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This article is about the form of government. For other uses, see Technocracy (disambiguation).
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Technocracy is a proposed system of governance where decision-makers are selected on the basis of their expertise in their areas of responsibility, particularly scientific knowledge. This system explicitly contrasts with the notion that elected representatives should be the primary decision-makers in government,[1] though it does not necessarily imply eliminating elected representatives. Leadership skills for decision-makers are selected on the basis of specialized knowledge and performance, rather than political affiliations or parliamentary skills.[2]

The term technocracy was originally used to advocate the application of the scientific method to solving social problems. Concern could be given to sustainability within the resource base, instead of monetary profitability, so as to ensure continued operation of all social-industrial functions. In its most extreme sense technocracy is an entire government run as a technical or engineering problem and is mostly hypothetical. In more practical use, technocracy is any portion of a bureaucracy that is run by technologists. A government in which elected officials appoint experts and professionals to administer individual government functions and recommend legislation can be considered technocratic.[3][4] Some uses of the word refer to a form of meritocracy, where the ablest are in charge, ostensibly without the influence of special interest groups.[5]

History of the term

The term technocracy is derived from the Greek words τέχνη, tekhne meaning skill and κράτος, kratos meaning power, as in governance, or rule. William Henry Smyth, a Californian engineer, is usually credited with inventing the word technocracy in 1919 to describe "the rule of the people made effective through the agency of their servants, the scientists and engineers", although the word had been used before on several occasions.[5][6][7][8] Smyth used the term Technocracy in his 1919 article "'Technocracy'—Ways and Means to Gain Industrial Democracy," in the journal Industrial Management (57).[9] Smyth's usage referred to Industrial democracy: a movement to integrate workers into decision making through existing firms or revolution.[9]

In the 1930s, through the influence of Howard Scott and the technocracy movement he founded, the term technocracy came to mean, 'government by technical decision making', using an energy metric of value. Scott proposed that money be replaced by energy certificates denominated in units such as ergs or joules, equivalent in total amount to an appropriate national net energy budget, and then distributed equally among the North American population, according to resource availability.[10][1]

There is in common usage found the derivative term technocrat. The word technocrat can refer to someone exercising governmental authority because of their knowledge,[11] or "a member of a powerful technical elite", or "someone who advocates the supremacy of technical experts".[12][3][4] McDonnell and Valbruzzi define a prime minister or minister as a technocrat if “at the time of his/her appointment to government, he/she: has never held public office under the banner of a political party; is not a formal member of any party; and is said to possess recognized non-party political expertise which is directly relevant to the role occupied in government”.[13] In Russia, the President of Russia has often nominated ministers based on technical expertise from outside political circles, and these have been referred to as "technocrats".[14][15]

Precursors

Before the term technocracy was coined, technocratic or quasi-technocratic ideas involving governance by technical experts were promoted by various individuals, most notably early socialist theorists such as Henri de Saint-Simon. This was expressed by the belief in state ownership over the economy, with the function of the state being transformed from one of pure philosophical rule over men into a scientific administration of things and a direction of processes of production under scientific management.[16] According to Daniel Bell:

"St. Simon's vision of industrial society, a vision of pure technocracy, was a system of planning and rational order in which society would specify its needs and organize the factors of production to achieve them."[17]

Citing the ideas of St. Simon, Bell comes to the conclusion that the "administration of things" by rational judgement is the hallmark of technocracy.[17]

Alexander Bogdanov, a Russian scientist and social theorist, also anticipated a conception of technocratic process. Both Bogdanov’s fiction and his political writings, which were highly influential, suggest that he expected a coming revolution against capitalism to lead to a technocratic society.[18]

From 1913 until 1922, Bogdanov immersed himself in the writing of a lengthy philosophical treatise of original ideas, Tectology: Universal Organization Science. Tectology anticipated many basic ideas of systems analysis, later explored by cybernetics. In Tectology, Bogdanov proposed to unify all social, biological, and physical sciences by considering them as systems of relationships and by seeking the organizational principles that underlie all systems.

Arguably, the Platonic idea of philosopher-kings represents a sort of technocracy in which the state is run by those with specialist knowledge, in this case, knowledge of the Good, rather than scientific knowledge.[citation needed] The Platonic claim is that those who best understand goodness should be empowered to lead the state, as they would lead it toward the path of happiness. Whilst knowledge of the Good is different to knowledge of science, rulers are here appointed based on a certain grasp of technical skill, rather than democratic mandate.

Characteristics

Technocrats are individuals with technical training and occupations who perceive many important societal problems as being solvable, often while proposing technology-focused solutions. The administrative scientist Gunnar K. A. Njalsson theorizes that technocrats are primarily driven by their cognitive "problem-solution mindsets" and only in part by particular occupational group interests. Their activities and the increasing success of their ideas are thought to be a crucial factor behind the modern spread of technology and the largely ideological concept of the "information society". Technocrats may be distinguished from "econocrats" and "bureaucrats" whose problem-solution mindsets differ from those of the technocrats.[19]

The former government of the Soviet Union has been referred to as a technocracy.[20] Soviet leaders like Leonid Brezhnev often had a technical background in education; in 1986, 89% of Politburo members were engineers.[21]

Several governments in European parliamentary democracies have been labeled 'technocratic' based on the participation of unelected experts ('technocrats') in prominent positions.[3] Since the 1990s, Italy has had several such governments (in Italian, governo tecnico) in times of economic or political crisis,[22][23] including the formation in which economist Mario Monti presided over a cabinet of unelected professionals.[24][25] The term 'technocratic' has been applied to governments where a cabinet of elected professional politicians is led by an unelected prime minister, such as in the cases of the 2011-2012 Greek government led by economist Lucas Papademos, and the Czech Republic's 2009–2010 caretaker government presided over by the state's chief statistician, Jan Fischer.[4][26] In December 2013, in the framework of the national dialogue facilitated by Tunisian National Dialogue Quartet, political parties in Tunisia agreed to install a technocratic government led by Mehdi Jomaa.[27]

In the article "Technocrats: Minds Like Machines",[4] it is stated that Singapore is perhaps the best advertisement for technocracy: the political and expert components of the governing system there seem to have merged completely. This was underlined in a 1993 article in "Wired" by Sandy Sandfort,[28] where he describes the information technology system of the island even at that early date making it effectively intelligent.

Engineering

Following Samuel Haber,[29] Donald Stabile argues that engineers were faced with a conflict between physical efficiency and cost efficiency in the new corporate capitalist enterprises of the late nineteenth century United States. The profit-conscious, non-technical managers of firms where the engineers work, because of their perceptions of market demand, often impose limits on the projects that engineers desire to undertake.

The prices of all inputs vary with market forces thereby upsetting the engineer's careful calculations. As a result, the engineer loses control over projects and must continually revise plans. To keep control over projects the engineer must attempt to exert control over these outside variables and transform them into constant factors.[30]

Leaders of the Communist Party of China are mostly professional engineers.[31][better source needed] The Five-year plans of the People's Republic of China have enabled them to plan ahead in a technocratic fashion[citation needed] to build projects such as the National Trunk Highway System, the China high-speed rail system, and the Three Gorges Dam.[32]

Technocracy movement

Main article: Technocracy movement

The American economist and sociologist Thorstein Veblen was an early advocate of technocracy, and was involved in the Technical Alliance as was Howard Scott and M. King Hubbert (who later developed the theory of peak oil). Veblen believed that technological developments would eventually lead toward a socialistic organization of economic affairs. Veblen saw socialism as one intermediate phase in an ongoing evolutionary process in society that would be brought about by the natural decay of the business enterprise system and by the inventiveness of engineers.[33] Daniel Bell sees an affinity between Veblen and the Technocracy movement.[34]

In 1932, Howard Scott and Marion King Hubbert founded Technocracy Incorporated, and proposed that money be replaced by energy certificates. The group argued that apolitical, rational engineers should be vested with authority to guide an economy into a thermodynamically balanced load of production and consumption, thereby doing away with unemployment and debt.[1]

The technocracy movement was highly popular in the USA for a brief period in the early 1930s, during the Great Depression. By the mid-1930s, interest in the movement was declining. Some historians have attributed the decline of the technocracy movement to the rise of Roosevelt's New Deal.[35][36]

Historian William E. Akin rejects the conclusion that technocracy ideas declined because of the attractiveness of Roosevelt and the New Deal. Instead Akin argues that the movement declined in the mid-1930s as a result of the technocrats' failure to devise a 'viable political theory for achieving change'.[37] Akin postulates that many technocrats remained vocal and dissatisfied and often sympathetic to anti-New Deal third party efforts.[38]

See also

References

  1. ^ a b c Berndt, Ernst R. (1982). "From Technocracy To Net Energy Analysis: Engineers, Economists And Recurring Energy Theories Of Value" (PDF). Studies in Energy and the American Economy, Discussion Paper No. 11, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Revised September 1982.
  2. ^ "Questioning of M. King Hubbert, Division of Supply and Resources, before the Board of Economic Warfare" (PDF). 1943-04-14. Retrieved 2008-05-04.p.35 (p.44 of PDF), p.35
  3. ^ a b c "Who, What, Why: What can technocrats achieve that politicians can't?". BBC News. BBC. November 14, 2011. Retrieved April 23, 2013.
  4. ^ a b c d "Technocrats: Minds like machines". The Economist. 19 November 2011. Retrieved 21 February 2012.
  5. ^ a b "History and Purpose of Technocracy by Howard Scott". Technocracy.org. Archived from the original on 22 April 2009. {{cite web}}: Unknown parameter |deadurl= ignored (|url-status= suggested) (help)
  6. ^ "Who Is A Technocrat? – Wilton Ivie – (1953)". Web.archive.org. 2001-03-11. Archived from the original on December 30, 2004. Retrieved 2012-05-16. {{cite web}}: Unknown parameter |deadurl= ignored (|url-status= suggested) (help)
  7. ^ Howard Scott Interviewed by Radcliff Student – Origins of Technical Alliance & Technocracy – (1962) on YouTube
  8. ^ Barry Jones (1995, fourth edition). Sleepers, Wake! Technology and the Future of Work, Oxford University Press, p. 214.
  9. ^ a b Oxford English Dictionary 3rd edition (Word from 2nd edition 1989)
  10. ^ "Technocracy - Define Technocracy at Dictionary.com". Dictionary.com.
  11. ^ "Technocracy facts, information, pictures | Encyclopedia.com articles about Technocracy". www.encyclopedia.com. Retrieved 2017-01-09.
  12. ^ Wickman, Forrest (November 11, 2011). "What's a Technocrat?". Slate. The Slate Group.
  13. ^ Duncan McDonnell and Marco Valbruzzi (2014) "Defining and classifying technocrat-led and technocratic governments", European Journal of Political Research, Vol. 53, No. 4, pp. 654-671.
  14. ^ http://www.ozy.com/provocateurs/life-after-putin-the-technocrats/78972
  15. ^ http://intersectionproject.eu/article/politics/plight-russias-technocrats
  16. ^ Encyclopædia Britannica, Saint Simon; Socialism
  17. ^ a b Bell, Daniel (2008) [1st. Pub. 1976]. The Coming Of Post-industrial Society. ISBN 978-0465097135. Retrieved 2014-11-02.
  18. ^ "Bogdanov, technocracy and socialism". worldsocialism.org.
  19. ^ Njalsson, Gunnar K. A. (December 2005). "From autonomous to socially conceived technology: toward a causal, intentional and systematic analysis of interests and elites in public technology policy". Theoria: a journal of political theory (108). Berghahn Books: 56–81. Archived from the original on 2006-10-24. Retrieved 2006-12-15. {{cite journal}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help); Unknown parameter |deadurl= ignored (|url-status= suggested) (help)
  20. ^ Graham, Loren R. The Ghost of the Executed Engineer: Technology and the Fall of the Soviet Union. Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1993. 73
  21. ^ Graham, 74.
  22. ^ Gundle, Stephen (ed.); Parker, Simon (ed.) (1996) [1st. Pub. 1996]. The new Italian Republic: from the fall of the Berlin Wall to Berlusconi. Routledge. ISBN 0-415-12162-0. Retrieved 21 February 2012. {{cite book}}: |first1= has generic name (help)
  23. ^ D'Alimonte, Roberto; Bartolini, Stefano. "'Electoral Transition' and party system change in Italy". In Bull, Martin J; Rhodes, Martin (eds.). In: Crisis and transition in Italian politics. Routledge. p. 226. ISBN 0-7146-4366-1. {{cite book}}: |access-date= requires |url= (help); External link in |chapterurl= (help); Unknown parameter |chapterurl= ignored (|chapter-url= suggested) (help)
  24. ^ MacKenzie, James; Moody, Barry (16 November 2011). "Italy gets new technocrat government". Reuters. Retrieved 19 February 2012.
  25. ^ "Italy's new prime minister — The full Monti: Mario Monti holds out for a technocratic government until 2013". The Economist. 19 November 2011. Retrieved 19 February 2012.
  26. ^ "Q&A: Greece's 'technocratic' government". BBC News. 11 November 2011. Retrieved 21 February 2012.
  27. ^ "Tunisia's new prime minister takes office". AlJazeera. AlJazeera. Retrieved 17 November 2015.
  28. ^ "The Intelligent Island", Wired 1.04, September/October 1993
  29. ^ Haber, Samuel. Efficiency and Uplift Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1964.
  30. ^ Stabile, Donald R. (1986). Veblen and the political economy of the engineer: The radical thinker and engineering leaders came to technocratic ideas at the same time. The American Journal of Economics and Sociology, (45:1), 43–44.
  31. ^ "Why do Chinese leaders have a degree in engineering and American leaders have degrees in law?". Gigazine. 2016-03-01. Retrieved 2018-03-18.
  32. ^ Andrews, Joel (1995). "Rise of the Red Engineers" (PDF). Stanford University Press. Retrieved 2017-03-11.
  33. ^ The life of Thorstein Veblen and perspectives on his thought, Wood, John (1993). The life of Thorstein Veblen and perspectives on his thought. introd. Thorstein Veblen. New York: Routledge. ISBN 0-415-07487-8. The decisive difference between Marx and Veblen lay in their respective attitudes on socialism. For while Marx regarded socialism as the ultimate goal for civilization, Veblen saw socialism as but one stage in the economic evolution of society. {{cite book}}: Cite has empty unknown parameters: |month=, |chapterurl=, |laydate=, and |laysummary= (help)
  34. ^ Daniel Bell, "Veblen and the New Class", American Scholar, V. 32 (Autumn 1963) (cited in Rick Tilman, Thorstein Veblen and His Critics, 1891–1963, Princeton University Press (1992))
  35. ^ Beverly H. Burris (1993). Technocracy at work State University of New York Press, p. 32.
  36. ^ Frank Fischer (1990). Technocracy and the Politics of Expertise, Sage Publications, p. 86.
  37. ^ Nelson, Daniel; Akin, William E. (March 1978). "Technocracy and the American Dream: The Technocrat Movement, 1900-1941". Reviews in American History. 6 (1). The Johns Hopkins University Press: 104. doi:10.2307/2701484. JSTOR 2701484.
  38. ^ Book review: Technocracy and the American Dream, History of Political Economy, Vol. 10, No. 4, 1978, p. 682.
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