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Please do not redundantly cite sources already used in this article. To avoid any future controversy, I organized different origin theories as a list, followed by the reliable sources. I have also added some most recent papers (from reputable journals like Nature).
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{{Short description|Influenza pandemic}}
{{Short description|Influenza pandemic}}
{{flu|expanded=pandemics}}
{{flu|expanded=pandemics}}
The '''1977 Russian flu''' was an [[influenza]] [[pandemic]] that was first reported by the [[Soviet Union]] in 1977 and lasted until 1979.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web|date=April 1999|title=Influenza Pandemic Plan. The Role of WHO and Guidelines for National and Regional Planning|url=https://www.who.int/csr/resources/publications/influenza/whocdscsredc991.pdf|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201203084733/https://www.who.int/csr/resources/publications/influenza/whocdscsredc991.pdf|archive-date=2020-12-03|website=[[World Health Organization]]|pages=38, 41}}</ref><ref name=":1">{{cite journal | vauthors = Mermel LA | title = Swine-origin influenza virus in young age groups | language = English | journal = Lancet | volume = 373 | issue = 9681 | pages = 2108–9 | date = June 2009 | pmid = 19541030 | doi = 10.1016/S0140-6736(09)61145-4 | s2cid = 27656702 | url = https://www.thelancet.com/journals/lancet/article/PIIS0140-6736(09)61145-4/abstract }}</ref> The outbreak in [[northern China]] started in May 1977, slightly earlier than that in the Soviet Union.<ref name=":2">{{cite journal | vauthors = Kung HC, Jen KF, Yuan WC, Tien SF, Chu CM | title = Influenza in China in 1977: recurrence of influenzavirus A subtype H1N1 | journal = Bulletin of the World Health Organization | volume = 56 | issue = 6 | pages = 913–8 | date = 1978 | pmid = 310732 | pmc = 2395678 }}</ref><ref name=":3">{{cite journal | vauthors = Wertheim JO | title = The re-emergence of H1N1 influenza virus in 1977: a cautionary tale for estimating divergence times using biologically unrealistic sampling dates | journal = PLOS ONE | volume = 5 | issue = 6 | pages = e11184 | date = June 2010 | pmid = 20567599 | pmc = 2887442 | doi = 10.1371/journal.pone.0011184 | url = https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0011184 }}</ref> The pandemic mostly affected population younger than 25 or 26 years of age,<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":4">{{cite journal | vauthors = Rozo M, Gronvall GK | title = The Reemergent 1977 H1N1 Strain and the Gain-of-Function Debate | journal = mBio | volume = 6 | issue = 4 | date = August 2015 | pmid = 26286690 | pmc = 4542197 | doi = 10.1128/mBio.01013-15 }}</ref><ref name=":5">{{cite journal | vauthors = Gregg MB, Hinman AR, Craven RB | title = The Russian flu. Its history and implications for this year's influenza season | journal = JAMA | volume = 240 | issue = 21 | pages = 2260–3 | date = November 1978 | pmid = 702749 | doi = 10.1001/jama.240.21.2260 | url = https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/702749/ }}</ref> and resulted in approximately 700,000 deaths worldwide.<ref name=":6">{{cite journal|vauthors=Michaelis M, Doerr HW, Cinatl J|date=August 2009|title=Novel swine-origin influenza A virus in humans: another pandemic knocking at the door|url=https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s00430-009-0118-5/tables/1|journal=Medical Microbiology and Immunology|volume=198|issue=3|pages=175–83|doi=10.1007/s00430-009-0118-5|pmid=19543913|s2cid=20496301}}</ref><ref name=":15">{{cite journal | vauthors = Petrovski BÉ, Lumi X, Znaor L, Ivastinović D, Confalonieri F, Petrovič MG, Petrovski G | title = Reorganize and survive-a recommendation for healthcare services affected by COVID-19-the ophthalmology experience | journal = Eye | volume = 34 | issue = 7 | pages = 1177–1179 | date = July 2020 | pmid = 32313170 | doi = 10.1038/s41433-020-0871-7 | pmc = 7169374 | url = }}</ref><ref name=":7">{{Cite web | date=2020-11-18|title=You're more likely to die from the H1N1 flu if you were born in 1957|url=https://nouvelles.umontreal.ca/en/article/2018/01/19/you-re-more-likely-to-die-from-the-h1n1-flu-if-you-were-born-in-1957/|url-status=live|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=2021-01-24|website=University of Montreal|language=en}}</ref> It was caused by an [[Influenza A virus subtype H1N1|H1N1 flu strain]] which highly resembled a virus strain circulating worldwide from 1946 to 1957.<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":1" /><ref name=":4" /><ref name=":5" /> Genetic analysis and several unusual characteristics of the 1977 Russian flu have prompted many researchers to speculate that the virus was released to the public through a laboratory accident.<ref name=":3" /><ref name=":4" /><ref name=":8">{{cite journal | vauthors = Furmanski M | title = The 1977 H1N1 Influenza Virus Reemergence Demonstrated Gain-of-Function Hazards | journal = mBio | volume = 6 | issue = 5 | pages = e01434-15 | date = September 2015 | pmid = 26419881 | pmc = 4611044 | doi = 10.1128/mBio.01434-15 }}</ref><ref name=":9">{{cite journal | vauthors = Zimmer SM, Burke DS | title = Historical perspective--Emergence of influenza A (H1N1) viruses | journal = The New England Journal of Medicine | volume = 361 | issue = 3 | pages = 279–85 | date = July 2009 | pmid = 19564632 | doi = 10.1056/NEJMra0904322 | url = https://doi.org/10.1056/NEJMra0904322 }}</ref><ref name=":13">{{cite journal | vauthors = Horimoto T, Kawaoka Y | title = Influenza: lessons from past pandemics, warnings from current incidents | journal = Nature Reviews. Microbiology | volume = 3 | issue = 8 | pages = 591–600 | date = August 2005 | pmid = 16064053 | doi = 10.1038/nrmicro1208 | s2cid = 30154845 | url = https://www.nature.com/articles/nrmicro1208 }}</ref><ref name=":10">{{Cite web|last=Nolan|first=Tom|date=2009-07-02|title=Was H1N1 leaked from a laboratory?|url=https://blogs.bmj.com/bmj/2009/07/02/tom-nolan-was-h1n1-leaked-from-a-laboratory/|url-status=live|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=2021-01-24|website=[[The BMJ]]|language=en-US}}</ref>
The '''1977 Russian flu''' was an [[influenza]] [[pandemic]] that was first reported by the [[Soviet Union]] in 1977 and lasted until 1979.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web|date=April 1999|title=Influenza Pandemic Plan. The Role of WHO and Guidelines for National and Regional Planning|url=https://www.who.int/csr/resources/publications/influenza/whocdscsredc991.pdf|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201203084733/https://www.who.int/csr/resources/publications/influenza/whocdscsredc991.pdf|archive-date=2020-12-03|website=[[World Health Organization]]|pages=38, 41}}</ref><ref name=":1">{{cite journal | vauthors = Mermel LA | title = Swine-origin influenza virus in young age groups | language = English | journal = Lancet | volume = 373 | issue = 9681 | pages = 2108–9 | date = June 2009 | pmid = 19541030 | doi = 10.1016/S0140-6736(09)61145-4 | s2cid = 27656702 | url = https://www.thelancet.com/journals/lancet/article/PIIS0140-6736(09)61145-4/abstract }}</ref> The outbreak in [[northern China]] started in May 1977, slightly earlier than that in the Soviet Union.<ref name=":2">{{cite journal | vauthors = Kung HC, Jen KF, Yuan WC, Tien SF, Chu CM | title = Influenza in China in 1977: recurrence of influenzavirus A subtype H1N1 | journal = Bulletin of the World Health Organization | volume = 56 | issue = 6 | pages = 913–8 | date = 1978 | pmid = 310732 | pmc = 2395678 }}</ref><ref name=":3">{{cite journal | vauthors = Wertheim JO | title = The re-emergence of H1N1 influenza virus in 1977: a cautionary tale for estimating divergence times using biologically unrealistic sampling dates | journal = PLOS ONE | volume = 5 | issue = 6 | pages = e11184 | date = June 2010 | pmid = 20567599 | pmc = 2887442 | doi = 10.1371/journal.pone.0011184 | url = https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0011184 }}</ref> The pandemic mostly affected population younger than 25 or 26 years of age,<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":4">{{cite journal | vauthors = Rozo M, Gronvall GK | title = The Reemergent 1977 H1N1 Strain and the Gain-of-Function Debate | journal = mBio | volume = 6 | issue = 4 | date = August 2015 | pmid = 26286690 | pmc = 4542197 | doi = 10.1128/mBio.01013-15 }}</ref><ref name=":5">{{cite journal | vauthors = Gregg MB, Hinman AR, Craven RB | title = The Russian flu. Its history and implications for this year's influenza season | journal = JAMA | volume = 240 | issue = 21 | pages = 2260–3 | date = November 1978 | pmid = 702749 | doi = 10.1001/jama.240.21.2260 | url = https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/702749/ }}</ref> and resulted in approximately 700,000 deaths worldwide.<ref name=":6">{{cite journal|vauthors=Michaelis M, Doerr HW, Cinatl J|date=August 2009|title=Novel swine-origin influenza A virus in humans: another pandemic knocking at the door|url=https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s00430-009-0118-5/tables/1|journal=Medical Microbiology and Immunology|volume=198|issue=3|pages=175–83|doi=10.1007/s00430-009-0118-5|pmid=19543913|s2cid=20496301}}</ref><ref name=":15">{{cite journal | vauthors = Petrovski BÉ, Lumi X, Znaor L, Ivastinović D, Confalonieri F, Petrovič MG, Petrovski G | title = Reorganize and survive-a recommendation for healthcare services affected by COVID-19-the ophthalmology experience | journal = Eye | volume = 34 | issue = 7 | pages = 1177–1179 | date = July 2020 | pmid = 32313170 | doi = 10.1038/s41433-020-0871-7 | pmc = 7169374 | url = }}</ref><ref name=":7">{{Cite web | date=2020-11-18|title=You're more likely to die from the H1N1 flu if you were born in 1957|url=https://nouvelles.umontreal.ca/en/article/2018/01/19/you-re-more-likely-to-die-from-the-h1n1-flu-if-you-were-born-in-1957/|url-status=live|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=2021-01-24|website=University of Montreal|language=en}}</ref> It was caused by an [[Influenza A virus subtype H1N1|H1N1 flu strain]] which highly resembled a virus strain circulating worldwide from 1946 to 1957.<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":1" /><ref name=":4" /><ref name=":5" /> Genetic analysis and several unusual characteristics of the 1977 Russian flu have prompted many researchers to speculate that the virus was released to the public through a laboratory accident.<ref name=":3" /><ref name=":4" /><ref name=":8">{{cite journal | vauthors = Furmanski M | title = The 1977 H1N1 Influenza Virus Reemergence Demonstrated Gain-of-Function Hazards | journal = mBio | volume = 6 | issue = 5 | pages = e01434-15 | date = September 2015 | pmid = 26419881 | pmc = 4611044 | doi = 10.1128/mBio.01434-15 }}</ref><ref name=":9">{{cite journal | vauthors = Zimmer SM, Burke DS | title = Historical perspective--Emergence of influenza A (H1N1) viruses | journal = The New England Journal of Medicine | volume = 361 | issue = 3 | pages = 279–85 | date = July 2009 | pmid = 19564632 | doi = 10.1056/NEJMra0904322 | url = https://doi.org/10.1056/NEJMra0904322 }}</ref><ref name=":13">{{cite journal|vauthors=Horimoto T, Kawaoka Y|date=August 2005|title=Influenza: lessons from past pandemics, warnings from current incidents|url=https://www.nature.com/articles/nrmicro1208|journal=Nature Reviews. Microbiology|volume=3|issue=8|pages=591–600|doi=10.1038/nrmicro1208|pmid=16064053|s2cid=30154845}}</ref><ref name=":10">{{Cite web|last=Nolan|first=Tom|date=2009-07-02|title=Was H1N1 leaked from a laboratory?|url=https://blogs.bmj.com/bmj/2009/07/02/tom-nolan-was-h1n1-leaked-from-a-laboratory/|url-status=live|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=2021-01-24|website=[[The BMJ]]|language=en-US}}</ref>


== History of outbreak ==
== History of outbreak ==
Line 13: Line 13:


== Virology ==
== Virology ==
After 1957, the H1N1 strain was not circulating around the world until its reappearance in 1977.<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":1" /><ref name=":2" /><ref name=":4" /> The 1977 strain was almost identical to (but not the same as) the strain in the 1950s.<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":1" /><ref name=":3" /><ref name=":4" /><ref name=":5" /> It has been suggested by many researchers that the virus leaked to the public from a laboratory accident. Others have concluded that it resulted from mutations caused by a vaccine trial.<ref name=":4" /><ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Gong YN, Kuo RL, Chen GW, Shih SR |title=Centennial review of influenza in Taiwan |journal=Biomed J |volume=41 |issue=4 |pages=234–241 |date=August 2018 |pmid=30348266 |pmc=6197989 |doi=10.1016/j.bj.2018.08.002 |url=}}</ref> The idea that the virus may have been a deliberately-deployed bioweapon appears unlikely and inconsistent with Soviet biological weapon research at the time.<ref name=":4" />
After 1957, the H1N1 strain was not circulating around the world until its reappearance in 1977.<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":1" /><ref name=":2" /><ref name=":4" /> The 1977 strain was almost identical to (but not the same as) the strain in the 1950s.<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":1" /><ref name=":3" /><ref name=":4" /><ref name=":5" /> This feature suggest an [[Anthropogenic hazard|anthropogenic]] origin of the virus.<ref name=":4" /><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Lewis|first=Gregory|last2=Jordan|first2=Jacob L.|last3=Relman|first3=David A.|last4=Koblentz|first4=Gregory D.|last5=Leung|first5=Jade|last6=Dafoe|first6=Allan|last7=Nelson|first7=Cassidy|last8=Epstein|first8=Gerald L.|last9=Katz|first9=Rebecca|last10=Montague|first10=Michael|last11=Alley|first11=Ethan C.|date=2020-12-08|title=The biosecurity benefits of genetic engineering attribution|url=https://www.nature.com/articles/s41467-020-19149-2|journal=Nature Communications|language=en|volume=11|issue=1|pages=6294|doi=10.1038/s41467-020-19149-2|issn=2041-1723}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|vauthors=Gong YN, Kuo RL, Chen GW, Shih SR|date=August 2018|title=Centennial review of influenza in Taiwan|url=|journal=Biomed J|volume=41|issue=4|pages=234–241|doi=10.1016/j.bj.2018.08.002|pmc=6197989|pmid=30348266}}</ref>


The [[World Health Organization]] ruled out a laboratory origin in 1978 after discussions with researchers in the Soviet Union and China: their report stated that "the laboratories concerned either had never kept H1N1 virus or had not worked with it for a long time".<ref name=":2" /><ref name=":4" /> The multiple source locations of outbreak made a single-laboratory origin less likely than a vaccine accident.<ref name=":4" />
* It has been suggested by many researchers that the virus leaked to the public from a laboratory accident.<ref name=":3" /><ref name=":9" /><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Imperiale|first=Michael J.|last2=Howard|first2=Don|last3=Casadevall|first3=Arturo|date=2018-08-28|title=The Silver Lining in Gain-of-Function Experiments with Pathogens of Pandemic Potential|url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC7120448/|journal=Influenza Virus|volume=1836|pages=575–587|doi=10.1007/978-1-4939-8678-1_28|pmc=7120448|pmid=30151593}}</ref> The virus may have escaped from a lab attempting to prepare an attenuated H1N1 vaccine in response to the US swine flu pandemic alert.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Furmanski|first=Martin|date=2014-03-31|title=Threatened pandemics and laboratory escapes: Self-fulfilling prophecies|url=https://thebulletin.org/2014/03/threatened-pandemics-and-laboratory-escapes-self-fulfilling-prophecies/|url-status=live|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=2014-03-31|website=Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists}}</ref> The [[World Health Organization]], however, ruled out a laboratory origin in 1978 after discussions with researchers in the Soviet Union and China: their report stated that "the laboratories concerned either had never kept H1N1 virus or had not worked with it for a long time".<ref name=":2" /><ref name=":4" />


* Others have suggested that it resulted from mutations caused by a vaccine trial.<ref name=":4" /> The multiple source locations of outbreak made a single-laboratory origin less likely than a vaccine accident.<ref name=":4" />
In 2010 the laboratory origin theory was revisited, and researchers published it as fact: “The most famous case of a released laboratory strain is the re-emergent H1N1 influenza-A virus which was first observed in China in May of 1977 and in Russia shortly thereafter.” <ref>{{Cite web | date=|title=The Re-Emergence of H1N1 Influenza Virus in 1977: A Cautionary Tale for Estimating Divergence Times Using Biologically Unrealistic Sampling Dates|url=https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0011184|url-status=live|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=2010-07-27|website=PLOS ONE}}</ref> The virus may have escaped from a lab attempting to prepare an attenuated H1N1 vaccine in response to the US swine flu pandemic alert. <ref>{{Cite web | date=|title=Threatened pandemics and laboratory escapes: Self-fulfilling prophecies|url=https://thebulletin.org/2014/03/threatened-pandemics-and-laboratory-escapes-self-fulfilling-prophecies/|url-status=live|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=2014-03-31|website=Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists}}</ref>

* The idea that the virus may have been a deliberately-deployed bioweapon appears unlikely and inconsistent with Soviet biological weapon research at the time.<ref name=":4" />


== Mortality ==
== Mortality ==

Revision as of 06:14, 8 June 2021

Influenza (flu)
H1N1 virus
Types
Vaccines
Treatment
Pandemics
Outbreaks
See also

The 1977 Russian flu was an influenza pandemic that was first reported by the Soviet Union in 1977 and lasted until 1979.[1][2] The outbreak in northern China started in May 1977, slightly earlier than that in the Soviet Union.[3][4] The pandemic mostly affected population younger than 25 or 26 years of age,[1][5][6] and resulted in approximately 700,000 deaths worldwide.[7][8][9] It was caused by an H1N1 flu strain which highly resembled a virus strain circulating worldwide from 1946 to 1957.[1][2][5][6] Genetic analysis and several unusual characteristics of the 1977 Russian flu have prompted many researchers to speculate that the virus was released to the public through a laboratory accident.[4][5][10][11][12][13]

History of outbreak

In May 1977, an outbreak of flu took place in northern China including Liaoning, Jilin and Tianjin.[3][5][14][15] The strain was isolated and determined by Chinese researchers to be H1N1, which mostly affected students in middle and primary schools who lacked immunity to H1N1 virus.[3] Clinical symptoms were relatively mild.[3] Other areas in mainland China and British Hong Kong were also affected in the following months.[3][11]

In the same year, the H1N1 strain was detected in Siberia shortly after the outbreak in China, and then spread rapidly across the Soviet Union, which was the first country to report the outbreak to the World Health Organization (the People's Republic of China was not a member of WHO until 1981[16]).[1][4][5][6] Therefore, the pandemic was named "Russian flu".[17]

In 1977, the Russian flu hit the United Kingdom.[18] The virus reached the United States in January 1978.[6][14] The first outbreak in the U.S was reported in a high school in Cheyenne, where the clinical attack rate was more than 70% but involved solely students.[2][6] Even though infections were seen in schools and military bases throughout the U.S, there were few reports of infection in people older than 26, and the death rate in affected individuals was low.[2][6]

Since late 1977, the H1N1 strain has begun to co-circulate with the H3N2 strain in humans, as seasonal flu.[1][3][17]

Virology

After 1957, the H1N1 strain was not circulating around the world until its reappearance in 1977.[1][2][3][5] The 1977 strain was almost identical to (but not the same as) the strain in the 1950s.[1][2][4][5][6] This feature suggest an anthropogenic origin of the virus.[5][19][20]

  • It has been suggested by many researchers that the virus leaked to the public from a laboratory accident.[4][11][21] The virus may have escaped from a lab attempting to prepare an attenuated H1N1 vaccine in response to the US swine flu pandemic alert.[22] The World Health Organization, however, ruled out a laboratory origin in 1978 after discussions with researchers in the Soviet Union and China: their report stated that "the laboratories concerned either had never kept H1N1 virus or had not worked with it for a long time".[3][5]
  • Others have suggested that it resulted from mutations caused by a vaccine trial.[5] The multiple source locations of outbreak made a single-laboratory origin less likely than a vaccine accident.[5]
  • The idea that the virus may have been a deliberately-deployed bioweapon appears unlikely and inconsistent with Soviet biological weapon research at the time.[5]

Mortality

The Russian flu was relatively benign, with an estimated influenza mortality rate (not the infection fatality rate or the case fatality rate) around 5 in every 100,000 population, less than that of the typical seasonal influenza (~6 in every 100,000 population).[5] Most of the infected people were under the age of 26 or 25.[1][5][6] It is estimated that 700,000 people died due to the Russian flu pandemic worldwide.[7][8][9]

See also

References

  1. ^ a b c d e f g h "Influenza Pandemic Plan. The Role of WHO and Guidelines for National and Regional Planning" (PDF). World Health Organization. April 1999. pp. 38, 41. Archived (PDF) from the original on 2020-12-03.
  2. ^ a b c d e f Mermel LA (June 2009). "Swine-origin influenza virus in young age groups". Lancet. 373 (9681): 2108–9. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(09)61145-4. PMID 19541030. S2CID 27656702.
  3. ^ a b c d e f g h Kung HC, Jen KF, Yuan WC, Tien SF, Chu CM (1978). "Influenza in China in 1977: recurrence of influenzavirus A subtype H1N1". Bulletin of the World Health Organization. 56 (6): 913–8. PMC 2395678. PMID 310732.
  4. ^ a b c d e Wertheim JO (June 2010). "The re-emergence of H1N1 influenza virus in 1977: a cautionary tale for estimating divergence times using biologically unrealistic sampling dates". PLOS ONE. 5 (6): e11184. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0011184. PMC 2887442. PMID 20567599.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: unflagged free DOI (link)
  5. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n Rozo M, Gronvall GK (August 2015). "The Reemergent 1977 H1N1 Strain and the Gain-of-Function Debate". mBio. 6 (4). doi:10.1128/mBio.01013-15. PMC 4542197. PMID 26286690.
  6. ^ a b c d e f g h Gregg MB, Hinman AR, Craven RB (November 1978). "The Russian flu. Its history and implications for this year's influenza season". JAMA. 240 (21): 2260–3. doi:10.1001/jama.240.21.2260. PMID 702749.
  7. ^ a b Michaelis M, Doerr HW, Cinatl J (August 2009). "Novel swine-origin influenza A virus in humans: another pandemic knocking at the door". Medical Microbiology and Immunology. 198 (3): 175–83. doi:10.1007/s00430-009-0118-5. PMID 19543913. S2CID 20496301.
  8. ^ a b Petrovski BÉ, Lumi X, Znaor L, Ivastinović D, Confalonieri F, Petrovič MG, Petrovski G (July 2020). "Reorganize and survive-a recommendation for healthcare services affected by COVID-19-the ophthalmology experience". Eye. 34 (7): 1177–1179. doi:10.1038/s41433-020-0871-7. PMC 7169374. PMID 32313170.
  9. ^ a b "You're more likely to die from the H1N1 flu if you were born in 1957". University of Montreal. 2020-11-18. Retrieved 2021-01-24.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: url-status (link)
  10. ^ Furmanski M (September 2015). "The 1977 H1N1 Influenza Virus Reemergence Demonstrated Gain-of-Function Hazards". mBio. 6 (5): e01434-15. doi:10.1128/mBio.01434-15. PMC 4611044. PMID 26419881.
  11. ^ a b c Zimmer SM, Burke DS (July 2009). "Historical perspective--Emergence of influenza A (H1N1) viruses". The New England Journal of Medicine. 361 (3): 279–85. doi:10.1056/NEJMra0904322. PMID 19564632.
  12. ^ Horimoto T, Kawaoka Y (August 2005). "Influenza: lessons from past pandemics, warnings from current incidents". Nature Reviews. Microbiology. 3 (8): 591–600. doi:10.1038/nrmicro1208. PMID 16064053. S2CID 30154845.
  13. ^ Nolan, Tom (2009-07-02). "Was H1N1 leaked from a laboratory?". The BMJ. Retrieved 2021-01-24.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: url-status (link)
  14. ^ a b Colen BD (1978-01-28). "Russian Flu Has Arrived In the U.S." Washington Post. ISSN 0190-8286. Retrieved 2021-01-24.
  15. ^ Brown D (2004-05-29). "SARS Cases in Asia Show Labs' Risks". Washington Post. ISSN 0190-8286. Retrieved 2021-01-24.
  16. ^ "World Health Organization in China". World Health Organization. Retrieved 2021-01-24.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: url-status (link)
  17. ^ a b "1977 Russian Influenza - an overview". ScienceDirect Topics. Retrieved 2021-01-24.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: url-status (link)
  18. ^ "The flu virus that nearly killed me". BBC News. 2013-01-25. Retrieved 2021-01-24.
  19. ^ Lewis, Gregory; Jordan, Jacob L.; Relman, David A.; Koblentz, Gregory D.; Leung, Jade; Dafoe, Allan; Nelson, Cassidy; Epstein, Gerald L.; Katz, Rebecca; Montague, Michael; Alley, Ethan C. (2020-12-08). "The biosecurity benefits of genetic engineering attribution". Nature Communications. 11 (1): 6294. doi:10.1038/s41467-020-19149-2. ISSN 2041-1723.
  20. ^ Gong YN, Kuo RL, Chen GW, Shih SR (August 2018). "Centennial review of influenza in Taiwan". Biomed J. 41 (4): 234–241. doi:10.1016/j.bj.2018.08.002. PMC 6197989. PMID 30348266.
  21. ^ Imperiale, Michael J.; Howard, Don; Casadevall, Arturo (2018-08-28). "The Silver Lining in Gain-of-Function Experiments with Pathogens of Pandemic Potential". Influenza Virus. 1836: 575–587. doi:10.1007/978-1-4939-8678-1_28. PMC 7120448. PMID 30151593.
  22. ^ Furmanski, Martin (2014-03-31). "Threatened pandemics and laboratory escapes: Self-fulfilling prophecies". Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists. Retrieved 2014-03-31.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: url-status (link)
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