35
  19. ^ a b c d e f g h i Champahalakshmi, R. "A magnum opus on Tamil-Brahmi inscriptions". Frontline. The Hindu. Retrieved 7 October 2011.
  20. ^ Salmon 1999, p. 36
  21. ^ Siromony, Gift (January 1982,). "The origin of the Tamil script". Tamil Studies. 8 (23). International Institute of Tamil Historical Studies. {{cite journal}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)CS1 maint: extra punctuation (link)
  22. ^ a b c Zvelebil 1975, p. 44
  23. ^ Subramaniam, T.S. "Saying it with stones". The Hindue. The Hindu. Retrieved 18 January 2013.
  24. ^ Zvelebil 2002, pp. 94–95
  25. ^ a b Lakshimikanth 2008, p. 8
  26. ^ Zvelebil 1975, p. 47
  27. ^ Zvelebil 2002, p. 95
  28. ^ Mahadevan, Iravatham (11 april 2003). "Orality to literacy: Transition in Early Tamil Society". Frontline. The Hindu. Retrieved 7 October 2011. {{cite news}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
  29. ^ a b "Tamil Brahmi script in Egypt". The Hindu. November 21, 2007. Retrieved 2007-12-06. {{cite news}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help)
  30. ^ Tamil Inscriptions. Archaeologyindia.com. Retrieved on 2013-07-28.
  31. ^ "Tamil-Brahmi inscription on pottery found in Thailand". The Hindu. July 16, 2006. Retrieved 2007-12-06. {{cite news}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help)
  32. ^ Mahadevan 2003, p. 48 harvnb error: multiple targets (2×): CITEREFMahadevan2003 (help)
  33. ^ S. Krishnarajah (2004). University of Jaffna. Archaeology Department.
  34. ^ Thiagarajah, Siva (2010). "The people and cultures of prehistoric Sri Lanka - Part Three". The Sri Lanka Guardian. Retrieved 14 October 2011.
  35. ^ Subramanian, T. S. (March 14, 2011). "Tamil-Brahmi script found at Pattanam in Kerala". The Hindu. Chennai, India.
  36. ^ http://www.thehindu.com/news/cities/Kochi/more-studies-needed-at-pattanam/article4743789.ece
  37. ^ Edakal cave yields one more Tamil-Brahmi inscription. The Hindu (2012-02-09). Retrieved on 2013-07-28.
  38. ^ "Discovery in Oman". THE HINDU.
  39. ^ "Tamil Brahmi script dating to 500 BC found near Erode at Kodumanal near Chennimalai". The newindianexpress.
  40. ^ "Porunthal excavations prove existence of Indian scripts in 5th century BC: expert". THE HINDU.
  41. ^ "Tamil-Brahmi script discovered on Tirupparankundram hill". THEHINDU.
  42. ^ "Fifth 'hero' stone with Tamil Brahmi inscriptions found". Newindianexpress.
  43. ^ Thenur gold treasure found four years ago is 2300 years' old, recent study reveals
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