Neodymium: Difference between revisions

Neodymium
Hazards
	GHS labelling:
Pictograms
Signal word	Warning
Hazard statements	H315, H319, H335
Precautionary statements	P261, P305+P351+P338
NFPA 704 (fire diamond)	2 0 0

Isotopes of neodymium (₆₀Nd)
Standard atomic weight Ar°(Nd)
	144.242±0.003; 144.24±0.01 (abridged);
	view; talk; edit;

Neodymium, ₆₀Nd
Neodymium
Pronunciation	/ˌniːoʊˈdɪmiəm/ (NEE-oh-DIM-ee-əm)
Appearance	silvery white
Standard atomic weight Ar°(Nd)
	144.242±0.003; 144.24±0.01 (abridged);
Neodymium in the periodic table
	praseodymium ← neodymium → promethium
Atomic number (Z)	60
Group	f-block groups (no number)
Period	period 6
Block	f-block
Electron configuration	[Xe] 4f4 6s2
Electrons per shell	2, 8, 18, 22, 8, 2
Physical properties
Phase at STP	solid
Melting point	1295 K (1022 °C, 1872 °F)
Boiling point	3347 K (3074 °C, 5565 °F)
Density (at 20° C)	7.007 g/cm3
when liquid (at m.p.)	6.89 g/cm3
Heat of fusion	7.14 kJ/mol
Heat of vaporization	289 kJ/mol
Molar heat capacity	27.45 J/(mol·K)
Atomic properties
Oxidation states	common: +3; 0, +2, +4
Electronegativity	Pauling scale: 1.14
Ionization energies	1st: 533.1 kJ/mol ; 2nd: 1040 kJ/mol ; 3rd: 2130 kJ/mol ; ;
Atomic radius	empirical: 181 pm
Covalent radius	201±6 pm
	Spectral lines of neodymium
Other properties
Natural occurrence	primordial
Crystal structure	double hexagonal close-packed (dhcp) (hP4)
Lattice constants	a = 0.36583 nm; c = 1.17968 nm (at 20 °C)
Thermal expansion	6.7×10−6/K (at 20 °C)
Thermal conductivity	16.5 W/(m⋅K)
Electrical resistivity	poly: 643 nΩ⋅m
Magnetic ordering	paramagnetic, antiferromagnetic below 20 K
Molar magnetic susceptibility	+5628.0×10−6 cm3/mol (287.7 K)
Young's modulus	41.4 GPa
Shear modulus	16.3 GPa
Bulk modulus	31.8 GPa
Speed of sound thin rod	2330 m/s (at 20 °C)
Poisson ratio	0.281
Vickers hardness	345–745 MPa
Brinell hardness	265–700 MPa
CAS Number	7440-00-8
History
Discovery	Carl Gustaf Mosander (1841)
First isolation	Carl Auer von Welsbach (1885)
Named by	Carl Auer von Welsbach (1885)
Isotopes of neodymium v; e;
	Category: Neodymium; view; talk; edit; \| references

Browse history interactively

← Previous edit Next edit →

Content deleted Content added

VisualWikitext

Inline

Revision as of 20:23, 7 June 2023

Neodymium is a chemical element with the symbol Nd and atomic number 60. It is the fourth member of the lanthanide series and is considered to be one of the rare-earth metals. It is a hard, slightly malleable, silvery metal that quickly tarnishes in air and moisture. When oxidized, neodymium reacts quickly producing pink, purple/blue and yellow compounds in the +2, +3 and +4 oxidation states. It is generally regarded as having one of the most complex spectra of the elements.^[9] Neodymium was discovered in 1885 by the Austrian chemist Carl Auer von Welsbach, who also discovered praseodymium. It is present in significant quantities in the minerals monazite and bastnäsite. Neodymium is not found naturally in metallic form or unmixed with other lanthanides, and it is usually refined for general use. Neodymium is fairly common—about as common as cobalt, nickel, or copper—and is widely distributed in the Earth's crust.^[10] Most of the world's commercial neodymium is mined in China, as is the case with many other rare-earth metals.

Neodymium compounds were first commercially used as glass dyes in 1927 and remain a popular additive. The color of neodymium compounds comes from the Nd³⁺ ion and is often a reddish-purple. However, this changes with the type of lighting because of the interaction of the sharp light absorption bands of neodymium with ambient light enriched with the sharp visible emission bands of mercury, trivalent europium or terbium. Neodymium-doped glasses are used in lasers that emit infrared with wavelengths between 1047 and 1062 nanometers. These lasers have been used in extremely high-power applications, such as experiments in inertial confinement fusion. Neodymium is also used with various other substrate crystals, such as yttrium aluminium garnet in the Nd:YAG laser.

Neodymium alloys are used to make high-strength neodymium magnets—a type of powerful permanent magnet.^[11] These magnets are widely used in products like microphones, professional loudspeakers, in-ear headphones, high-performance hobby DC electric motors, and computer hard disks, where low magnet mass (or volume) or strong magnetic fields are required. Larger neodymium magnets are used in electric motors with a high power-to-weight ratio (e.g., in hybrid cars) and generators (e.g., aircraft and wind turbine electric generators).^[12]

Characteristics

Physical properties

Metallic neodymium has a bright, silvery metallic luster.^[13] Neodymium commonly exists in two allotropic forms, with a transformation from a double hexagonal to a body-centered cubic structure taking place at about 863 °C.^[14] Neodymium, like most of the lanthanides, is paramagnetic at room temperature and becomes an antiferromagnet upon cooling to 20 K (−253.2 °C).^[15] Neodymium is a rare-earth metal that was present in the classical mischmetal at a concentration of about 18%. To make neodymium magnets it is alloyed with iron, which is a ferromagnet.^[16]

Electron configuration

In the periodic table, it appears between the lanthanides praseodymium to its left and the radioactive element promethium to its right, and above the actinide uranium. Its 60 electrons are arranged in the configuration [Xe]4f⁴6s², of which the six 4f and 6s electrons are valence. Like most other metals in the lanthanide series, neodymium usually only uses three electrons as valence electrons, as afterwards the remaining 4f electrons are strongly bound: this is because the 4f orbitals penetrate the most through the inert xenon core of electrons to the nucleus, followed by 5d and 6s, and this increases with higher ionic charge. Neodymium can still lose a fourth electron because it comes early in the lanthanides, where the nuclear charge is still low enough and the 4f subshell energy high enough to allow the removal of further valence electrons.^[17]

Chemical properties

Neodymium is the fourth member of the lanthanide series. It has a melting point of 1,024 °C (1,875 °F) and a boiling point of 3,074 °C (5,565 °F). Neodymium, like other lanthanides, usually has the oxidation state +3, but it can also form in the +2 and +4 oxidation states, and even, in very rare conditions, +0.^[18] Neodymium metal quickly oxidizes at ambient conditions,^[14] forming an oxide layer like iron rust that spalls off and exposes the metal to further oxidation; a centimeter-sized sample of neodymium corrodes completely in about a year. Nd³⁺ is generally soluble in water. Like its neighbor praseodymium, it readily burns at about 150 °C to form neodymium(III) oxide; the oxide peels off, exposing the bulk metal to the further oxidation:^[14]

4Nd + 3O₂ → 2Nd₂O₃

Neodymium is a quite electropositive element, and it reacts slowly with cold water, or quickly with hot water, to form neodymium(III) hydroxide:

2Nd (s) + 6H₂O (l) → 2Nd(OH)₃ (aq) + 3H₂ (g)

Neodymium metal reacts vigorously with all the stable halogens:^[19]

2Nd (s) + 3F₂ (g) → 2NdF₃ (s) [a violet substance]

2Nd (s) + 3Cl₂ (g) → 2NdCl₃ (s) [a mauve substance]

2Nd (s) + 3Br₂ (g) → 2NdBr₃ (s) [a violet substance]

2Nd (s) + 3I₂ (g) → 2NdI₃ (s) [a green substance]

Neodymium dissolves readily in dilute sulfuric acid to form solutions that contain the lilac Nd(III) ion. These exist as a [Nd(OH₂)₉]³⁺ complexes:^[20]

2Nd (s) + 3H₂SO₄ (aq) → 2Nd³⁺ (aq) + 3SO2−4 (aq) + 3H₂ (g)

Compounds

Some of the most important neodymium compounds include:

halides: NdF₃; NdCl₂; NdCl₃; NdBr₃; NdI₂; NdI₃
oxides: Nd₂O₃
hydroxide: Nd(OH)₃
carbonate: Nd₂(CO₃)₃
sulfate: Nd₂(SO₄)₃
acetate: Nd(CH₃COO)₃
neodymium magnets (Nd₂Fe₁₄B)

Some neodymium compounds have colors that vary based on the type of lighting.^[21]

Neodymium compounds in fluorescent tube light—from left to right, the sulfate, nitrate, and chloride
Neodymium compounds in compact fluorescent lamp light
Neodymium compounds in normal daylight

Organoneodymium compounds

Organoneodymium compounds are compounds that have a neodymium–carbon bond. These compounds are similar to those of the other lanthanides, characterized by an inability to undergo π backbonding. They are thus mostly restricted to the mostly ionic cyclopentadienides (isostructural with those of lanthanum) and the σ-bonded simple alkyls and aryls, some of which may be polymeric.^[22]

Isotopes

Naturally occurring neodymium (₆₀Nd) is composed of five stable isotopes—¹⁴²Nd, ¹⁴³Nd, ¹⁴⁵Nd, ¹⁴⁶Nd and ¹⁴⁸Nd, with ¹⁴²Nd being the most abundant (27.2% of the natural abundance)—and two radioisotopes with extremely long half-lives, ¹⁴⁴Nd (alpha decay with a half-life (t_1/2) of 2.29×10¹⁵ years) and ¹⁵⁰Nd (double beta decay, t_1/2 ≈ 7×10¹⁸ years). In all, 33 radioisotopes of neodymium have been detected as of 2022^[update], with the most stable radioisotopes being the naturally occurring ones: ¹⁴⁴Nd and ¹⁵⁰Nd. All of the remaining radioactive isotopes have half-lives that are shorter than twelve days, and the majority of these have half-lives that are shorter than 70 seconds; the most stable artificial isotope is ¹⁴⁷Nd with a half-life of 10.98 days.

Neodymium also has 13 known metastable isotopes, with the most stable one being ^139mNd (t_1/2 = 5.5 hours), ^135mNd (t_1/2 = 5.5 minutes) and ^133m1Nd (t_1/2 ~70 seconds). The primary decay modes before the most abundant stable isotope, ¹⁴²Nd, are electron capture and positron decay, and the primary mode after is beta minus decay. The primary decay products before ¹⁴²Nd are element Pr (praseodymium) isotopes and the primary products after are element Pm (promethium) isotopes.^[24] Four of the five stable isotopes have been predicted to decay to isotopes of cerium or samarium and are only observationally stable.^[25] Additionally, some observationally stable isotopes of samarium are predicted to decay to isotopes of neodymium.^[25]

Neodymium isotopes are used in various scientific applications. ¹⁴²Nd has been used for the production of short-lived Tm and Yb isotopes. ¹⁴⁶Nd has been suggested for the production of ¹⁴⁷Pm, which is a source of radioactive power. Several neodymium isotopes have been used for the production of other promethium isotopes. The decay from ¹⁴⁷Sm (t_1/2 = 1.06×10¹¹ y) to the stable ¹⁴³Nd allows samarium–neodymium dating.^[26] ¹⁵⁰Nd has also been used to study double beta decay.^[27]

History

In 1751, the Swedish mineralogist Axel Fredrik Cronstedt discovered a heavy mineral from the mine at Bastnäs, later named cerite. Thirty years later, fifteen-year-old Wilhelm Hisinger, a member of the family owning the mine, sent a sample to Carl Scheele, who did not find any new elements within. In 1803, after Hisinger had become an ironmaster, he returned to the mineral with Jöns Jacob Berzelius and isolated a new oxide, which they named ceria after the dwarf planet Ceres, which had been discovered two years earlier.^[29] Ceria was simultaneously and independently isolated in Germany by Martin Heinrich Klaproth.^[30] Between 1839 and 1843, ceria was shown to be a mixture of oxides by the Swedish surgeon and chemist Carl Gustaf Mosander, who lived in the same house as Berzelius; he separated out two other oxides, which he named lanthana and didymia.^[31]^[32]^[33] He partially decomposed a sample of cerium nitrate by roasting it in air and then treating the resulting oxide with dilute nitric acid. The metals that formed these oxides were thus named lanthanum and didymium,^[34] officially discovered in Vienna in 1885 by Carl Gustaf Mosander.^[35]^[36] Von Welsbach confirmed the separation by spectroscopic analysis, but the products were of relatively low purity. Didymium was discovered by Carl Gustaf Mosander in 1841, and pure neodymium was isolated from it in 1925. The name neodymium is derived from the Greek words neos (νέος), new, and didymos (διδύμος), twin.^[14]^[37]^[38]^[32]^[33]^[28]

Double nitrate crystallization was the means of commercial neodymium purification until the 1950s. Lindsay Chemical Division was the first to commercialize large-scale ion-exchange purification of neodymium. Starting in the 1950s, high purity (>99%) neodymium was primarily obtained through an ion exchange process from monazite, a mineral rich in rare-earth elements.^[14] The metal is obtained through electrolysis of its halide salts. Currently, most neodymium is extracted from bastnäsite and purified by solvent extraction. Ion-exchange purification is used for the highest purities (typically >99.99%). The evolving technology, and improved purity of commercially available neodymium oxide, was reflected in the appearance of neodymium glasses in collections today. Early neodymium glasses made in the 1930s have a more reddish or orange tinge than modern versions, which are more cleanly purple, because of the difficulties in removing traces of praseodymium using early technology, namely fractional crystallization.^[39]

Because of its role in permanent magnets used for direct-drive wind turbines, it has been argued that neodymium will be one of the main objects of geopolitical competition in a world running on renewable energy. This perspective has been criticised for failing to recognise that most wind turbines do not use permanent magnets, and for underestimating the power of economic incentives for expanded production.^[40]^[41]

Occurrence and production

Occurrence

Neodymium is rarely found in nature as a free element, instead occurring as ores, such as monazite and bastnäsite (these are mineral group names rather than single mineral names) that contain small amounts of all rare-earth metals. In these minerals neodymium is rarely dominant; some exceptions include monazite-(Nd) and kozoite-(Nd).^[42] The main mining areas are in China, United States, Brazil, India, Sri Lanka, and Australia. World reserves of neodymium are estimated at eight million tonnes.^[43]

The Nd³⁺ ion is similar in size to the early lanthanides of the cerium group (those from lanthanum up to samarium and europium) that immediately follow in the periodic table, and hence it tends to occur along with them in phosphate, silicate and carbonate minerals, such as monazite (M^IIIPO₄) and bastnäsite (M^IIICO₃F), where M refers to all the rare-earth metals except scandium and the radioactive promethium (mostly Ce, La, and Y, with somewhat less Pr and Nd).^[44] Bastnäsite is usually lacking in thorium and the heavy lanthanides, and the purification of the light lanthanides from it is less involved. The ore, after being crushed and ground, is first treated with hot concentrated sulfuric acid, evolving carbon dioxide, hydrogen fluoride, and silicon tetrafluoride. The product is then dried and leached with water, leaving the early lanthanide ions, including lanthanum, in solution.^[44]

Solar System abundances^[45]
Atomic number	Element	Relative amount
42	Molybdenum	2.771
47	Silver	0.590
50	Tin	4.699
58	Cerium	1.205
59	Praseodymium	0.205
60	Neodymium	1
74	Tungsten	0.054
90	Thorium	0.054
92	Uranium	0.022

In space

Neodymium's per-particle abundance in the Solar System is 0.083 ppb (parts per billion).^[45]^[b] This figure is about two thirds of that of platinum, but two and a half times more than mercury, and nearly five times more than gold.^[45] The lanthanides are not usually found in space, and are much more abundant in the Earth's crust.^[45]^[46]^[47]

In the Earth's crust

Neodymium is classified as a lithophile under the Goldschmidt classification, meaning that it is generally found combined with oxygen. Although it belongs to the rare-earth metals, neodymium is not rare at all. Its abundance in the Earth's crust is about 38 mg/kg, making it the 27th most common element. It is similar in abundance to lanthanum. Cerium is the most common rare-earth metal, followed by neodymium, and then lanthanum.^[46]^[47]

Production

The world's production of neodymium was about 7,000 tons in 2004.^[37] The bulk of current production is from China. Historically, the Chinese government imposed strategic material controls on the element, causing large fluctuations in prices.^[48] The uncertainty of pricing and availability have caused companies (particularly Japanese ones) to create permanent magnets and associated electric motors with fewer rare-earth metals; however, so far they have been unable to eliminate the need for neodymium.^[49]^[50] According to the US Geological Survey, Greenland holds the largest reserves of undeveloped rare-earth deposits, particularly neodymium. Mining interests clash with native populations at those sites, due to the release of radioactive substances during the mining process.^[51]

Neodymium is typically 10–18% of the rare-earth content of commercial deposits of the light rare-earth-element minerals bastnäsite and monazite.^[14] With neodymium compounds being the most strongly colored for the trivalent lanthanides, it can occasionally dominate the coloration of rare-earth minerals when competing chromophores are absent. It usually gives a pink coloration. Outstanding examples of this include monazite crystals from the tin deposits in Llallagua, Bolivia; ancylite from Mont Saint-Hilaire, Quebec, Canada; or lanthanite from the Saucon Valley, Pennsylvania, United States. As with neodymium glasses, such minerals change their colors under the differing lighting conditions. The absorption bands of neodymium interact with the visible emission spectrum of mercury vapor, with the unfiltered shortwave UV light causing neodymium-containing minerals to reflect a distinctive green color. This can be observed with monazite-containing sands or bastnäsite-containing ore.^[52]

The demand for mineral resources, such as rare-earth elements (including neodymium) and other critical materials, has been rapidly increasing owing to the growing human population and industrial development. Recently, the requirement for a low-carbon society has led to a significant demand for energy-saving technologies such as batteries, high-efficiency motors, renewable energy sources, and fuel cells. Among these technologies, permanent magnets are often used to fabricate high-efficiency motors, with neodymium-iron-boron magnets (Nd₂Fe₁₄B sintered and bonded magnets; hereinafter referred to as NdFeB magnets) being the main type of permanent magnet in the market since their invention.^[53] NdFeB magnets are used in hybrid electric vehicles (HEVs), plug-in hybrid electric vehicles (PHEVs), electric vehicles (EVs), and fuel cell vehicles (FCVs) (hereinafter referred to as xEVs), wind turbines, home appliances, computers, and many small consumer electronic devices.^[54] Furthermore, they are indispensable for energy savings. Toward achieving the objectives of the Paris Agreement, the demand for NdFeB magnets is expected to increase significantly in the future.^[54]

Applications

Neodymium has an unusually large specific heat capacity at liquid-helium temperatures, so is useful in cryocoolers.^[55]
Neodymium acetate can be a substitute for the radioactive and toxic uranyl acetate (used as a standard contrasting agent in electron microscopy).^[56]
Probably because of similarities to Ca²⁺, Nd³⁺ has been reported^[57] to promote plant growth. Rare-earth element compounds are frequently used in China as fertilizer.^[58]
Samarium–neodymium dating is useful for determining the age relationships of rocks.^[59] and meteorites^[60]
Neodymium isotopes recorded in marine sediments are used to reconstruct changes in past ocean circulation.^[61]^[62]

Magnets

Neodymium magnet on a mu-metal bracket from a hard drive

Neodymium magnets (an alloy, Nd₂Fe₁₄B) are the strongest permanent magnets known. A neodymium magnet of a few tens of grams can lift a thousand times its own weight, and can snap together with enough force to break bones. These magnets are cheaper, lighter, and stronger than samarium–cobalt magnets. However, they are not superior in every aspect, as neodymium-based magnets lose their magnetism at lower temperatures^[63] and tend to corrode,^[64] while samarium–cobalt magnets do not.^[65]

Neodymium magnets appear in products such as microphones, professional loudspeakers, headphones, guitar and bass guitar pick-ups, and computer hard disks where low mass, small volume, or strong magnetic fields are required. Neodymium is used in the electric motors of hybrid and electric automobiles and in the electricity generators of some designs of commercial wind turbines (only wind turbines with "permanent magnet" generators use neodymium). For example, drive electric motors of each Toyota Prius require one kilogram (2.2 pounds) of neodymium per vehicle.^[12]

In 2020, physics researchers at Radboud University and Uppsala University announced they had observed a behavior known as "self-induced spin glass" in the atomic structure of neodymium. One of the researchers explained, "…we are specialists in scanning tunneling microscopy. It allows us to see the structure of individual atoms, and we can resolve the north and south poles of the atoms. With this advancement in high-precision imaging, we were able to discover the behavior in neodymium, because we could resolve the incredibly small changes in the magnetic structure." Neodymium behaves in a complex magnetic way that had not been seen before in a periodic table element.^[66]^[67]

Glass

Neodymium glass (Nd:glass) is produced by the inclusion of neodymium oxide (Nd₂O₃) in the glass melt. Usually in daylight or incandescent light neodymium glass appears lavender, but it appears pale blue under fluorescent lighting. Neodymium may be used to color glass in delicate shades ranging from pure violet through wine-red and warm gray.^[68]

The first commercial use of purified neodymium was in glass coloration, starting with experiments by Leo Moser in November 1927. The resulting "Alexandrite" glass remains a signature color of the Moser glassworks to this day. Neodymium glass was widely emulated in the early 1930s by American glasshouses, most notably Heisey, Fostoria ("wisteria"), Cambridge ("heatherbloom"), and Steuben ("wisteria"), and elsewhere (e.g. Lalique, in France, or Murano). Tiffin's "twilight" remained in production from about 1950 to 1980.^[69] Current sources include glassmakers in the Czech Republic, the United States, and China.^[70]

The sharp absorption bands of neodymium cause the glass color to change under different lighting conditions, being reddish-purple under daylight or yellow incandescent light, but blue under white fluorescent lighting, or greenish under trichromatic lighting. This color-change phenomenon is highly prized by collectors.^{[citation needed]} In combination with gold or selenium, red colors are produced. Since neodymium coloration depends upon "forbidden" f-f transitions deep within the atom, there is relatively little influence on the color from the chemical environment, so the color is impervious to the thermal history of the glass. However, for the best color, iron-containing impurities need to be minimized in the silica used to make the glass. The same forbidden nature of the f-f transitions makes rare-earth colorants less intense than those provided by most d-transition elements, so more has to be used in a glass to achieve the desired color intensity. The original Moser recipe used about 5% of neodymium oxide in the glass melt, a sufficient quantity such that Moser referred to these as being "rare-earth doped" glasses. Being a strong base, that level of neodymium would have affected the melting properties of the glass, and the lime content of the glass might have had to be adjusted accordingly.^[71]

Light transmitted through neodymium glasses shows unusually sharp absorption bands; the glass is used in astronomical work to produce sharp bands by which spectral lines may be calibrated.^[14] Another application is the creation of selective astronomical filters to reduce the effect of light pollution from sodium and fluorescent lighting while passing other colours, especially dark red hydrogen-alpha emission from nebulae.^[72] Neodymium is also used to remove the green color caused by iron contaminants from glass.^[73]

Neodymium is a component of "didymium" (referring to mixture of salts of neodymium and praseodymium) used for coloring glass to make welder's and glass-blower's goggles; the sharp absorption bands obliterate the strong sodium emission at 589 nm. The similar absorption of the yellow mercury emission line at 578 nm is the principal cause of the blue color observed for neodymium glass under traditional white-fluorescent lighting. Neodymium and didymium glass are used in color-enhancing filters in indoor photography, particularly in filtering out the yellow hues from incandescent lighting. Similarly, neodymium glass is becoming widely used more directly in incandescent light bulbs. These lamps contain neodymium in the glass to filter out yellow light, resulting in a whiter light which is more like sunlight.^[74] During World War I, didymium mirrors were reportedly used to transmit Morse Code across battlefields.^[75] Similar to its use in glasses, neodymium salts are used as a colorant for enamels.^[14]

Lasers

Certain transparent materials with a small concentration of neodymium ions can be used in lasers as gain media for infrared wavelengths (1054–1064 nm), e.g. Nd:YAG (yttrium aluminium garnet), Nd:YAP (yttrium aluminium perovskite),^[76] Nd:YLF (yttrium lithium fluoride), Nd:YVO₄ (yttrium orthovanadate), and Nd:glass. Neodymium-doped crystals (typically Nd:YVO₄) generate high-powered infrared laser beams which are converted to green laser light in commercial DPSS hand-held lasers and laser pointers.

Trivalent neodymium ion Nd³⁺ was the first lanthanide from rare-earth elements used for the generation of laser radiation. The Nd:CaWO₄ laser was developed in 1961.^[77] Historically, it was the third laser which was put into operation (the first was ruby, the second the U³⁺:CaF laser). Over the years the neodymium laser became one of the most used lasers for application purposes. The success of the Nd³⁺ ion lies in the structure of its energy levels and in the spectroscopic properties suitable for the generation of laser radiation. In 1964 Geusic et al.^[78] demonstrated the operation of neodymium ion in YAG matrix Y₃Al₅O₁₂. It is a four-level laser with lower threshold and with excellent mechanical and temperature properties. For optical pumping of this material it is possible to use non-coherent flashlamp radiation or a coherent diode beam.^[79]

Neodymium ions in various types of ionic crystals, and also in glasses, act as a laser gain medium, typically emitting 1064 nm light from a particular atomic transition in the neodymium ion, after being "pumped" into excitation from an external source

The current laser at the UK Atomic Weapons Establishment (AWE), the HELEN (High Energy Laser Embodying Neodymium) 1-terawatt neodymium-glass laser, can access the midpoints of pressure and temperature regions and is used to acquire data for modeling on how density, temperature, and pressure interact inside warheads. HELEN can create plasmas of around 10⁶ K, from which opacity and transmission of radiation are measured.^[80]

Neodymium glass solid-state lasers are used in extremely high power (terawatt scale), high energy (megajoules) multiple beam systems for inertial confinement fusion. Nd:glass lasers are usually frequency tripled to the third harmonic at 351 nm in laser fusion devices.^[81]

Substitute for uranyl acetate

Uranyl acetate has been the standard contrasting agent in transmission electron microscopy (TEM) for decades.^[82]^[83] However, its use is increasingly hampered by regulations by governments due to its radioactive properties as well as its high toxicity. Therefore, alternatives are being searched for, including lanthanide acetates or platinum blue ^[84]^[85]^[86]^[87] as well as the use of less defined substances such as oolong tea extract.^[88]^[89] Despite these published alternatives, uranyl acetate (UAc) is still the standard for EM contrasting.^[56]

In the periodic table the vertical ordering of elements in groups is based on the presence of the same number of electrons in their outermost shell, which determines their chemical and physical properties.^[90] Because neodymium (Nd) is right above uranium (U) the chemical properties of UAc and NdAc would be very similar in binding to tissue in ultrathin sections thus leading to a similar amount of contrast.^[91]

Biological role and precautions

The early lanthanides have been found to be essential to some methanotrophic bacteria living in volcanic mudpots, such as Methylacidiphilum fumariolicum: lanthanum, cerium, praseodymium, and neodymium are about equally effective.^[93]^[94] Neodymium is otherwise not known to have a biological role in any other organisms.^[95]

Neodymium metal dust is combustible and therefore an explosion hazard. Neodymium compounds, as with all rare-earth metals, are of low to moderate toxicity; however, its toxicity has not been thoroughly investigated. Neodymium salts are regarded as more toxic if they are soluble than if they are insoluble if they are ingested.^[96] Neodymium dust and salts are very irritating to the eyes and mucous membranes, and moderately irritating to skin. Breathing the dust can cause lung embolisms, and accumulated exposure damages the liver. Neodymium also acts as an anticoagulant, especially when given intravenously.^[37]

Neodymium magnets have been tested for medical uses such as magnetic braces and bone repair, but biocompatibility issues have prevented widespread application. ^{[citation needed]} Commercially available magnets made from neodymium are exceptionally strong and can attract each other from large distances. If not handled carefully, they come together very quickly and forcefully, causing injuries. For example, there is at least one documented case of a person losing a fingertip when two magnets he was using snapped together from 50 cm away.^[97]

Another risk of these powerful magnets is that if more than one magnet is ingested, they can pinch soft tissues in the gastrointestinal tract. This has led to an estimated 1,700 emergency room visits^[98] and necessitated the recall of the Buckyballs line of toys, which were construction sets of small neodymium magnets.^[98]^[99]

Notes

^ The thermal expansion is anisotropic: the parameters (at 20 °C) for each crystal axis are α_a = 4.8×10⁻⁶/K, α_c = 10.5×10⁻⁶/K, and α_average = α_V/3 = 6.7×10⁻⁶/K.^[3]
^ Abundances in the source are listed relative to silicon rather than in per-particle notation. The sum of all elements per 10⁶ parts of silicon is 2.6682×10¹⁰ parts; lead comprises 3.258 parts.

References

^ "Standard Atomic Weights: Neodymium". CIAAW. 2005.
^ ^a ^b Prohaska, Thomas; Irrgeher, Johanna; Benefield, Jacqueline; Böhlke, John K.; Chesson, Lesley A.; Coplen, Tyler B.; Ding, Tiping; Dunn, Philip J. H.; Gröning, Manfred; Holden, Norman E.; Meijer, Harro A. J. (2022-05-04). "Standard atomic weights of the elements 2021 (IUPAC Technical Report)". Pure and Applied Chemistry. doi:10.1515/pac-2019-0603. ISSN 1365-3075.
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e Arblaster, John W. (2018). Selected Values of the Crystallographic Properties of Elements. Materials Park, Ohio: ASM International. ISBN 978-1-62708-155-9.
^ Yttrium and all lanthanides except Ce and Pm have been observed in the oxidation state 0 in bis(1,3,5-tri-t-butylbenzene) complexes, see Cloke, F. Geoffrey N. (1993). "Zero Oxidation State Compounds of Scandium, Yttrium, and the Lanthanides". Chem. Soc. Rev. 22: 17–24. doi:10.1039/CS9932200017. and Arnold, Polly L.; Petrukhina, Marina A.; Bochenkov, Vladimir E.; Shabatina, Tatyana I.; Zagorskii, Vyacheslav V.; Cloke (2003-12-15). "Arene complexation of Sm, Eu, Tm and Yb atoms: a variable temperature spectroscopic investigation". Journal of Organometallic Chemistry. 688 (1–2): 49–55. doi:10.1016/j.jorganchem.2003.08.028.
^ Greenwood, Norman N.; Earnshaw, Alan (1997). Chemistry of the Elements (2nd ed.). Butterworth-Heinemann. p. 28. ISBN 978-0-08-037941-8.
^ Gschneidner, K. A.; Eyring, L. (1978). Handbook on the Physics and Chemistry of Rare Earths. Amsterdam: North Holland. ISBN 0444850228.
^ Weast, Robert (1984). CRC, Handbook of Chemistry and Physics. Boca Raton, Florida: Chemical Rubber Company Publishing. pp. E110. ISBN 0-8493-0464-4.
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d Kondev, F. G.; Wang, M.; Huang, W. J.; Naimi, S.; Audi, G. (2021). "The NUBASE2020 evaluation of nuclear properties" (PDF). Chinese Physics C. 45 (3): 030001. doi:10.1088/1674-1137/abddae.
^ Werbowy, S., Windholz, L. Studies of Landé gJ-factors of singly ionized neodymium isotopes (142, 143 and 145) at relatively small magnetic fields up to 334 G by collinear laser ion beam spectroscopy. Eur. Phys. J. D 71, 16 (2017). https://doi.org/10.1140/epjd/e2016-70641-3
^ See Abundances of the elements (data page).
^ Toshiba Develops Dysprosium-free Samarium-Cobalt Magnet to Replace Heat-resistant Neodymium Magnet in Essential Applications. Toshiba (2012-08-16). Retrieved on 2012-09-24.
^ ^a ^b Gorman, Steve (August 31, 2009) As hybrid cars gobble rare metals, shortage looms, Reuters.
^ (2009) neodymium. In: Manutchehr-Danai M. (eds) Dictionary of Gems and Gemology. Springer, Berlin, Heidelberg. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-540-72816-0_15124
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f ^g ^h Haynes, William M., ed. (2016). "Neodymium. Elements". CRC Handbook of Chemistry and Physics (97th ed.). CRC Press. p. 4.23. ISBN 9781498754293.
^ Andrej Szytula; Janusz Leciejewicz (8 March 1994). Handbook of Crystal Structures and Magnetic Properties of Rare Earth Intermetallics. CRC Press. p. 1. ISBN 978-0-8493-4261-5.
^ Stamenov, Plamen (2021), Coey, J. M. D.; Parkin, Stuart S.P. (eds.), "Magnetism of the Elements", Handbook of Magnetism and Magnetic Materials, Cham: Springer International Publishing, pp. 659–692, doi:10.1007/978-3-030-63210-6_15, ISBN 978-3-030-63210-6, retrieved 2023-06-07
^ Greenwood and Earnshaw, pp. 1235–8
^ Yttrium and all lanthanides except Ce and Pm have been observed in the oxidation state 0 in bis(1,3,5-tri-t-butylbenzene) complexes, see Cloke, F. Geoffrey N. (1993-01-01). "Zero oxidation state compounds of scandium, yttrium, and the lanthanides". Chemical Society Reviews. 22 (1): 17–24. doi:10.1039/CS9932200017. ISSN 1460-4744. and Arnold, Polly L; Petrukhina, Marina A; Bochenkov, Vladimir E; Shabatina, Tatyana I; Zagorskii, Vyacheslav V; Sergeev, Gleb B; Cloke, F. Geoffrey N (2003-12-15). "Arene complexation of Sm, Eu, Tm and Yb atoms: a variable temperature spectroscopic investigation". Journal of Organometallic Chemistry. 688 (1): 49–55. doi:10.1016/j.jorganchem.2003.08.028. ISSN 0022-328X..
^ Neodymium: reactions of elements Archived 2009-05-01 at the Wayback Machine. WebElements. [2017-4-10]
^ "Chemical reactions of Neodymium". Webelements. Retrieved 2012-08-16.
^ Burke M.W. (1996) Lighting II: Sources. In: Image Acquisition. Springer, Dordrecht. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-009-0069-1_2
^ Greenwood and Earnshaw, pp. 1248–9
^ "Standard Atomic Weights: Neodymium". CIAAW. 2005.
^ Karlewski, T., Hildebrand, N., Herrmann, G. et al. Decay of the heaviest isotope of neodymium:154Nd. Z Physik A 322, 177–178 (1985). https://doi.org/10.1007/BF01412035
^ ^a ^b Belli, P.; Bernabei, R.; Danevich, F. A.; Incicchitti, A.; Tretyak, V. I. (2019). "Experimental searches for rare alpha and beta decays". European Physical Journal A. 55 (140): 4–6. arXiv:1908.11458. Bibcode:2019EPJA...55..140B. doi:10.1140/epja/i2019-12823-2. S2CID 254103706.
^ Depaolo, D. J.; Wasserburg, G. J. (1976). "Nd isotopic variations and petrogenetic models" (PDF). Geophysical Research Letters. 3 (5): 249. Bibcode:1976GeoRL...3..249D. doi:10.1029/GL003i005p00249.
^ Barabash, A.S., Hubert, F., Hubert, P. et al. Double beta decay of ¹⁵⁰Nd to the First 0⁺ excited state of ¹⁵⁰Sm. Jetp Lett. 79, 10–12 (2004). https://doi.org/10.1134/1.1675911
^ ^a ^b Marshall, James L. Marshall; Marshall, Virginia R. Marshall (2016). "Rediscovery of the elements: The Rare Earths–The Last Member" (PDF). The Hexagon: 4–9. Retrieved 30 December 2019.
^ Emsley, pp. 120–5
^ Greenwood and Earnshaw, p. 1424
^ Weeks, Mary Elvira (1932). "The Discovery of the Elements: XI. Some Elements Isolated with the Aid of Potassium and Sodium:Zirconium, Titanium, Cerium and Thorium". The Journal of Chemical Education. 9 (7): 1231–1243. Bibcode:1932JChEd...9.1231W. doi:10.1021/ed009p1231.
^ ^a ^b Weeks, Mary Elvira (1956). The discovery of the elements (6th ed.). Easton, PA: Journal of Chemical Education.
^ ^a ^b Marshall, James L. Marshall; Marshall, Virginia R. Marshall (2015). "Rediscovery of the elements: The Rare Earths–The Confusing Years" (PDF). The Hexagon: 72–77. Retrieved 30 December 2019.
^
See:
- (Académie des sciences (France) (1839). Comptes rendus Academie des sciences 0008 (in French). Académie des Sciences (France). http://gallica.bnf.fr/. {{cite book}}: External link in |publisher= (help); More than one of |author= and |last= specified (help) From p. 356: "L'oxide de cérium, extrait de la cérite par la procédé ordinaire, contient à peu près les deux cinquièmes de son poids de l'oxide du nouveau métal qui ne change que peu les propriétés du cérium, et qui s'y tient pour ainsi dire caché. Cette raison a engagé M. Mosander à donner au nouveau métal le nom de Lantane." (The oxide of cerium, extracted from cerite by the usual procedure, contains almost two fifths of its weight in the oxide of the new metal, which differs only slightly from the properties of cerium, and which is held in it so to speak "hidden". This reason motivated Mr. Mosander to give to the new metal the name Lantane.)
- Philosophical Magazine. Taylor & Francis. 1839.
^ v. Welsbach, Carl Auer (1885). "Die Zerlegung des Didyms in seine Elemente". Monatshefte für Chemie und verwandte Teile anderer Wissenschaften. 6 (1): 477–491. doi:10.1007/BF01554643. S2CID 95838770.
^ Krishnamurthy, N.; Gupta, C. K. (2004). Extractive Metallurgy of Rare Earths. CRC Press. p. 6. ISBN 978-0-203-41302-9.
^ ^a ^b ^c Emsley, John (2003). Nature's building blocks: an A–Z guide to the elements. Oxford University Press. pp. 268–270. ISBN 0-19-850340-7.
^ Weeks, Mary Elvira (1932). "The discovery of the elements. XVI. The rare earth elements". Journal of Chemical Education. 9 (10): 1751. Bibcode:1932JChEd...9.1751W. doi:10.1021/ed009p1751.
^ Cotton, Simon A. (2021), Giunta, Carmen J.; Mainz, Vera V.; Girolami, Gregory S. (eds.), "The Rare Earths, a Challenge to Mendeleev, No Less Today", 150 Years of the Periodic Table: A Commemorative Symposium, Perspectives on the History of Chemistry, Cham: Springer International Publishing, pp. 259–301, doi:10.1007/978-3-030-67910-1_11, ISBN 978-3-030-67910-1, retrieved 2023-06-07
^ Overland, Indra (2019-03-01). "The geopolitics of renewable energy: Debunking four emerging myths" (PDF). Energy Research & Social Science. 49: 36–40. doi:10.1016/j.erss.2018.10.018.
^ Klinger, Julie Michelle (2017). Rare earth frontiers : from terrestrial subsoils to lunar landscapes. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press. ISBN 978-1501714603. JSTOR 10.7591/j.ctt1w0dd6d.
^ Hudson Institute of Mineralogy (1993–2018). "Mindat.org".
^ Morimoto, Shinichirou; Kuroki, Hiroshi; Narita, Hirokazu; Ishigaki, Aya (2021-11-01). "Scenario assessment of neodymium recycling in Japan based on substance flow analysis and future demand forecast". Journal of Material Cycles and Waste Management. 23 (6): 2120–2132. doi:10.1007/s10163-021-01277-6. ISSN 1611-8227.
^ ^a ^b Greenwood and Earnshaw, p. 1229–32
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d Lodders 2003, pp. 1222–1223.
^ ^a ^b Barbalace, Kenneth. "Periodic Table of Elements". Environmental Chemistry.com. Retrieved 2007-04-14.
^ ^a ^b Abundance of elements in the earth’s crust and in the sea, CRC Handbook of Chemistry and Physics, 97th edition (2016–2017), p. 14-17
^ Archive "Rare Earths Statistics and Information | U.S. Geological Survey". minerals.usgs.gov. Retrieved 2023-06-07. {{cite web}}: |archive-url= requires |archive-date= (help); Check |archive-url= value (help)
^ "Honda co-develops first hybrid car motor free of heavy rare earth metals". Reuters. 12 July 2016.
^ "Honda's Heavy Rare Earth-Free Hybrid Motors Sidestep China". Bloomberg.com. 12 July 2016.
^ "Greenland to hold election watched closely by global mining industry". Reuters. 2021-03-31. Retrieved 2023-06-07.
^ Buzhinskii, I. M.; Mamonov, S. K.; Mikhailova, L. I. (1971-08-01). "Influence of specific neodymium-glass absorption bands on generating energy". Journal of Applied Spectroscopy. 15 (2): 1002–1005. doi:10.1007/BF00607297. ISSN 1573-8647.
^ Sagawa M, Fujimura S, Togawa N, Yamamoto H, Matsuura Y (1984) New material for permanent magnets on a base of Nd and Fe. J Appl Phys 55(6):2083–2087. https://doi.org/10.1063/1.333572
^ ^a ^b Yang, Yongxiang; Walton, Allan; Sheridan, Richard; Güth, Konrad; Gauß, Roland; Gutfleisch, Oliver; Buchert, Matthias; Steenari, Britt-Marie; Van Gerven, Tom; Jones, Peter Tom; Binnemans, Koen (2017-03-01). "REE Recovery from End-of-Life NdFeB Permanent Magnet Scrap: A Critical Review". Journal of Sustainable Metallurgy. 3 (1): 122–149. doi:10.1007/s40831-016-0090-4. ISSN 2199-3831.
^ Osborne, M. G.; Anderson, I. E.; Gschneidner, K. A.; Gailloux, M. J.; Ellis, T. W. (1994), Reed, Richard P.; Fickett, Fred R.; Summers, Leonard T.; Stieg, M. (eds.), "Centrifugal Atomization of Neodymium and Er3Ni Regenerator Particulate", Advances in Cryogenic Engineering Materials: Volume 40, Part A, An International Cryogenic Materials Conference Publication, Boston, MA: Springer US, pp. 631–638, doi:10.1007/978-1-4757-9053-5_80, ISBN 978-1-4757-9053-5, retrieved 2023-06-07
^ ^a ^b Kuipers, Jeroen; Giepmans, Ben N. G. (2020-04-01). "Neodymium as an alternative contrast for uranium in electron microscopy". Histochemistry and Cell Biology. 153 (4): 271–277. doi:10.1007/s00418-020-01846-0. ISSN 1432-119X. PMC 7160090. PMID 32008069.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: PMC format (link)
^ Wei, Y. and Zhou, X. (1999). "The Effect of Neodymium (Nd³⁺) on Some Physiological Activities in Oilseed Rape during Calcium (Ca²⁺) Starvation". 10th International Rapeseed Congress. 2: 399.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
^ Tommasi, Franca; Thomas, Philippe J.; Pagano, Giovanni; Perono, Genevieve A.; Oral, Rahime; Lyons, Daniel M.; Toscanesi, Maria; Trifuoggi, Marco (2021-11-01). "Review of Rare Earth Elements as Fertilizers and Feed Additives: A Knowledge Gap Analysis". Archives of Environmental Contamination and Toxicology. 81 (4): 531–540. doi:10.1007/s00244-020-00773-4. ISSN 1432-0703. PMC 8558174. PMID 33141264.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: PMC format (link)
^ "Team finds Earth's 'oldest rocks'". BBC News. London. 2008-09-26. Retrieved 2009-06-06.
^ Carlson, Richard W. (2013), Rink, W. Jack; Thompson, Jeroen (eds.), "Sm–Nd Dating", Encyclopedia of Scientific Dating Methods, Dordrecht: Springer Netherlands, pp. 1–20, doi:10.1007/978-94-007-6326-5_84-1, ISBN 978-94-007-6326-5, retrieved 2023-06-07
^ Tachikawa, K. (2003). "Neodymium budget in the modern ocean and paleo-oceanographic implications". Journal of Geophysical Research. 108 (C8): 3254. Bibcode:2003JGRC..108.3254T. doi:10.1029/1999JC000285.
^ van de Flierdt, Tina; Griffiths, Alexander M.; Lambelet, Myriam; Little, Susan H.; Stichel, Torben; Wilson, David J. (2016-11-28). "Neodymium in the oceans: a global database, a regional comparison and implications for palaeoceanographic research". Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society A: Mathematical, Physical and Engineering Sciences. 374 (2081): 20150293. Bibcode:2016RSPTA.37450293V. doi:10.1098/rsta.2015.0293. PMC 5069528. PMID 29035258.
^ Zhang, W., Liu, G. & Han, K. The Fe-Nd (Iron-Neodymium) system. JPE 13, 645–648 (1992). https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02667216
^ Bala, H.; Szymura, S.; Pawłowska, G.; Rabinovich, Yu. M. (1993-10-01). "Effect of impurities on the corrosion behaviour of neodymium". Journal of Applied Electrochemistry. 23 (10): 1017–1024. doi:10.1007/BF00266123. ISSN 1572-8838.
^ Hopp, M.; Rogaschewski, S.; Groth, Th. (2003-04-01). "Testing the cytotoxicity of metal alloys used as magnetic prosthetic devices". Journal of Materials Science: Materials in Medicine. 14 (4): 335–345. doi:10.1023/A:1022931915709. ISSN 1573-4838.
^ Umut Kamber; Anders Bergman; Andreas Eich; Diana Iuşan; Manuel Steinbrecher; Nadine Hauptmann; Lars Nordström; Mikhail I. Katsnelson; Daniel Wegner; Olle Eriksson; Alexander A. Khajetoorians (May 29, 2020). "Self-induced spin glass state in elemental and crystalline neodymium". Science. Vol. 368, no. 6494. doi:10.1126/science.aay6757. Retrieved 29 May 2020.
^ Radboud University Nijmegen (May 28, 2020). "New 'Whirling' State of Matter Discovered: Self-Induced Spin Glass". Retrieved 29 May 2020.
^ Kondrukevich, A. A.; Vlasov, A. S.; Platov, Yu. T.; Rusovich-Yugai, N. S.; Gorbatov, E. P. (2008-05-01). "Color of porcelain containing neodymium oxide". Glass and Ceramics. 65 (5): 203–207. doi:10.1007/s10717-008-9039-9. ISSN 1573-8515.
^ "Chameleon Glass Changes Color". Archived from the original on 2008-04-03. Retrieved 2009-06-06.
^ Brown D.C. (1981) Optical-Pump Sources for Nd : Glass Lasers. In: High-Peak-Power Nd: Glass Laser Systems. Springer Series in Optical Sciences, vol 25. Springer, Berlin, Heidelberg. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-540-38508-0_3
^ Bray, Charles (2001). Dictionary of glass: materials and techniques. University of Pennsylvania Press. p. 102. ISBN 0-8122-3619-X.
^ Baader Neodymium Filter, First Light Optics.
^ Peelman, S.; Sietsma, J.; Yang, Y. (2018-06-01). "Recovery of Neodymium as (Na, Nd)(SO4)2 from the Ferrous Fraction of a General WEEE Shredder Stream". Journal of Sustainable Metallurgy. 4 (2): 276–287. doi:10.1007/s40831-018-0165-5. ISSN 2199-3831.
^ Zhang, Liqiang; Lin, Hang; Cheng, Yao; Xu, Ju; Xiang, Xiaoqiang; Wang, Congyong; Lin, Shisheng; Wang, Yuansheng (August 2019). "Color-filtered phosphor-in-glass for LED-lit LCD with wide color gamut". Ceramics International. 45 (11): 14432–14438. doi:10.1016/j.ceramint.2019.04.164. S2CID 149699364.
^ Fontani, Marco; Costa, Mariagrazia; Orna, Mary Virginia (2015). The Lost Elements: The Periodic Table's Shadow Side. Oxford University Press. pp. 172–173. ISBN 978-0-19-938334-4.
^ Sulc, Jan; Jelinkova, Helena; Jabczynski, Jan K.; Zendzian, Waldemar; Kwiatkowski, Jacek; Nejezchleb, Karel; Skoda, Vaclav (27 April 2005). "Comparison of diode-side-pumped triangular Nd:YAG and Nd:YAP laser" (PDF). In Hoffman, Hanna J; Shori, Ramesh K (eds.). Solid State Lasers XIV: Technology and Devices. Vol. 5707. p. 325. doi:10.1117/12.588233. S2CID 121802212. Retrieved 16 February 2022.
^ Johnson, L. F.; Boyd, G. D.; Nassau, K.; Soden, R. R. (1962). "Continuous operation of a solid-state optical maser". Physical Review. 126 (4): 1406. doi:10.1103/PhysRev.126.1406.
^ Geusic, J. E.; Marcos, H. M.; Van Uitert, L. G. (1964). "Laser oscillations in nd-doped yttrium aluminum, yttrium gallium and gadolinium garnets". Applied Physics Letters. 4 (10): 182. Bibcode:1964ApPhL...4..182G. doi:10.1063/1.1753928.
^ Koechner, 1999; Powell, 1998; Svelto, 1998; Siegman, 1986
^ Norman, M. J.; Andrew, J. E.; Bett, T. H.; Clifford, R. K.; et al. (2002). "Multipass Reconfiguration of the HELEN Nd:Glass Laser at the Atomic Weapons Establishment". Applied Optics. 41 (18): 3497–505. Bibcode:2002ApOpt..41.3497N. doi:10.1364/AO.41.003497. PMID 12078672.
^ Wang, W.; Wang, J.; Wang, F.; Feng, B.; Li, K.; Jia, H.; Han, W.; Xiang, Y.; Li, F.; Wang, L.; Zhong, W.; Zhang, X.; Zhao, S. (2010-10-01). "Third harmonic generation of Nd:glass laser with novel composite deuterated KDP crystals". Laser Physics. 20 (10): 1923–1926. doi:10.1134/S1054660X10190175. ISSN 1555-6611.
^ Watson ML (1958a) Staining of tissue sections for electron microscopy with heavy metals. II. Application of solutions containing lead and barium. J Biophys Biochem Cytol 4:727–730
^ Watson ML (1958b) Staining of tissue sections for electron microscopy with heavy metals. J Cell Biol 4:475–478
^ Hosogi N, Nishioka H, Nakakoshi M (2015) Evaluation of lanthanide salts as alternative stains to uranyl acetate. Microscopy (Oxf) 64:429–435
^ Ikeda K, Inoue K, Kanematsu S, Horiuchi Y, Park P (2011) Enhanced effects of nonisotopic hafnium chloride in methanol as a substitute for uranyl acetate in TEM contrast of ultrastructure of fungal and plant cells. Microsc Res Tech 74:825–830
^ Inaga S, Katsumoto T, Tanaka K, Kameie T, Nakane H, Naguro T (2007) Platinum blue as an alternative to uranyl acetate for staining in transmission electron microscopy. Arch Histol Cytol 70:43–49
^ Yamaguchi K, Suzuki K, Tanaka K (2010) Examination of electron stains as a substitute for uranyl acetate for the ultrathin sections of bacterial cells. J Electron Microsc (Tokyo) 59:113–118
^ Sato S, Adachi A, Sasaki Y, Ghazizadeh M (2008) Oolong tea extract as a substitute for uranyl acetate in staining of ultrathin sections. J Microsc 229:17–20
^ He X, Liu B (2017) Oolong tea extract as a substitute for uranyl acetate in staining of ultrathin sections based on examples of animal tissues for transmission electron microscopy. J Microsc 267:27–33
^ Wernick, J. H. (1973), Hannay, N. B. (ed.), "Structure and Composition in Relation to Properties", The Chemical Structure of Solids, Treatise on Solid State Chemistry, New York, NY: Springer US, pp. 175–282, doi:10.1007/978-1-4684-2661-8_4, ISBN 978-1-4684-2661-8, retrieved 2023-06-07
^ Epiotis, Nicolaos D. (1989). Clouthier, D. J.; Corio, P. L.; Epiotis, N. D.; Jørgensen, C. K.; Moule, D. C. (eds.). "Chemical bonding across the periodic table". Relationships and Mechanisms in the Periodic Table. Topics in Current Chemistry. Berlin, Heidelberg: Springer: 47–166. doi:10.1007/BFb0111260. ISBN 978-3-540-45906-4.
^ "Neodymium 261157". Sigma-Aldrich.
^ Pol, Arjan; Barends, Thomas R. M.; Dietl, Andreas; Khadem, Ahmad F.; Eygensteyn, Jelle; Jetten, Mike S. M.; Op Den Camp, Huub J. M. (2013). "Rare earth metals are essential for methanotrophic life in volcanic mudpots". Environmental Microbiology. 16 (1): 255–64. doi:10.1111/1462-2920.12249. PMID 24034209.
^ Kang, Lin; Shen, Zhiqiang; Jin, Chengzhi (2000-04-01). "Neodymium cations Nd3+ were transported to the interior ofEuglena gracilis 277". Chinese Science Bulletin. 45 (7): 585–592. doi:10.1007/BF02886032. ISSN 1861-9541.
^ Vais, Vladimir; Li, Chunsheng; Cornett, Jack (2003-09-01). "Condensation reaction in the bandpass reaction cell improves sensitivity for uranium, thorium, neodymium and praseodymium measurements". Analytical and Bioanalytical Chemistry. 377 (1): 85–88. doi:10.1007/s00216-003-2084-x. ISSN 1618-2650.
^ "Neodymium (Nd) - Chemical properties, Health and Environmental effects".
^ Swain, Frank (March 6, 2009). "How to remove a finger with two super magnets". Seed Media Group LLC. Retrieved 2013-03-31.
^ ^a ^b Abrams, Rachel (July 17, 2014). "After Two-Year Fight, Consumer Agency Orders Recall of Buckyballs". New York Times. Retrieved 2014-07-21.
^ Balistreri, William F. (2014). "Neodymium Magnets: Too Attractive?". Medscape Gastroenterology.

Bibliography

Emsley, John (2011). Nature's Building Blocks: An A-Z Guide to the Elements. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-960563-7.
Greenwood, Norman N.; Earnshaw, Alan (1997). Chemistry of the Elements (2nd ed.). Butterworth-Heinemann. ISBN 978-0-08-037941-8.
R. J. Callow, The Industrial Chemistry of the Lanthanons, Yttrium, Thorium, and Uranium, Pergamon Press, 1967.

External links

WebElements.com—Neodymium
It's Elemental—The element Neodymium
Neodymium at The Periodic Table of Videos (University of Nottingham)
EnvironmentalChemistry.com – Neodymium
Pictures and more details about Neodymium metal

[6] The thermal expansion is anisotropic: the parameters (at 20 °C) for each crystal axis are α_a = 4.8×10⁻⁶/K, α_c = 10.5×10⁻⁶/K, and α_average = α_V/3 = 6.7×10⁻⁶/K.^[3]

[47] Abundances in the source are listed relative to silicon rather than in per-particle notation. The sum of all elements per 10⁶ parts of silicon is 2.6682×10¹⁰ parts; lead comprises 3.258 parts.

[1] "Standard Atomic Weights: Neodymium". CIAAW. 2005.

[CIAAW2021-2] Prohaska, Thomas; Irrgeher, Johanna; Benefield, Jacqueline; Böhlke, John K.; Chesson, Lesley A.; Coplen, Tyler B.; Ding, Tiping; Dunn, Philip J. H.; Gröning, Manfred; Holden, Norman E.; Meijer, Harro A. J. (2022-05-04). "Standard atomic weights of the elements 2021 (IUPAC Technical Report)". Pure and Applied Chemistry. doi:10.1515/pac-2019-0603. ISSN 1365-3075.

[Arblaster_2018-3] Arblaster, John W. (2018). Selected Values of the Crystallographic Properties of Elements. Materials Park, Ohio: ASM International. ISBN 978-1-62708-155-9.

[Cloke1993-4] Yttrium and all lanthanides except Ce and Pm have been observed in the oxidation state 0 in bis(1,3,5-tri-t-butylbenzene) complexes, see Cloke, F. Geoffrey N. (1993). "Zero Oxidation State Compounds of Scandium, Yttrium, and the Lanthanides". Chem. Soc. Rev. 22: 17–24. doi:10.1039/CS9932200017. and Arnold, Polly L.; Petrukhina, Marina A.; Bochenkov, Vladimir E.; Shabatina, Tatyana I.; Zagorskii, Vyacheslav V.; Cloke (2003-12-15). "Arene complexation of Sm, Eu, Tm and Yb atoms: a variable temperature spectroscopic investigation". Journal of Organometallic Chemistry. 688 (1–2): 49–55. doi:10.1016/j.jorganchem.2003.08.028.

[GE28-5] Greenwood, Norman N.; Earnshaw, Alan (1997). Chemistry of the Elements (2nd ed.). Butterworth-Heinemann. p. 28. ISBN 978-0-08-037941-8.

[7] Gschneidner, K. A.; Eyring, L. (1978). Handbook on the Physics and Chemistry of Rare Earths. Amsterdam: North Holland. ISBN 0444850228.

[8] Weast, Robert (1984). CRC, Handbook of Chemistry and Physics. Boca Raton, Florida: Chemical Rubber Company Publishing. pp. E110. ISBN 0-8493-0464-4.

[NUBASE2020-9] Kondev, F. G.; Wang, M.; Huang, W. J.; Naimi, S.; Audi, G. (2021). "The NUBASE2020 evaluation of nuclear properties" (PDF). Chinese Physics C. 45 (3): 030001. doi:10.1088/1674-1137/abddae.

[10] Werbowy, S., Windholz, L. Studies of Landé gJ-factors of singly ionized neodymium isotopes (142, 143 and 145) at relatively small magnetic fields up to 334 G by collinear laser ion beam spectroscopy. Eur. Phys. J. D 71, 16 (2017). https://doi.org/10.1140/epjd/e2016-70641-3

[11] See Abundances of the elements (data page).

[12] Toshiba Develops Dysprosium-free Samarium-Cobalt Magnet to Replace Heat-resistant Neodymium Magnet in Essential Applications. Toshiba (2012-08-16). Retrieved on 2012-09-24.

[reu-13] Gorman, Steve (August 31, 2009) As hybrid cars gobble rare metals, shortage looms, Reuters.

[14] (2009) neodymium. In: Manutchehr-Danai M. (eds) Dictionary of Gems and Gemology. Springer, Berlin, Heidelberg. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-540-72816-0_15124

[CRC-15] ^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f ^g ^h Haynes, William M., ed. (2016). "Neodymium. Elements". CRC Handbook of Chemistry and Physics (97th ed.). CRC Press. p. 4.23. ISBN 9781498754293.

[16] Andrej Szytula; Janusz Leciejewicz (8 March 1994). Handbook of Crystal Structures and Magnetic Properties of Rare Earth Intermetallics. CRC Press. p. 1. ISBN 978-0-8493-4261-5.

[17] Stamenov, Plamen (2021), Coey, J. M. D.; Parkin, Stuart S.P. (eds.), "Magnetism of the Elements", Handbook of Magnetism and Magnetic Materials, Cham: Springer International Publishing, pp. 659–692, doi:10.1007/978-3-030-63210-6_15, ISBN 978-3-030-63210-6, retrieved 2023-06-07

[Greenwood1235-18] Greenwood and Earnshaw, pp. 1235–8

[19] Yttrium and all lanthanides except Ce and Pm have been observed in the oxidation state 0 in bis(1,3,5-tri-t-butylbenzene) complexes, see Cloke, F. Geoffrey N. (1993-01-01). "Zero oxidation state compounds of scandium, yttrium, and the lanthanides". Chemical Society Reviews. 22 (1): 17–24. doi:10.1039/CS9932200017. ISSN 1460-4744. and Arnold, Polly L; Petrukhina, Marina A; Bochenkov, Vladimir E; Shabatina, Tatyana I; Zagorskii, Vyacheslav V; Sergeev, Gleb B; Cloke, F. Geoffrey N (2003-12-15). "Arene complexation of Sm, Eu, Tm and Yb atoms: a variable temperature spectroscopic investigation". Journal of Organometallic Chemistry. 688 (1): 49–55. doi:10.1016/j.jorganchem.2003.08.028. ISSN 0022-328X..

[20] Neodymium: reactions of elements Archived 2009-05-01 at the Wayback Machine. WebElements. [2017-4-10]

[21] "Chemical reactions of Neodymium". Webelements. Retrieved 2012-08-16.

[Lighting-22] Burke M.W. (1996) Lighting II: Sources. In: Image Acquisition. Springer, Dordrecht. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-009-0069-1_2

[Greenwood1248-23] Greenwood and Earnshaw, pp. 1248–9

[24] "Standard Atomic Weights: Neodymium". CIAAW. 2005.

[25] Karlewski, T., Hildebrand, N., Herrmann, G. et al. Decay of the heaviest isotope of neodymium:154Nd. Z Physik A 322, 177–178 (1985). https://doi.org/10.1007/BF01412035

[rare_decays-26] Belli, P.; Bernabei, R.; Danevich, F. A.; Incicchitti, A.; Tretyak, V. I. (2019). "Experimental searches for rare alpha and beta decays". European Physical Journal A. 55 (140): 4–6. arXiv:1908.11458. Bibcode:2019EPJA...55..140B. doi:10.1140/epja/i2019-12823-2. S2CID 254103706.

[DePaolo-27] Depaolo, D. J.; Wasserburg, G. J. (1976). "Nd isotopic variations and petrogenetic models" (PDF). Geophysical Research Letters. 3 (5): 249. Bibcode:1976GeoRL...3..249D. doi:10.1029/GL003i005p00249.

[28] Barabash, A.S., Hubert, F., Hubert, P. et al. Double beta decay of ¹⁵⁰Nd to the First 0⁺ excited state of ¹⁵⁰Sm. Jetp Lett. 79, 10–12 (2004). https://doi.org/10.1134/1.1675911

[Marshall-29] Marshall, James L. Marshall; Marshall, Virginia R. Marshall (2016). "Rediscovery of the elements: The Rare Earths–The Last Member" (PDF). The Hexagon: 4–9. Retrieved 30 December 2019.

[Emsley120-30] Emsley, pp. 120–5

[Greenwood1424-31] Greenwood and Earnshaw, p. 1424

[XI-32] Weeks, Mary Elvira (1932). "The Discovery of the Elements: XI. Some Elements Isolated with the Aid of Potassium and Sodium:Zirconium, Titanium, Cerium and Thorium". The Journal of Chemical Education. 9 (7): 1231–1243. Bibcode:1932JChEd...9.1231W. doi:10.1021/ed009p1231.

[Weeks-33] Weeks, Mary Elvira (1956). The discovery of the elements (6th ed.). Easton, PA: Journal of Chemical Education.

[Virginia-34] Marshall, James L. Marshall; Marshall, Virginia R. Marshall (2015). "Rediscovery of the elements: The Rare Earths–The Confusing Years" (PDF). The Hexagon: 72–77. Retrieved 30 December 2019.

[35] See:
(Académie des sciences (France) (1839). Comptes rendus Academie des sciences 0008 (in French). Académie des Sciences (France). http://gallica.bnf.fr/. {{cite book}}: External link in |publisher= (help); More than one of |author= and |last= specified (help) From p. 356: "L'oxide de cérium, extrait de la cérite par la procédé ordinaire, contient à peu près les deux cinquièmes de son poids de l'oxide du nouveau métal qui ne change que peu les propriétés du cérium, et qui s'y tient pour ainsi dire caché. Cette raison a engagé M. Mosander à donner au nouveau métal le nom de Lantane." (The oxide of cerium, extracted from cerite by the usual procedure, contains almost two fifths of its weight in the oxide of the new metal, which differs only slightly from the properties of cerium, and which is held in it so to speak "hidden". This reason motivated Mr. Mosander to give to the new metal the name Lantane.)

Philosophical Magazine. Taylor & Francis. 1839.

[37] (Académie des sciences (France) (1839). Comptes rendus Academie des sciences 0008 (in French). Académie des Sciences (France). http://gallica.bnf.fr/. {{cite book}}: External link in |publisher= (help); More than one of |author= and |last= specified (help) From p. 356: "L'oxide de cérium, extrait de la cérite par la procédé ordinaire, contient à peu près les deux cinquièmes de son poids de l'oxide du nouveau métal qui ne change que peu les propriétés du cérium, et qui s'y tient pour ainsi dire caché. Cette raison a engagé M. Mosander à donner au nouveau métal le nom de Lantane." (The oxide of cerium, extracted from cerite by the usual procedure, contains almost two fifths of its weight in the oxide of the new metal, which differs only slightly from the properties of cerium, and which is held in it so to speak "hidden". This reason motivated Mr. Mosander to give to the new metal the name Lantane.)

[38] Philosophical Magazine. Taylor & Francis. 1839.

[36] v. Welsbach, Carl Auer (1885). "Die Zerlegung des Didyms in seine Elemente". Monatshefte für Chemie und verwandte Teile anderer Wissenschaften. 6 (1): 477–491. doi:10.1007/BF01554643. S2CID 95838770.

[37] Krishnamurthy, N.; Gupta, C. K. (2004). Extractive Metallurgy of Rare Earths. CRC Press. p. 6. ISBN 978-0-203-41302-9.

[history-38] Emsley, John (2003). Nature's building blocks: an A–Z guide to the elements. Oxford University Press. pp. 268–270. ISBN 0-19-850340-7.

[XVI-39] Weeks, Mary Elvira (1932). "The discovery of the elements. XVI. The rare earth elements". Journal of Chemical Education. 9 (10): 1751. Bibcode:1932JChEd...9.1751W. doi:10.1021/ed009p1751.

[40] Cotton, Simon A. (2021), Giunta, Carmen J.; Mainz, Vera V.; Girolami, Gregory S. (eds.), "The Rare Earths, a Challenge to Mendeleev, No Less Today", 150 Years of the Periodic Table: A Commemorative Symposium, Perspectives on the History of Chemistry, Cham: Springer International Publishing, pp. 259–301, doi:10.1007/978-3-030-67910-1_11, ISBN 978-3-030-67910-1, retrieved 2023-06-07

[41] Overland, Indra (2019-03-01). "The geopolitics of renewable energy: Debunking four emerging myths" (PDF). Energy Research & Social Science. 49: 36–40. doi:10.1016/j.erss.2018.10.018.

[Klinger-42] Klinger, Julie Michelle (2017). Rare earth frontiers : from terrestrial subsoils to lunar landscapes. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press. ISBN 978-1501714603. JSTOR 10.7591/j.ctt1w0dd6d.

[43] Hudson Institute of Mineralogy (1993–2018). "Mindat.org".

[44] Morimoto, Shinichirou; Kuroki, Hiroshi; Narita, Hirokazu; Ishigaki, Aya (2021-11-01). "Scenario assessment of neodymium recycling in Japan based on substance flow analysis and future demand forecast". Journal of Material Cycles and Waste Management. 23 (6): 2120–2132. doi:10.1007/s10163-021-01277-6. ISSN 1611-8227.

[Greenwood1229-45] Greenwood and Earnshaw, p. 1229–32

[FOOTNOTELodders20031222–1223-46] Lodders 2003, pp. 1222–1223.

[Barbalace-48] Barbalace, Kenneth. "Periodic Table of Elements". Environmental Chemistry.com. Retrieved 2007-04-14.

[CRC_abundance-49] Abundance of elements in the earth’s crust and in the sea, CRC Handbook of Chemistry and Physics, 97th edition (2016–2017), p. 14-17

[50] Archive "Rare Earths Statistics and Information | U.S. Geological Survey". minerals.usgs.gov. Retrieved 2023-06-07. {{cite web}}: |archive-url= requires |archive-date= (help); Check |archive-url= value (help)

[51] "Honda co-develops first hybrid car motor free of heavy rare earth metals". Reuters. 12 July 2016.

[52] "Honda's Heavy Rare Earth-Free Hybrid Motors Sidestep China". Bloomberg.com. 12 July 2016.

[53] "Greenland to hold election watched closely by global mining industry". Reuters. 2021-03-31. Retrieved 2023-06-07.

[54] Buzhinskii, I. M.; Mamonov, S. K.; Mikhailova, L. I. (1971-08-01). "Influence of specific neodymium-glass absorption bands on generating energy". Journal of Applied Spectroscopy. 15 (2): 1002–1005. doi:10.1007/BF00607297. ISSN 1573-8647.

[55] Sagawa M, Fujimura S, Togawa N, Yamamoto H, Matsuura Y (1984) New material for permanent magnets on a base of Nd and Fe. J Appl Phys 55(6):2083–2087. https://doi.org/10.1063/1.333572

[Yang_Yongxiang-56] Yang, Yongxiang; Walton, Allan; Sheridan, Richard; Güth, Konrad; Gauß, Roland; Gutfleisch, Oliver; Buchert, Matthias; Steenari, Britt-Marie; Van Gerven, Tom; Jones, Peter Tom; Binnemans, Koen (2017-03-01). "REE Recovery from End-of-Life NdFeB Permanent Magnet Scrap: A Critical Review". Journal of Sustainable Metallurgy. 3 (1): 122–149. doi:10.1007/s40831-016-0090-4. ISSN 2199-3831.

[57] Osborne, M. G.; Anderson, I. E.; Gschneidner, K. A.; Gailloux, M. J.; Ellis, T. W. (1994), Reed, Richard P.; Fickett, Fred R.; Summers, Leonard T.; Stieg, M. (eds.), "Centrifugal Atomization of Neodymium and Er3Ni Regenerator Particulate", Advances in Cryogenic Engineering Materials: Volume 40, Part A, An International Cryogenic Materials Conference Publication, Boston, MA: Springer US, pp. 631–638, doi:10.1007/978-1-4757-9053-5_80, ISBN 978-1-4757-9053-5, retrieved 2023-06-07

[uranyl_acetate-58] Kuipers, Jeroen; Giepmans, Ben N. G. (2020-04-01). "Neodymium as an alternative contrast for uranium in electron microscopy". Histochemistry and Cell Biology. 153 (4): 271–277. doi:10.1007/s00418-020-01846-0. ISSN 1432-119X. PMC 7160090. PMID 32008069.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: PMC format (link)

[59] Wei, Y. and Zhou, X. (1999). "The Effect of Neodymium (Nd³⁺) on Some Physiological Activities in Oilseed Rape during Calcium (Ca²⁺) Starvation". 10th International Rapeseed Congress. 2: 399.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)

[60] Tommasi, Franca; Thomas, Philippe J.; Pagano, Giovanni; Perono, Genevieve A.; Oral, Rahime; Lyons, Daniel M.; Toscanesi, Maria; Trifuoggi, Marco (2021-11-01). "Review of Rare Earth Elements as Fertilizers and Feed Additives: A Knowledge Gap Analysis". Archives of Environmental Contamination and Toxicology. 81 (4): 531–540. doi:10.1007/s00244-020-00773-4. ISSN 1432-0703. PMC 8558174. PMID 33141264.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: PMC format (link)

[61] "Team finds Earth's 'oldest rocks'". BBC News. London. 2008-09-26. Retrieved 2009-06-06.

[62] Carlson, Richard W. (2013), Rink, W. Jack; Thompson, Jeroen (eds.), "Sm–Nd Dating", Encyclopedia of Scientific Dating Methods, Dordrecht: Springer Netherlands, pp. 1–20, doi:10.1007/978-94-007-6326-5_84-1, ISBN 978-94-007-6326-5, retrieved 2023-06-07

[63] Tachikawa, K. (2003). "Neodymium budget in the modern ocean and paleo-oceanographic implications". Journal of Geophysical Research. 108 (C8): 3254. Bibcode:2003JGRC..108.3254T. doi:10.1029/1999JC000285.

[64] van de Flierdt, Tina; Griffiths, Alexander M.; Lambelet, Myriam; Little, Susan H.; Stichel, Torben; Wilson, David J. (2016-11-28). "Neodymium in the oceans: a global database, a regional comparison and implications for palaeoceanographic research". Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society A: Mathematical, Physical and Engineering Sciences. 374 (2081): 20150293. Bibcode:2016RSPTA.37450293V. doi:10.1098/rsta.2015.0293. PMC 5069528. PMID 29035258.

[65] Zhang, W., Liu, G. & Han, K. The Fe-Nd (Iron-Neodymium) system. JPE 13, 645–648 (1992). https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02667216

[66] Bala, H.; Szymura, S.; Pawłowska, G.; Rabinovich, Yu. M. (1993-10-01). "Effect of impurities on the corrosion behaviour of neodymium". Journal of Applied Electrochemistry. 23 (10): 1017–1024. doi:10.1007/BF00266123. ISSN 1572-8838.

[67] Hopp, M.; Rogaschewski, S.; Groth, Th. (2003-04-01). "Testing the cytotoxicity of metal alloys used as magnetic prosthetic devices". Journal of Materials Science: Materials in Medicine. 14 (4): 335–345. doi:10.1023/A:1022931915709. ISSN 1573-4838.

[sciencemag-68] Umut Kamber; Anders Bergman; Andreas Eich; Diana Iuşan; Manuel Steinbrecher; Nadine Hauptmann; Lars Nordström; Mikhail I. Katsnelson; Daniel Wegner; Olle Eriksson; Alexander A. Khajetoorians (May 29, 2020). "Self-induced spin glass state in elemental and crystalline neodymium". Science. Vol. 368, no. 6494. doi:10.1126/science.aay6757. Retrieved 29 May 2020.

[scitechdaily-69] Radboud University Nijmegen (May 28, 2020). "New 'Whirling' State of Matter Discovered: Self-Induced Spin Glass". Retrieved 29 May 2020.

[70] Kondrukevich, A. A.; Vlasov, A. S.; Platov, Yu. T.; Rusovich-Yugai, N. S.; Gorbatov, E. P. (2008-05-01). "Color of porcelain containing neodymium oxide". Glass and Ceramics. 65 (5): 203–207. doi:10.1007/s10717-008-9039-9. ISSN 1573-8515.

[71] "Chameleon Glass Changes Color". Archived from the original on 2008-04-03. Retrieved 2009-06-06.

[72] Brown D.C. (1981) Optical-Pump Sources for Nd : Glass Lasers. In: High-Peak-Power Nd: Glass Laser Systems. Springer Series in Optical Sciences, vol 25. Springer, Berlin, Heidelberg. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-540-38508-0_3

[73] Bray, Charles (2001). Dictionary of glass: materials and techniques. University of Pennsylvania Press. p. 102. ISBN 0-8122-3619-X.

[74] Baader Neodymium Filter, First Light Optics.

[75] Peelman, S.; Sietsma, J.; Yang, Y. (2018-06-01). "Recovery of Neodymium as (Na, Nd)(SO4)2 from the Ferrous Fraction of a General WEEE Shredder Stream". Journal of Sustainable Metallurgy. 4 (2): 276–287. doi:10.1007/s40831-018-0165-5. ISSN 2199-3831.

[76] Zhang, Liqiang; Lin, Hang; Cheng, Yao; Xu, Ju; Xiang, Xiaoqiang; Wang, Congyong; Lin, Shisheng; Wang, Yuansheng (August 2019). "Color-filtered phosphor-in-glass for LED-lit LCD with wide color gamut". Ceramics International. 45 (11): 14432–14438. doi:10.1016/j.ceramint.2019.04.164. S2CID 149699364.

[b1-77] Fontani, Marco; Costa, Mariagrazia; Orna, Mary Virginia (2015). The Lost Elements: The Periodic Table's Shadow Side. Oxford University Press. pp. 172–173. ISBN 978-0-19-938334-4.

[78] Sulc, Jan; Jelinkova, Helena; Jabczynski, Jan K.; Zendzian, Waldemar; Kwiatkowski, Jacek; Nejezchleb, Karel; Skoda, Vaclav (27 April 2005). "Comparison of diode-side-pumped triangular Nd:YAG and Nd:YAP laser" (PDF). In Hoffman, Hanna J; Shori, Ramesh K (eds.). Solid State Lasers XIV: Technology and Devices. Vol. 5707. p. 325. doi:10.1117/12.588233. S2CID 121802212. Retrieved 16 February 2022.

[79] Johnson, L. F.; Boyd, G. D.; Nassau, K.; Soden, R. R. (1962). "Continuous operation of a solid-state optical maser". Physical Review. 126 (4): 1406. doi:10.1103/PhysRev.126.1406.

[80] Geusic, J. E.; Marcos, H. M.; Van Uitert, L. G. (1964). "Laser oscillations in nd-doped yttrium aluminum, yttrium gallium and gadolinium garnets". Applied Physics Letters. 4 (10): 182. Bibcode:1964ApPhL...4..182G. doi:10.1063/1.1753928.

[81] Koechner, 1999; Powell, 1998; Svelto, 1998; Siegman, 1986

[82] Norman, M. J.; Andrew, J. E.; Bett, T. H.; Clifford, R. K.; et al. (2002). "Multipass Reconfiguration of the HELEN Nd:Glass Laser at the Atomic Weapons Establishment". Applied Optics. 41 (18): 3497–505. Bibcode:2002ApOpt..41.3497N. doi:10.1364/AO.41.003497. PMID 12078672.

[83] Wang, W.; Wang, J.; Wang, F.; Feng, B.; Li, K.; Jia, H.; Han, W.; Xiang, Y.; Li, F.; Wang, L.; Zhong, W.; Zhang, X.; Zhao, S. (2010-10-01). "Third harmonic generation of Nd:glass laser with novel composite deuterated KDP crystals". Laser Physics. 20 (10): 1923–1926. doi:10.1134/S1054660X10190175. ISSN 1555-6611.

[84] Watson ML (1958a) Staining of tissue sections for electron microscopy with heavy metals. II. Application of solutions containing lead and barium. J Biophys Biochem Cytol 4:727–730

[85] Watson ML (1958b) Staining of tissue sections for electron microscopy with heavy metals. J Cell Biol 4:475–478

[86] Hosogi N, Nishioka H, Nakakoshi M (2015) Evaluation of lanthanide salts as alternative stains to uranyl acetate. Microscopy (Oxf) 64:429–435

[87] Ikeda K, Inoue K, Kanematsu S, Horiuchi Y, Park P (2011) Enhanced effects of nonisotopic hafnium chloride in methanol as a substitute for uranyl acetate in TEM contrast of ultrastructure of fungal and plant cells. Microsc Res Tech 74:825–830

[88] Inaga S, Katsumoto T, Tanaka K, Kameie T, Nakane H, Naguro T (2007) Platinum blue as an alternative to uranyl acetate for staining in transmission electron microscopy. Arch Histol Cytol 70:43–49

[89] Yamaguchi K, Suzuki K, Tanaka K (2010) Examination of electron stains as a substitute for uranyl acetate for the ultrathin sections of bacterial cells. J Electron Microsc (Tokyo) 59:113–118

[90] Sato S, Adachi A, Sasaki Y, Ghazizadeh M (2008) Oolong tea extract as a substitute for uranyl acetate in staining of ultrathin sections. J Microsc 229:17–20

[91] He X, Liu B (2017) Oolong tea extract as a substitute for uranyl acetate in staining of ultrathin sections based on examples of animal tissues for transmission electron microscopy. J Microsc 267:27–33

[92] Wernick, J. H. (1973), Hannay, N. B. (ed.), "Structure and Composition in Relation to Properties", The Chemical Structure of Solids, Treatise on Solid State Chemistry, New York, NY: Springer US, pp. 175–282, doi:10.1007/978-1-4684-2661-8_4, ISBN 978-1-4684-2661-8, retrieved 2023-06-07

[93] Epiotis, Nicolaos D. (1989). Clouthier, D. J.; Corio, P. L.; Epiotis, N. D.; Jørgensen, C. K.; Moule, D. C. (eds.). "Chemical bonding across the periodic table". Relationships and Mechanisms in the Periodic Table. Topics in Current Chemistry. Berlin, Heidelberg: Springer: 47–166. doi:10.1007/BFb0111260. ISBN 978-3-540-45906-4.

[94] "Neodymium 261157". Sigma-Aldrich.

[95] Pol, Arjan; Barends, Thomas R. M.; Dietl, Andreas; Khadem, Ahmad F.; Eygensteyn, Jelle; Jetten, Mike S. M.; Op Den Camp, Huub J. M. (2013). "Rare earth metals are essential for methanotrophic life in volcanic mudpots". Environmental Microbiology. 16 (1): 255–64. doi:10.1111/1462-2920.12249. PMID 24034209.

[96] Kang, Lin; Shen, Zhiqiang; Jin, Chengzhi (2000-04-01). "Neodymium cations Nd3+ were transported to the interior ofEuglena gracilis 277". Chinese Science Bulletin. 45 (7): 585–592. doi:10.1007/BF02886032. ISSN 1861-9541.

[97] Vais, Vladimir; Li, Chunsheng; Cornett, Jack (2003-09-01). "Condensation reaction in the bandpass reaction cell improves sensitivity for uranium, thorium, neodymium and praseodymium measurements". Analytical and Bioanalytical Chemistry. 377 (1): 85–88. doi:10.1007/s00216-003-2084-x. ISSN 1618-2650.

[98] "Neodymium (Nd) - Chemical properties, Health and Environmental effects".

[99] Swain, Frank (March 6, 2009). "How to remove a finger with two super magnets". Seed Media Group LLC. Retrieved 2013-03-31.

[times2014-100] Abrams, Rachel (July 17, 2014). "After Two-Year Fight, Consumer Agency Orders Recall of Buckyballs". New York Times. Retrieved 2014-07-21.

[101] Balistreri, William F. (2014). "Neodymium Magnets: Too Attractive?". Medscape Gastroenterology.

[1]

[2]

[3]

[4]

[5]

[a]

[6]

[7]

[8]

[9]

[10]

[11]

[12]

[13]

[14]

[15]

[16]

[17]

[18]

[19]

[20]

[21]

[22]

[23]

[24]

[25]

[26]

[27]

[28]

[29]

[30]

[31]

[32]

[33]

[34]

[35]

[36]

[37]

[38]

[39]

[40]

[41]

[42]

[43]

[44]

[45]

[b]

[46]

[47]

[48]

[49]

[50]

[51]

[52]

[53]

[54]

[55]

[56]

[57]

[58]

[59]

[60]

[61]

[62]

[63]

[64]

[65]

[66]

[67]

[68]

[69]

[70]

[71]

[72]

[73]

[74]

[75]

[76]

[77]

[78]

[79]

[80]

[81]

[82]

[83]

[84]

[85]

[86]

[87]

[88]

[89]

[90]

[91]

[92]

[93]

[94]

[95]

[96]

[97]

[98]

@@ Line 11: / Line 11: @@
 ===Physical properties===
-Metallic neodymium has a bright, silvery metallic luster.<ref>(2009) neodymium. In: Manutchehr-Danai M. (eds) Dictionary of Gems and Gemology. Springer, Berlin, Heidelberg. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-540-72816-0_15124</ref> Neodymium commonly exists in two [[Allotropy|allotropic]] forms, with a transformation from a double hexagonal to a [[body-centered cubic]] structure taking place at about 863&nbsp;°C.<ref name="CRC">{{cite book|chapter=Neodymium. Elements| editor= Haynes, William M. | date = 2016| title = CRC Handbook of Chemistry and Physics | edition = 97th | publisher = [[CRC Press]] | isbn = 9781498754293|page=4.23| title-link= CRC Handbook of Chemistry and Physics }}</ref> Neodymium, like most of the lanthanides, is [[paramagnetic]] at room temperature and becomes an [[antiferromagnet]] upon cooling to {{convert|20|K|C}}.<ref>{{cite book|author1=Andrej Szytula|author2=Janusz Leciejewicz|title=Handbook of Crystal Structures and Magnetic Properties of Rare Earth Intermetallics|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-tgM8oAQcdcC&pg=PA1|date=8 March 1994|publisher=CRC Press|isbn=978-0-8493-4261-5|page=1}}</ref> Neodymium is a rare-earth [[metal]] that was present in the classical [[mischmetal]] at a concentration of about 18%. To make neodymium magnets it is alloyed with [[iron]], which is a [[ferromagnet]].<ref>Stamenov P. (2021) Magnetism of the Elements. In: Coey J.M.D., Parkin S.S. (eds) Handbook of Magnetism and Magnetic Materials. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-63210-6_15</ref>
+Metallic neodymium has a bright, silvery metallic luster.<ref>(2009) neodymium. In: Manutchehr-Danai M. (eds) Dictionary of Gems and Gemology. Springer, Berlin, Heidelberg. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-540-72816-0_15124</ref> Neodymium commonly exists in two [[Allotropy|allotropic]] forms, with a transformation from a double hexagonal to a [[body-centered cubic]] structure taking place at about 863&nbsp;°C.<ref name="CRC">{{cite book|chapter=Neodymium. Elements| editor= Haynes, William M. | date = 2016| title = CRC Handbook of Chemistry and Physics | edition = 97th | publisher = [[CRC Press]] | isbn = 9781498754293|page=4.23| title-link= CRC Handbook of Chemistry and Physics }}</ref> Neodymium, like most of the lanthanides, is [[paramagnetic]] at room temperature and becomes an [[antiferromagnet]] upon cooling to {{convert|20|K|C}}.<ref>{{cite book|author1=Andrej Szytula|author2=Janusz Leciejewicz|title=Handbook of Crystal Structures and Magnetic Properties of Rare Earth Intermetallics|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-tgM8oAQcdcC&pg=PA1|date=8 March 1994|publisher=CRC Press|isbn=978-0-8493-4261-5|page=1}}</ref> Neodymium is a rare-earth [[metal]] that was present in the classical [[mischmetal]] at a concentration of about 18%. To make neodymium magnets it is alloyed with [[iron]], which is a [[ferromagnet]].<ref>{{Citation |last=Stamenov |first=Plamen |title=Magnetism of the Elements |date=2021 |url=https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-63210-6_15 |work=Handbook of Magnetism and Magnetic Materials |pages=659–692 |editor-last=Coey |editor-first=J. M. D. |access-date=2023-06-07 |place=Cham |publisher=Springer International Publishing |language=en |doi=10.1007/978-3-030-63210-6_15 |isbn=978-3-030-63210-6 |editor2-last=Parkin |editor2-first=Stuart S.P.}}</ref>
 ===Electron configuration===
@@ Line 17: / Line 17: @@
 ===Chemical properties===
-Neodymium is the fourth member of the [[lanthanide]] series. It has a melting point of {{convert|1024|C|F|abbr=on}} and a boiling point of {{convert|3074|C|F|abbr=on}}. Neodymium, like other lanthanides, usually has the [[oxidation state]] +3, but it can also form in the +2 and +4 oxidation states, and even, in very rare conditions, +0.<ref>Yttrium and all lanthanides except Ce and Pm have been observed in the oxidation state 0 in bis(1,3,5-tri-t-butylbenzene) complexes, see Cloke, F. Geoffrey N. (1993). "Zero Oxidation State Compounds of Scandium, Yttrium, and the Lanthanides". Chem. Soc. Rev. 22: 17–24. https://doi.org/10.1039/CS9932200017. and Arnold, Polly L.; Petrukhina, Marina A.; Bochenkov, Vladimir E.; Shabatina, Tatyana I.; Zagorskii, Vyacheslav V.; Cloke (2003-12-15). "Arene complexation of Sm, Eu, Tm and Yb atoms: a variable temperature spectroscopic investigation". Journal of Organometallic Chemistry. 688 (1–2): 49–55. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jorganchem.2003.08.028.</ref> Neodymium metal quickly [[Redox|oxidizes]] at ambient conditions,<ref name="CRC" /> forming an oxide layer like [[iron]] rust that spalls off and exposes the metal to further oxidation; a centimeter-sized sample of neodymium corrodes completely in about a year. Nd<sup>3+</sup> is generally soluble in water. Like its neighbor [[praseodymium]], it readily burns at about 150&nbsp;°C to form [[neodymium(III) oxide]]; the oxide peels off, exposing the bulk metal to the further oxidation:<ref name="CRC" />
+Neodymium is the fourth member of the [[lanthanide]] series. It has a melting point of {{convert|1024|C|F|abbr=on}} and a boiling point of {{convert|3074|C|F|abbr=on}}. Neodymium, like other lanthanides, usually has the [[oxidation state]] +3, but it can also form in the +2 and +4 oxidation states, and even, in very rare conditions, +0.<ref>Yttrium and all lanthanides except Ce and Pm have been observed in the oxidation state 0 in bis(1,3,5-tri-t-butylbenzene) complexes, see {{Cite journal |last=Cloke |first=F. Geoffrey N. |date=1993-01-01 |title=Zero oxidation state compounds of scandium, yttrium, and the lanthanides |url=https://pubs.rsc.org/en/content/articlelanding/1993/cs/cs9932200017 |journal=Chemical Society Reviews |language=en |volume=22 |issue=1 |pages=17–24 |doi=10.1039/CS9932200017 |issn=1460-4744}} and {{Cite journal |last=Arnold |first=Polly L |last2=Petrukhina |first2=Marina A |last3=Bochenkov |first3=Vladimir E |last4=Shabatina |first4=Tatyana I |last5=Zagorskii |first5=Vyacheslav V |last6=Sergeev |first6=Gleb B |last7=Cloke |first7=F. Geoffrey N |date=2003-12-15 |title=Arene complexation of Sm, Eu, Tm and Yb atoms: a variable temperature spectroscopic investigation |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0022328X03008684 |journal=Journal of Organometallic Chemistry |language=en |volume=688 |issue=1 |pages=49–55 |doi=10.1016/j.jorganchem.2003.08.028 |issn=0022-328X}}.</ref> Neodymium metal quickly [[Redox|oxidizes]] at ambient conditions,<ref name="CRC" /> forming an oxide layer like [[iron]] rust that spalls off and exposes the metal to further oxidation; a centimeter-sized sample of neodymium corrodes completely in about a year. Nd<sup>3+</sup> is generally soluble in water. Like its neighbor [[praseodymium]], it readily burns at about 150&nbsp;°C to form [[neodymium(III) oxide]]; the oxide peels off, exposing the bulk metal to the further oxidation:<ref name="CRC" />
 :{{chem2|4Nd + 3O2 → 2Nd2O3}}
@@ Line 71: / Line 71: @@
 In 1751, the Swedish mineralogist [[Axel Fredrik Cronstedt]] discovered a heavy mineral from the mine at [[Bastnäs]], later named [[cerite]]. Thirty years later, fifteen-year-old [[Wilhelm Hisinger]], a member of the family owning the mine, sent a sample to [[Carl Scheele]], who did not find any new elements within. In 1803, after Hisinger had become an ironmaster, he returned to the mineral with [[Jöns Jacob Berzelius]] and isolated a new oxide, which they named ''ceria'' after the [[dwarf planet]] [[Ceres (dwarf planet)|Ceres]], which had been discovered two years earlier.<ref name="Emsley120">Emsley, pp. 120–5</ref> Ceria was simultaneously and independently isolated in Germany by [[Martin Heinrich Klaproth]].<ref name="Greenwood1424">Greenwood and Earnshaw, p. 1424</ref> Between 1839 and 1843, ceria was shown to be a mixture of oxides by the Swedish surgeon and chemist [[Carl Gustaf Mosander]], who lived in the same house as Berzelius; he separated out two other oxides, which he named ''lanthana'' and ''didymia''.<ref name="XI">{{cite journal | doi = 10.1021/ed009p1231 | last = Weeks | first = Mary Elvira |author-link=Mary Elvira Weeks| title = The Discovery of the Elements: XI. Some Elements Isolated with the Aid of Potassium and Sodium:Zirconium, Titanium, Cerium and Thorium | journal = The Journal of Chemical Education | date = 1932 | volume = 9 | issue = 7 | pages = 1231–1243 |bibcode = 1932JChEd...9.1231W }}</ref><ref name="Weeks">{{cite book |last1=Weeks |first1=Mary Elvira |title=The discovery of the elements |date=1956 |publisher=Journal of Chemical Education |location=Easton, PA |url=https://archive.org/details/discoveryoftheel002045mbp |edition=6th }}</ref><ref name="Virginia">{{cite journal |last1=Marshall |first1=James L. Marshall |last2=Marshall |first2=Virginia R. Marshall |title=Rediscovery of the elements: The Rare Earths–The Confusing Years |journal=The Hexagon |date=2015 |pages=72–77 |url=http://www.chem.unt.edu/~jimm/REDISCOVERY%207-09-2018/Hexagon%20Articles/rare%20earths%20II.pdf |access-date=30 December 2019}}</ref> He partially decomposed a sample of [[cerium nitrate]] by roasting it in air and then treating the resulting oxide with dilute [[nitric acid]]. The metals that formed these oxides were thus named ''lanthanum'' and ''[[didymium]]'',<ref>See:
-* (Berzelius) (1839) [https://archive.org/stream/ComptesRendusAcademieDesSciences0008/ComptesRendusAcadmieDesSciences-Tome008-Janvier-juin1839#page/n361/mode/1up "Nouveau métal"] (New metal), ''Comptes rendus'', ''8'' : 356–357. From p. 356: ''"L'oxide de cérium, extrait de la cérite par la procédé ordinaire, contient à peu près les deux cinquièmes de son poids de l'oxide du nouveau métal qui ne change que peu les propriétés du cérium, et qui s'y tient pour ainsi dire caché. Cette raison a engagé M. Mosander à donner au nouveau métal le nom de ''Lantane''."'' (The oxide of cerium, extracted from cerite by the usual procedure, contains almost two fifths of its weight in the oxide of the new metal, which differs only slightly from the properties of cerium, and which is held in it so to speak "hidden". This reason motivated Mr. Mosander to give to the new metal the name ''Lantane''.)
+* ({{Cite book |last=Académie des sciences (France) |url=http://archive.org/details/ComptesRendusAcademieDesSciences0008 |author=Berzelius |title=Comptes rendus Academie des sciences 0008 |date=1839 |publisher=http://gallica.bnf.fr/ |others=Académie des Sciences (France) |language=French}} From p. 356: ''"L'oxide de cérium, extrait de la cérite par la procédé ordinaire, contient à peu près les deux cinquièmes de son poids de l'oxide du nouveau métal qui ne change que peu les propriétés du cérium, et qui s'y tient pour ainsi dire caché. Cette raison a engagé M. Mosander à donner au nouveau métal le nom de ''Lantane''."'' (The oxide of cerium, extracted from cerite by the usual procedure, contains almost two fifths of its weight in the oxide of the new metal, which differs only slightly from the properties of cerium, and which is held in it so to speak "hidden". This reason motivated Mr. Mosander to give to the new metal the name ''Lantane''.)
-* (Berzelius) (1839) [https://books.google.com/books?id=dF1KiX7MbSMC&pg=PA390 "Latanium — a new metal,"] ''Philosophical Magazine'', new series, '''14''' : 390–391.</ref> officially discovered in [[Vienna]] in 1885 by Carl Gustaf Mosander.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=v. Welsbach |first1=Carl Auer |title=Die Zerlegung des Didyms in seine Elemente |journal=Monatshefte für Chemie und verwandte Teile anderer Wissenschaften |volume=6|issue=1 |year=1885|pages=477–491 |doi=10.1007/BF01554643|s2cid=95838770 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|title = Extractive Metallurgy of Rare Earths|last1 = Krishnamurthy|first1 = N.|publisher = CRC Press|year = 2004|isbn = 978-0-203-41302-9|pages = 6|last2 = Gupta|first2 = C. K.}}</ref><!-- The year of discovery is wrong in this book. Confirmed by an email from the author--> Von Welsbach confirmed the separation by [[spectroscopic]] analysis, but the products were of relatively low purity. Didymium was discovered by [[Carl Gustaf Mosander]] in 1841, and pure neodymium was isolated from it in 1925. The name neodymium is derived from the Greek words ''neos'' (νέος), new, and ''didymos'' (διδύμος), twin.<ref name="CRC" /><ref name="history">{{cite book|url=https://archive.org/details/naturesbuildingb0000emsl|url-access=registration| pages= [https://archive.org/details/naturesbuildingb0000emsl/page/268 268]–270|title = Nature's building blocks: an A–Z guide to the elements| author =Emsley, John | publisher= Oxford University Press| date = 2003| isbn = 0-19-850340-7}}</ref><ref name="XVI">{{cite journal|last1=Weeks|first1=Mary Elvira|title=The discovery of the elements. XVI. The rare earth elements|journal=Journal of Chemical Education|volume=9|issue=10|year=1932|pages=1751|doi=10.1021/ed009p1751|bibcode=1932JChEd...9.1751W}}</ref>
+* {{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=dF1KiX7MbSMC&pg=PA390 |title=Philosophical Magazine |date=1839 |publisher=Taylor & Francis |language=en}}</ref> officially discovered in [[Vienna]] in 1885 by Carl Gustaf Mosander.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=v. Welsbach |first1=Carl Auer |title=Die Zerlegung des Didyms in seine Elemente |journal=Monatshefte für Chemie und verwandte Teile anderer Wissenschaften |volume=6|issue=1 |year=1885|pages=477–491 |doi=10.1007/BF01554643|s2cid=95838770 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|title = Extractive Metallurgy of Rare Earths|last1 = Krishnamurthy|first1 = N.|publisher = CRC Press|year = 2004|isbn = 978-0-203-41302-9|pages = 6|last2 = Gupta|first2 = C. K.}}</ref><!-- The year of discovery is wrong in this book. Confirmed by an email from the author--> Von Welsbach confirmed the separation by [[spectroscopic]] analysis, but the products were of relatively low purity. Didymium was discovered by [[Carl Gustaf Mosander]] in 1841, and pure neodymium was isolated from it in 1925. The name neodymium is derived from the Greek words ''neos'' (νέος), new, and ''didymos'' (διδύμος), twin.<ref name="CRC" /><ref name="history">{{cite book|url=https://archive.org/details/naturesbuildingb0000emsl|url-access=registration| pages= [https://archive.org/details/naturesbuildingb0000emsl/page/268 268]–270|title = Nature's building blocks: an A–Z guide to the elements| author =Emsley, John | publisher= Oxford University Press| date = 2003| isbn = 0-19-850340-7}}</ref><ref name="XVI">{{cite journal|last1=Weeks|first1=Mary Elvira|title=The discovery of the elements. XVI. The rare earth elements|journal=Journal of Chemical Education|volume=9|issue=10|year=1932|pages=1751|doi=10.1021/ed009p1751|bibcode=1932JChEd...9.1751W}}</ref><ref name="Weeks" /><ref name="Virginia" /><ref name="Marshall" />
-Double nitrate crystallization was the means of commercial neodymium purification until the 1950s. Lindsay Chemical Division was the first to commercialize large-scale ion-exchange purification of neodymium. Starting in the 1950s, high purity (>99%) neodymium was primarily obtained through an [[ion exchange]] process from [[monazite]], a mineral rich in rare-earth elements.<ref name="CRC" /> The metal is obtained through [[electrolysis]] of its [[halide]] [[Salt (chemistry)|salts]]. Currently, most neodymium is extracted from [[bastnäsite]] and purified by solvent extraction. Ion-exchange purification is used for the highest purities (typically >99.99%). The evolving technology, and improved purity of commercially available neodymium oxide, was reflected in the appearance of neodymium glasses in collections today. Early neodymium glasses made in the 1930s have a more reddish or orange tinge than modern versions, which are more cleanly purple, because of the difficulties in removing traces of praseodymium using early technology, namely fractional crystallization.<ref>Cotton S.A. (2021) The Rare Earths, a Challenge to Mendeleev, No Less Today. In: Giunta C.J., Mainz V.V., Girolami G.S. (eds) 150 Years of the Periodic Table. Perspectives on the History of Chemistry. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-67910-1_11</ref>
+Double nitrate crystallization was the means of commercial neodymium purification until the 1950s. Lindsay Chemical Division was the first to commercialize large-scale ion-exchange purification of neodymium. Starting in the 1950s, high purity (>99%) neodymium was primarily obtained through an [[ion exchange]] process from [[monazite]], a mineral rich in rare-earth elements.<ref name="CRC" /> The metal is obtained through [[electrolysis]] of its [[halide]] [[Salt (chemistry)|salts]]. Currently, most neodymium is extracted from [[bastnäsite]] and purified by solvent extraction. Ion-exchange purification is used for the highest purities (typically >99.99%). The evolving technology, and improved purity of commercially available neodymium oxide, was reflected in the appearance of neodymium glasses in collections today. Early neodymium glasses made in the 1930s have a more reddish or orange tinge than modern versions, which are more cleanly purple, because of the difficulties in removing traces of praseodymium using early technology, namely fractional crystallization.<ref>{{Citation |last=Cotton |first=Simon A. |title=The Rare Earths, a Challenge to Mendeleev, No Less Today |date=2021 |url=https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-67910-1_11 |work=150 Years of the Periodic Table: A Commemorative Symposium |pages=259–301 |editor-last=Giunta |editor-first=Carmen J. |access-date=2023-06-07 |series=Perspectives on the History of Chemistry |place=Cham |publisher=Springer International Publishing |language=en |doi=10.1007/978-3-030-67910-1_11 |isbn=978-3-030-67910-1 |editor2-last=Mainz |editor2-first=Vera V. |editor3-last=Girolami |editor3-first=Gregory S.}}</ref>
 Because of its role in permanent magnets used for direct-drive wind turbines, it has been argued that neodymium will be one of the main objects of geopolitical competition in a world running on renewable energy. This perspective has been criticised for failing to recognise that most wind turbines do not use permanent magnets, and for underestimating the power of economic incentives for expanded production.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Overland|first=Indra|date=2019-03-01|title=The geopolitics of renewable energy: Debunking four emerging myths|url=https://nupi.brage.unit.no/nupi-xmlui/bitstream/11250/2579292/2/2019%2b-%2bThe%2bgeopolitics%2bof%2brenewable%2benergy%252C%2bdebunking%2bfour%2bemerging%2bmyths.pdf|journal=Energy Research & Social Science|volume=49|pages=36–40|doi=10.1016/j.erss.2018.10.018|doi-access=free}}</ref><ref name="Klinger">{{cite book |last1=Klinger |first1=Julie Michelle |title=Rare earth frontiers : from terrestrial subsoils to lunar landscapes |date=2017 |publisher=Cornell University Press |location=Ithaca, NY |isbn=978-1501714603 |jstor=10.7591/j.ctt1w0dd6d }}</ref>
@@ Line 82: / Line 82: @@
 [[File:Bastnaesite - Kischtimsk, Ural.jpg|thumb|left|[[Bastnäsite]]]]
 Neodymium is rarely found in nature as a free element, instead occurring as ores, such as [[monazite]] and [[bastnäsite]] (these are mineral group names rather than single mineral names) that contain small amounts of all rare-earth metals. In these minerals neodymium is rarely dominant; some exceptions include monazite-(Nd) and kozoite-(Nd).<ref>
-{{cite web |url=https://www.mindat.org/ |title=Mindat.org |author=Hudson Institute of Mineralogy |date=1993–2018 }}</ref> The main mining areas are in China, United States, Brazil, India, Sri Lanka, and Australia. World reserves of neodymium are estimated at eight million tonnes.<ref>Morimoto, S., Kuroki, H., Narita, H. et al. Scenario assessment of neodymium recycling in Japan based on substance flow analysis and future demand forecast. ''J Mater Cycles Waste Manag'' '''23''', 2120–2132 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10163-021-01277-6</ref>
+{{cite web |url=https://www.mindat.org/ |title=Mindat.org |author=Hudson Institute of Mineralogy |date=1993–2018 }}</ref> The main mining areas are in China, United States, Brazil, India, Sri Lanka, and Australia. World reserves of neodymium are estimated at eight million tonnes.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Morimoto |first=Shinichirou |last2=Kuroki |first2=Hiroshi |last3=Narita |first3=Hirokazu |last4=Ishigaki |first4=Aya |date=2021-11-01 |title=Scenario assessment of neodymium recycling in Japan based on substance flow analysis and future demand forecast |url=https://doi.org/10.1007/s10163-021-01277-6 |journal=Journal of Material Cycles and Waste Management |language=en |volume=23 |issue=6 |pages=2120–2132 |doi=10.1007/s10163-021-01277-6 |issn=1611-8227}}</ref>
 The Nd<sup>3+</sup> ion is similar in size to the early lanthanides of the cerium group (those from lanthanum up to [[samarium]] and [[europium]]) that immediately follow in the periodic table, and hence it tends to occur along with them in [[phosphate]], [[silicate]] and [[carbonate]] minerals, such as [[monazite]] (M<sup>III</sup>PO<sub>4</sub>) and [[bastnäsite]] (M<sup>III</sup>CO<sub>3</sub>F), where M refers to all the rare-earth metals except scandium and the radioactive [[promethium]] (mostly Ce, La, and Y, with somewhat less Pr and Nd).<ref name="Greenwood1229">Greenwood and Earnshaw, p. 1229–32</ref> Bastnäsite is usually lacking in [[thorium]] and the heavy lanthanides, and the purification of the light lanthanides from it is less involved. The ore, after being crushed and ground, is first treated with hot concentrated sulfuric acid, evolving carbon dioxide, [[hydrogen fluoride]], and [[silicon tetrafluoride]]. The product is then dried and leached with water, leaving the early lanthanide ions, including lanthanum, in solution.<ref name="Greenwood1229" />
@@ Line 142: / Line 142: @@
 ===Production===
-The world's production of neodymium was about 7,000 tons in 2004.<ref name="history" /> The bulk of current production is from China. Historically, the Chinese government imposed strategic material controls on the element, causing large fluctuations in prices.<ref>[http://minerals.usgs.gov/minerals/pubs/commodity/rare_earths/mcs-2016-raree.pdf Rare Earths]. [https://web.archive.org/web/20160506184123/http://minerals.usgs.gov/minerals/pubs/commodity/rare_earths/mcs-2016-raree.pdf Archive] ''[[United States Geological Survey]]'', January 2016.</ref> The uncertainty of pricing and availability have caused companies (particularly Japanese ones) to create permanent magnets and associated electric motors with fewer rare-earth metals; however, so far they have been unable to eliminate the need for neodymium.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.reuters.com/article/honda-rareearths-idUST9N18R02G|title=Honda co-develops first hybrid car motor free of heavy rare earth metals|date=12 July 2016|work=Reuters}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2016-07-12/honda-readies-heavy-rare-earth-free-hybrids-to-sidestep-china|title=Honda's Heavy Rare Earth-Free Hybrid Motors Sidestep China|date=12 July 2016|newspaper=Bloomberg.com}}</ref> According to the [[US Geological Survey]], [[Greenland]] holds the largest reserves of undeveloped rare-earth deposits, particularly neodymium. [[Mining industry|Mining interests]] clash with native populations at those sites, due to the release of radioactive substances during the mining process.<ref>[https://www.reuters.com/article/us-greenland-election/greenland-to-hold-election-watched-closely-by-global-mining-industry-idUSKBN2BN1U6 "Greenland to hold election watched closely by global mining industry"] ''reuters.com''. Retrieved 31 March 2021.</ref>
+The world's production of neodymium was about 7,000 tons in 2004.<ref name="history" /> The bulk of current production is from China. Historically, the Chinese government imposed strategic material controls on the element, causing large fluctuations in prices.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Rare Earths  Statistics and Information {{!}} U.S. Geological Survey |url=http://minerals.usgs.gov/minerals/pubs/commodity/rare_earths/mcs-2016-raree.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160506184123/http://minerals.usgs.gov/minerals/pubs/commodity/rare_earths/mcs-2016-raree.pdf Archive |access-date=2023-06-07 |website=minerals.usgs.gov |language=en}}</ref> The uncertainty of pricing and availability have caused companies (particularly Japanese ones) to create permanent magnets and associated electric motors with fewer rare-earth metals; however, so far they have been unable to eliminate the need for neodymium.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.reuters.com/article/honda-rareearths-idUST9N18R02G|title=Honda co-develops first hybrid car motor free of heavy rare earth metals|date=12 July 2016|work=Reuters}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2016-07-12/honda-readies-heavy-rare-earth-free-hybrids-to-sidestep-china|title=Honda's Heavy Rare Earth-Free Hybrid Motors Sidestep China|date=12 July 2016|newspaper=Bloomberg.com}}</ref> According to the [[US Geological Survey]], [[Greenland]] holds the largest reserves of undeveloped rare-earth deposits, particularly neodymium. [[Mining industry|Mining interests]] clash with native populations at those sites, due to the release of radioactive substances during the mining process.<ref>{{Cite news |date=2021-03-31 |title=Greenland to hold election watched closely by global mining industry |language=en |work=Reuters |url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-greenland-election-idUSKBN2BN1U6 |access-date=2023-06-07}}</ref>
 [[File:Monazite acid cracking process.svg|frameless|center|730px]]
-Neodymium is typically 10–18% of the rare-earth content of commercial deposits of the light rare-earth-element minerals bastnäsite and monazite.<ref name="CRC" /> With neodymium compounds being the most strongly colored for the trivalent lanthanides, it can occasionally dominate the coloration of rare-earth minerals when competing chromophores are absent. It usually gives a pink coloration. Outstanding examples of this include monazite crystals from the [[tin]] deposits in [[Llallagua]], [[Bolivia]]; [[ancylite]] from [[Mont Saint-Hilaire]], [[Quebec]], [[Canada]]; or lanthanite from the [[Lower Saucon Township, Northampton County, Pennsylvania|Saucon Valley]], [[Pennsylvania]], United States. As with neodymium glasses, such minerals change their colors under the differing lighting conditions. The absorption bands of neodymium interact with the visible [[emission spectrum]] of [[Mercury-vapor lamp|mercury vapor]], with the unfiltered shortwave UV light causing neodymium-containing minerals to reflect a distinctive green color. This can be observed with monazite-containing sands or bastnäsite-containing ore.<ref>Buzhinskii, I.M., Mamonov, S.K. & Mikhailova, L.I. Influence of specific neodymium-glass absorption bands on generating energy. J Appl Spectrosc 15, 1002–1005 (1971). https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00607297</ref>
+Neodymium is typically 10–18% of the rare-earth content of commercial deposits of the light rare-earth-element minerals bastnäsite and monazite.<ref name="CRC" /> With neodymium compounds being the most strongly colored for the trivalent lanthanides, it can occasionally dominate the coloration of rare-earth minerals when competing chromophores are absent. It usually gives a pink coloration. Outstanding examples of this include monazite crystals from the [[tin]] deposits in [[Llallagua]], [[Bolivia]]; [[ancylite]] from [[Mont Saint-Hilaire]], [[Quebec]], [[Canada]]; or lanthanite from the [[Lower Saucon Township, Northampton County, Pennsylvania|Saucon Valley]], [[Pennsylvania]], United States. As with neodymium glasses, such minerals change their colors under the differing lighting conditions. The absorption bands of neodymium interact with the visible [[emission spectrum]] of [[Mercury-vapor lamp|mercury vapor]], with the unfiltered shortwave UV light causing neodymium-containing minerals to reflect a distinctive green color. This can be observed with monazite-containing sands or bastnäsite-containing ore.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Buzhinskii |first=I. M. |last2=Mamonov |first2=S. K. |last3=Mikhailova |first3=L. I. |date=1971-08-01 |title=Influence of specific neodymium-glass absorption bands on generating energy |url=https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00607297 |journal=Journal of Applied Spectroscopy |language=en |volume=15 |issue=2 |pages=1002–1005 |doi=10.1007/BF00607297 |issn=1573-8647}}</ref>
-The demand for mineral resources, such as [[rare earth metals|rare-earth elements]] (including neodymium) and other critical materials, has been rapidly increasing owing to the growing human [[population]] and industrial development. Recently, the requirement for a low-carbon society has led to a significant demand for energy-saving technologies such as batteries, high-efficiency motors, renewable energy sources, and fuel cells. Among these technologies, permanent magnets are often used to fabricate high-efficiency motors, with neodymium-iron-boron magnets (Nd<sub>2</sub>Fe<sub>14</sub>B sintered and bonded magnets; hereinafter referred to as [[Neodymium magnet|NdFeB magnets]]) being the main type of permanent magnet in the market since their invention.<ref>Sagawa M, Fujimura S, Togawa N, Yamamoto H, Matsuura Y (1984) New material for permanent magnets on a base of Nd and Fe. J Appl Phys 55(6):2083–2087. https://doi.org/10.1063/1.333572</ref> NdFeB magnets are used in [[hybrid electric vehicles]] (HEVs), [[plug-in hybrid|plug-in hybrid electric vehicles]] (PHEVs), [[electric vehicle]]s (EVs), and [[fuel cell vehicle]]s (FCVs) (hereinafter referred to as xEVs), [[wind turbine]]s, [[home appliance]]s, computers, and many small consumer electronic devices.<ref>Yang Y, Walton A, Sheridan R et al (2017) REE recovery from end-of-life NdFeB permanent magnet scrap: a critical review. J Sustain Met 3(1):122–149. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40831-016-0090-4</ref> Furthermore, they are indispensable for energy savings. Toward achieving the objectives of the [[Paris Agreement]], the demand for NdFeB magnets is expected to increase significantly in the future.<ref>Yang, Y., Walton, A., Sheridan, R. et al. REE Recovery from End-of-Life NdFeB Permanent Magnet Scrap: A Critical Review. J. Sustain. Metall. 3, 122–149 (2017). https://doi.org/10.1007/s40831-016-0090-4</ref>
+The demand for mineral resources, such as [[rare earth metals|rare-earth elements]] (including neodymium) and other critical materials, has been rapidly increasing owing to the growing human [[population]] and industrial development. Recently, the requirement for a low-carbon society has led to a significant demand for energy-saving technologies such as batteries, high-efficiency motors, renewable energy sources, and fuel cells. Among these technologies, permanent magnets are often used to fabricate high-efficiency motors, with neodymium-iron-boron magnets (Nd<sub>2</sub>Fe<sub>14</sub>B sintered and bonded magnets; hereinafter referred to as [[Neodymium magnet|NdFeB magnets]]) being the main type of permanent magnet in the market since their invention.<ref>Sagawa M, Fujimura S, Togawa N, Yamamoto H, Matsuura Y (1984) New material for permanent magnets on a base of Nd and Fe. J Appl Phys 55(6):2083–2087. https://doi.org/10.1063/1.333572</ref> NdFeB magnets are used in [[hybrid electric vehicles]] (HEVs), [[plug-in hybrid|plug-in hybrid electric vehicles]] (PHEVs), [[electric vehicle]]s (EVs), and [[fuel cell vehicle]]s (FCVs) (hereinafter referred to as xEVs), [[wind turbine]]s, [[home appliance]]s, computers, and many small consumer electronic devices.<ref name="Yang Yongxiang">{{Cite journal |last=Yang |first=Yongxiang |last2=Walton |first2=Allan |last3=Sheridan |first3=Richard |last4=Güth |first4=Konrad |last5=Gauß |first5=Roland |last6=Gutfleisch |first6=Oliver |last7=Buchert |first7=Matthias |last8=Steenari |first8=Britt-Marie |last9=Van Gerven |first9=Tom |last10=Jones |first10=Peter Tom |last11=Binnemans |first11=Koen |date=2017-03-01 |title=REE Recovery from End-of-Life NdFeB Permanent Magnet Scrap: A Critical Review |url=https://doi.org/10.1007/s40831-016-0090-4 |journal=Journal of Sustainable Metallurgy |language=en |volume=3 |issue=1 |pages=122–149 |doi=10.1007/s40831-016-0090-4 |issn=2199-3831}}</ref> Furthermore, they are indispensable for energy savings. Toward achieving the objectives of the [[Paris Agreement]], the demand for NdFeB magnets is expected to increase significantly in the future.<ref name="Yang Yongxiang" />
 ==Applications==
-* Neodymium has an unusually large specific [[heat capacity]] at liquid-helium temperatures, so is useful in [[cryocoolers]].<ref>Osborne M.G., Anderson I.E., Gschneidner K.A., Gailloux M.J., Ellis T.W. (1994) Centrifugal Atomization of Neodymium and Er3Ni Regenerator Particulate. In: Reed R.P., Fickett F.R., Summers L.T., Stieg M. (eds) Advances in Cryogenic Engineering Materials. An International Cryogenic Materials Conference Publication, vol 40. Springer, Boston, MA. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4757-9053-5_80</ref>
+* Neodymium has an unusually large specific [[heat capacity]] at liquid-helium temperatures, so is useful in [[cryocoolers]].<ref>{{Citation |last=Osborne |first=M. G. |title=Centrifugal Atomization of Neodymium and Er3Ni Regenerator Particulate |date=1994 |url=https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4757-9053-5_80 |work=Advances in Cryogenic Engineering Materials: Volume 40, Part A |pages=631–638 |editor-last=Reed |editor-first=Richard P. |access-date=2023-06-07 |series=An International Cryogenic Materials Conference Publication |place=Boston, MA |publisher=Springer US |language=en |doi=10.1007/978-1-4757-9053-5_80 |isbn=978-1-4757-9053-5 |last2=Anderson |first2=I. E. |last3=Gschneidner |first3=K. A. |last4=Gailloux |first4=M. J. |last5=Ellis |first5=T. W. |editor2-last=Fickett |editor2-first=Fred R. |editor3-last=Summers |editor3-first=Leonard T. |editor4-last=Stieg |editor4-first=M.}}</ref>
-* [[Neodymium acetate]] can be a substitute for the radioactive and toxic [[uranyl acetate]] (used as a standard contrasting agent in [[Electron microscope|electron microscopy]]).<ref name="uranyl acetate">Kuipers, J., Giepmans, B.N.G. Neodymium as an alternative contrast for uranium in electron microscopy.'' Histochem Cell Biol '''''153''', 271–277 (2020). https://doi.org/10.1007/s00418-020-01846-0</ref>
+* [[Neodymium acetate]] can be a substitute for the radioactive and toxic [[uranyl acetate]] (used as a standard contrasting agent in [[Electron microscope|electron microscopy]]).<ref name="uranyl acetate">{{Cite journal |last=Kuipers |first=Jeroen |last2=Giepmans |first2=Ben N. G. |date=2020-04-01 |title=Neodymium as an alternative contrast for uranium in electron microscopy |url=https://doi.org/10.1007/s00418-020-01846-0 |journal=Histochemistry and Cell Biology |language=en |volume=153 |issue=4 |pages=271–277 |doi=10.1007/s00418-020-01846-0 |issn=1432-119X |pmc=PMC7160090 |pmid=32008069}}</ref>
-* Probably because of similarities to Ca<sup>2+</sup>, Nd<sup>3+</sup> has been reported<ref>{{cite journal|author=Wei, Y. and Zhou, X.|title=The Effect of Neodymium (Nd<sup>3+</sup>) on Some Physiological Activities in Oilseed Rape during Calcium (Ca<sup>2+</sup>) Starvation|url=http://www.regional.org.au/au/gcirc/2/399.htm |journal=10th International Rapeseed Congress|volume=2|page=399|year=1999}}</ref> to promote plant growth. Rare-earth element compounds are frequently used in China as [[fertilizer]].<ref>Tommasi, F., Thomas, P.J., Pagano, G. et al. Review of Rare Earth Elements as Fertilizers and Feed Additives: A Knowledge Gap Analysis. Arch Environ Contam Toxicol 81, 531–540 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1007/s00244-020-00773-4</ref>
+* Probably because of similarities to Ca<sup>2+</sup>, Nd<sup>3+</sup> has been reported<ref>{{cite journal|author=Wei, Y. and Zhou, X.|title=The Effect of Neodymium (Nd<sup>3+</sup>) on Some Physiological Activities in Oilseed Rape during Calcium (Ca<sup>2+</sup>) Starvation|url=http://www.regional.org.au/au/gcirc/2/399.htm |journal=10th International Rapeseed Congress|volume=2|page=399|year=1999}}</ref> to promote plant growth. Rare-earth element compounds are frequently used in China as [[fertilizer]].<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Tommasi |first=Franca |last2=Thomas |first2=Philippe J. |last3=Pagano |first3=Giovanni |last4=Perono |first4=Genevieve A. |last5=Oral |first5=Rahime |last6=Lyons |first6=Daniel M. |last7=Toscanesi |first7=Maria |last8=Trifuoggi |first8=Marco |date=2021-11-01 |title=Review of Rare Earth Elements as Fertilizers and Feed Additives: A Knowledge Gap Analysis |url=https://doi.org/10.1007/s00244-020-00773-4 |journal=Archives of Environmental Contamination and Toxicology |language=en |volume=81 |issue=4 |pages=531–540 |doi=10.1007/s00244-020-00773-4 |issn=1432-0703 |pmc=PMC8558174 |pmid=33141264}}</ref>
-* [[Samarium–neodymium dating]] is useful for determining the age relationships of rocks.<ref>{{cite news| url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/nature/7639024.stm|title =Team finds Earth's 'oldest rocks'|work =BBC News|access-date = 2009-06-06|date=2008-09-26|location=London}}</ref> and meteorites<ref>Carlson R.W. (2013) Sm–Nd Dating. In: Rink W., Thompson J. (eds) Encyclopedia of Scientific Dating Methods. Springer, Dordrecht. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-007-6326-5_84-1</ref>
+* [[Samarium–neodymium dating]] is useful for determining the age relationships of rocks.<ref>{{cite news| url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/nature/7639024.stm|title =Team finds Earth's 'oldest rocks'|work =BBC News|access-date = 2009-06-06|date=2008-09-26|location=London}}</ref> and meteorites<ref>{{Citation |last=Carlson |first=Richard W. |title=Sm–Nd Dating |date=2013 |url=https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-007-6326-5_84-1 |work=Encyclopedia of Scientific Dating Methods |pages=1–20 |editor-last=Rink |editor-first=W. Jack |access-date=2023-06-07 |place=Dordrecht |publisher=Springer Netherlands |language=en |doi=10.1007/978-94-007-6326-5_84-1 |isbn=978-94-007-6326-5 |editor2-last=Thompson |editor2-first=Jeroen}}</ref>
 *Neodymium isotopes recorded in marine sediments are used to reconstruct changes in past ocean circulation.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Tachikawa|first=K.|date=2003|title=Neodymium budget in the modern ocean and paleo-oceanographic implications|journal=Journal of Geophysical Research|volume=108|issue=C8|pages=3254|doi=10.1029/1999JC000285|bibcode=2003JGRC..108.3254T|doi-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last1=van de Flierdt|first1=Tina|last2=Griffiths|first2=Alexander M.|last3=Lambelet|first3=Myriam|last4=Little|first4=Susan H.|last5=Stichel|first5=Torben|last6=Wilson|first6=David J.|date=2016-11-28|title=Neodymium in the oceans: a global database, a regional comparison and implications for palaeoceanographic research|journal=Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society A: Mathematical, Physical and Engineering Sciences|volume=374|issue=2081|pages=20150293|doi=10.1098/rsta.2015.0293|pmid=29035258|pmc=5069528|bibcode=2016RSPTA.37450293V}}</ref>
@@ Line 159: / Line 159: @@
 {{Further|Neodymium magnet}}
 [[File:Neodymag.jpg|thumb|Neodymium magnet on a [[mu-metal]] bracket from a [[hard drive]]]]
-[[Neodymium magnet]]s (an alloy, Nd<sub>2</sub>Fe<sub>14</sub>B) are the strongest [[permanent magnet]]s known. A neodymium magnet of a few tens of grams can lift a thousand times its own weight, and can snap together with enough force to break bones. These magnets are cheaper, lighter, and stronger than [[samarium–cobalt magnet]]s. However, they are not superior in every aspect, as neodymium-based magnets lose their magnetism at lower temperatures<ref>Zhang, W., Liu, G. & Han, K. The Fe-Nd (Iron-Neodymium) system. JPE 13, 645–648 (1992). https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02667216</ref> and tend to corrode,<ref>Bala, H., Szymura, S., Pawłowska, G. et al. Effect of impurities on the corrosion behaviour of neodymium. J Appl Electrochem 23, 1017–1024 (1993). https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00266123</ref> while samarium–cobalt magnets do not.<ref>Hopp, M., Rogaschewski, S. & Groth, T. Testing the cytotoxicity of metal alloys used as magnetic prosthetic devices. Journal of Materials Science: Materials in Medicine 14, 335–345 (2003). https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1022931915709</ref>
+[[Neodymium magnet]]s (an alloy, Nd<sub>2</sub>Fe<sub>14</sub>B) are the strongest [[permanent magnet]]s known. A neodymium magnet of a few tens of grams can lift a thousand times its own weight, and can snap together with enough force to break bones. These magnets are cheaper, lighter, and stronger than [[samarium–cobalt magnet]]s. However, they are not superior in every aspect, as neodymium-based magnets lose their magnetism at lower temperatures<ref>Zhang, W., Liu, G. & Han, K. The Fe-Nd (Iron-Neodymium) system. JPE 13, 645–648 (1992). https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02667216</ref> and tend to corrode,<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Bala |first=H. |last2=Szymura |first2=S. |last3=Pawłowska |first3=G. |last4=Rabinovich |first4=Yu. M. |date=1993-10-01 |title=Effect of impurities on the corrosion behaviour of neodymium |url=https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00266123 |journal=Journal of Applied Electrochemistry |language=en |volume=23 |issue=10 |pages=1017–1024 |doi=10.1007/BF00266123 |issn=1572-8838}}</ref> while samarium–cobalt magnets do not.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Hopp |first=M. |last2=Rogaschewski |first2=S. |last3=Groth |first3=Th. |date=2003-04-01 |title=Testing the cytotoxicity of metal alloys used as magnetic prosthetic devices |url=https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1022931915709 |journal=Journal of Materials Science: Materials in Medicine |language=en |volume=14 |issue=4 |pages=335–345 |doi=10.1023/A:1022931915709 |issn=1573-4838}}</ref>
 Neodymium magnets appear in products such as [[microphone]]s, professional [[loudspeaker]]s, [[headphones]], [[guitar]] and [[bass guitar]] [[Pickup (music technology)|pick-ups]], and computer [[hard disk]]s where low mass, small volume, or strong magnetic fields are required. Neodymium is used in the electric motors of hybrid and electric automobiles and in the electricity generators of some designs of commercial wind turbines (only wind turbines with "permanent magnet" generators use neodymium). For example, drive electric motors of each [[Toyota Prius]] require {{convert|1|kg|lb|abbr=off|spell=in}} of neodymium per vehicle.{{r|reu}}
@@ Line 168: / Line 168: @@
 [[File:Neodymium glass light bulb under fluorescent and incandescent light.jpg|thumb|left|A neodymium glass [[light bulb]], with the base and inner coating removed, under two different types of light: [[fluorescent]] on the left, and [[incandescent]] on the right.]]
 [[File:ACE Didymium Glasses RX-1205-BK Z87+.JPG|thumb|left|Didymium glasses]]
-Neodymium glass (Nd:glass) is produced by the inclusion of [[neodymium(III) oxide|neodymium oxide]] (Nd<sub>2</sub>O<sub>3</sub>) in the glass melt. Usually in daylight or [[Incandescent light bulb|incandescent]] light neodymium glass appears lavender, but it appears pale blue under [[Fluorescent lamp|fluorescent]] lighting. Neodymium may be used to color glass in delicate shades ranging from pure violet through wine-red and warm gray.<ref>Kondrukevich, A.A., Vlasov, A.S., Platov, Y.T. ''et al.'' Color of porcelain containing neodymium oxide. ''Glass Ceram'' '''65''', 203–207 (2008). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10717-008-9039-9</ref>
+Neodymium glass (Nd:glass) is produced by the inclusion of [[neodymium(III) oxide|neodymium oxide]] (Nd<sub>2</sub>O<sub>3</sub>) in the glass melt. Usually in daylight or [[Incandescent light bulb|incandescent]] light neodymium glass appears lavender, but it appears pale blue under [[Fluorescent lamp|fluorescent]] lighting. Neodymium may be used to color glass in delicate shades ranging from pure violet through wine-red and warm gray.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Kondrukevich |first=A. A. |last2=Vlasov |first2=A. S. |last3=Platov |first3=Yu. T. |last4=Rusovich-Yugai |first4=N. S. |last5=Gorbatov |first5=E. P. |date=2008-05-01 |title=Color of porcelain containing neodymium oxide |url=https://doi.org/10.1007/s10717-008-9039-9 |journal=Glass and Ceramics |language=en |volume=65 |issue=5 |pages=203–207 |doi=10.1007/s10717-008-9039-9 |issn=1573-8515}}</ref>
 The first commercial use of purified neodymium was in glass coloration, starting with experiments by Leo Moser in November 1927. The resulting "Alexandrite" glass remains a signature color of the Moser glassworks to this day. Neodymium glass was widely emulated in the early 1930s by American glasshouses, most notably Heisey, Fostoria ("wisteria"), Cambridge ("heatherbloom"), and Steuben ("wisteria"), and elsewhere (e.g. Lalique, in France, or Murano). Tiffin's "twilight" remained in production from about 1950 to 1980.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://coloradosprings.yourhub.com/CrippleCreekTellerCounty/Stories/Arts/Story~443258.aspx|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080403165916/http://coloradosprings.yourhub.com/CrippleCreekTellerCounty/Stories/Arts/Story~443258.aspx |archive-date=2008-04-03|title =Chameleon Glass Changes Color|access-date=2009-06-06}}</ref> Current sources include glassmakers in the Czech Republic, the United States, and China.<ref>Brown D.C. (1981) Optical-Pump Sources for Nd : Glass Lasers. In: High-Peak-Power Nd: Glass Laser Systems. Springer Series in Optical Sciences, vol 25. Springer, Berlin, Heidelberg. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-540-38508-0_3</ref>
@@ Line 174: / Line 174: @@
 The sharp absorption bands of neodymium cause the glass color to change under different lighting conditions, being reddish-purple under [[daylight]] or yellow [[incandescent light]], but blue under white [[fluorescent light]]ing, or greenish under [[Trichromacy|trichromatic]] lighting. This color-change phenomenon is highly prized by collectors.{{citation needed|date=April 2022}} In combination with [[gold]] or [[selenium]], red colors are produced. Since neodymium coloration depends upon "[[Forbidden mechanism|forbidden]]" f-f transitions deep within the atom, there is relatively little influence on the color from the chemical environment, so the color is impervious to the thermal history of the glass. However, for the best color, iron-containing impurities need to be minimized in the [[silica]] used to make the glass. The same forbidden nature of the f-f transitions makes rare-earth colorants less intense than those provided by most d-transition elements, so more has to be used in a glass to achieve the desired color intensity. The original Moser recipe used about 5% of neodymium oxide in the glass melt, a sufficient quantity such that Moser referred to these as being "rare-earth doped" glasses. Being a strong base, that level of neodymium would have affected the melting properties of the glass, and the [[Calcium oxide|lime]] content of the glass might have had to be adjusted accordingly.<ref>{{cite book|page=[https://archive.org/details/dictionaryofglas0000bray/page/102 102]|url=https://archive.org/details/dictionaryofglas0000bray|url-access=registration| title=Dictionary of glass: materials and techniques| author=Bray, Charles | publisher= University of Pennsylvania Press| date = 2001| isbn=0-8122-3619-X}}</ref>
-Light transmitted through neodymium glasses shows unusually sharp [[absorption band]]s; the glass is used in [[astronomy|astronomical work]] to produce sharp bands by which [[spectral line]]s may be calibrated.<ref name="CRC" /> Another application is the creation of selective astronomical filters to reduce the effect of light pollution from sodium and fluorescent lighting while passing other colours, especially dark red hydrogen-alpha emission from nebulae.<ref>[https://www.firstlightoptics.com/light-pollution-reduction/baader-neodymium-filter.html Baader Neodymium Filter], First Light Optics.</ref> Neodymium is also used to remove the green color caused by iron contaminants from glass.<ref>Peelman, S., Sietsma, J. & Yang, Y. Recovery of Neodymium as (Na, Nd)(SO4)2 from the Ferrous Fraction of a General WEEE Shredder Stream. J. Sustain. Metall. 4, 276–287 (2018). https://doi.org/10.1007/s40831-018-0165-5</ref>
+Light transmitted through neodymium glasses shows unusually sharp [[absorption band]]s; the glass is used in [[astronomy|astronomical work]] to produce sharp bands by which [[spectral line]]s may be calibrated.<ref name="CRC" /> Another application is the creation of selective astronomical filters to reduce the effect of light pollution from sodium and fluorescent lighting while passing other colours, especially dark red hydrogen-alpha emission from nebulae.<ref>[https://www.firstlightoptics.com/light-pollution-reduction/baader-neodymium-filter.html Baader Neodymium Filter], First Light Optics.</ref> Neodymium is also used to remove the green color caused by iron contaminants from glass.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Peelman |first=S. |last2=Sietsma |first2=J. |last3=Yang |first3=Y. |date=2018-06-01 |title=Recovery of Neodymium as (Na, Nd)(SO4)2 from the Ferrous Fraction of a General WEEE Shredder Stream |url=https://doi.org/10.1007/s40831-018-0165-5 |journal=Journal of Sustainable Metallurgy |language=en |volume=4 |issue=2 |pages=276–287 |doi=10.1007/s40831-018-0165-5 |issn=2199-3831}}</ref>
 [[File:Yag-rod.jpg|thumb|right|Nd:YAG laser rod]]
-Neodymium is a component of "[[didymium]]" (referring to mixture of salts of neodymium and [[praseodymium]]) used for coloring glass to make welder's and glass-blower's goggles; the sharp absorption bands obliterate the strong sodium emission at 589&nbsp;nm. The similar absorption of the yellow mercury emission line at 578&nbsp;nm is the principal cause of the blue color observed for neodymium glass under traditional white-fluorescent lighting. Neodymium and didymium glass are used in color-enhancing filters in indoor photography, particularly in filtering out the yellow hues from incandescent lighting. Similarly, neodymium glass is becoming widely used more directly in [[incandescent light bulb]]s. These lamps contain neodymium in the glass to filter out yellow light, resulting in a whiter light which is more like sunlight.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Zhang |first1=Liqiang |last2=Lin |first2=Hang |last3=Cheng |first3=Yao |last4=Xu |first4=Ju |last5=Xiang |first5=Xiaoqiang |last6=Wang |first6=Congyong |last7=Lin |first7=Shisheng |last8=Wang |first8=Yuansheng |title=Color-filtered phosphor-in-glass for LED-lit LCD with wide color gamut |journal=Ceramics International |date=August 2019 |volume=45 |issue=11 |pages=14432–14438 |doi=10.1016/j.ceramint.2019.04.164|s2cid=149699364 }}</ref> During [[World War I]], didymium mirrors were reportedly used to transmit [[Morse Code]] across battlefields.<ref name=b1>{{cite book
+Neodymium is a component of "[[didymium]]" (referring to mixture of salts of neodymium and [[praseodymium]]) used for coloring glass to make welder's and glass-blower's goggles; the sharp absorption bands obliterate the strong sodium emission at 589&nbsp;nm. The similar absorption of the yellow mercury emission line at 578&nbsp;nm is the principal cause of the blue color observed for neodymium glass under traditional white-fluorescent lighting. Neodymium and didymium glass are used in color-enhancing filters in indoor photography, particularly in filtering out the yellow hues from incandescent lighting. Similarly, neodymium glass is becoming widely used more directly in [[incandescent light bulb]]s. These lamps contain neodymium in the glass to filter out yellow light, resulting in a whiter light which is more like sunlight.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Zhang |first1=Liqiang |last2=Lin |first2=Hang |last3=Cheng |first3=Yao |last4=Xu |first4=Ju |last5=Xiang |first5=Xiaoqiang |last6=Wang |first6=Congyong |last7=Lin |first7=Shisheng |last8=Wang |first8=Yuansheng |title=Color-filtered phosphor-in-glass for LED-lit LCD with wide color gamut |journal=Ceramics International |date=August 2019 |volume=45 |issue=11 |pages=14432–14438 |doi=10.1016/j.ceramint.2019.04.164|s2cid=149699364 }}</ref> During [[World War I]], didymium mirrors were reportedly used to transmit [[Morse Code]] across battlefields.<ref name=b1>{{cite book |author1=Fontani, Marco |author2=Costa, Mariagrazia |author3=Orna, Mary Virginia |title=The Lost Elements: The Periodic Table's Shadow Side |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Ck9jBAAAQBAJ&pg=PA173 |year=2015 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-938334-4 |pages=172–173}}</ref> Similar to its use in glasses, neodymium salts are used as a colorant for [[vitreous enamel|enamels]].<ref name="CRC" />
- |author1=Fontani, Marco
- |author2=Costa, Mariagrazia
- |author3=Orna, Mary Virginia
- |title=The Lost Elements: The Periodic Table's Shadow Side
- |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Ck9jBAAAQBAJ&pg=PA173
- |year=2015
- |publisher=Oxford University Press
- |isbn=978-0-19-938334-4
- |pages=172–173}}</ref> Similar to its use in glasses, neodymium salts are used as a colorant for [[vitreous enamel|enamels]].<ref name="CRC" />
 ===Lasers===
@@ Line 197: / Line 188: @@
 The current laser at the UK [[Atomic Weapons Establishment]] (AWE), the HELEN (High Energy Laser Embodying Neodymium) 1-[[terawatt]] neodymium-glass laser, can access the midpoints of pressure and temperature regions and is used to acquire data for modeling on how density, temperature, and pressure interact inside warheads. HELEN can create plasmas of around 10<sup>6</sup> [[Kelvin|K]], from which opacity and transmission of radiation are measured.<ref>{{cite journal|doi=10.1364/AO.41.003497|title=Multipass Reconfiguration of the HELEN Nd:Glass Laser at the Atomic Weapons Establishment|date=2002|journal=Applied Optics|volume=41|pages=3497–505|pmid=12078672|issue=18|bibcode = 2002ApOpt..41.3497N |display-authors=4 |last2=Andrew|first2=J. E.|last3=Bett|first3=T. H.|last4=Clifford|first4=R. K.|last5=England|first5=J. E.|last6=Hopps|first6=N. W.|last7=Parker|first7=K. W.|last8=Porter|last9=Stevenson|last1=Norman|first1=M. J.}}</ref>
-Neodymium glass [[solid-state laser]]s are used in extremely high power ([[1 E11 W#1 terawatt|terawatt]] scale), high energy ([[megajoule]]s) multiple beam systems for [[inertial confinement fusion]]. Nd:glass lasers are usually [[nonlinear optics|frequency tripled]] to the [[optical frequency multiplier|third harmonic]] at 351&nbsp;nm in laser fusion devices.<ref>Wang, W., Wang, J., Wang, F. ''et al.'' Third harmonic generation of Nd:glass laser with novel composite deuterated KDP crystals. ''Laser Phys. '''''20''', 1923–1926 (2010). https://doi.org/10.1134/S1054660X10190175</ref>
+Neodymium glass [[solid-state laser]]s are used in extremely high power ([[1 E11 W#1 terawatt|terawatt]] scale), high energy ([[megajoule]]s) multiple beam systems for [[inertial confinement fusion]]. Nd:glass lasers are usually [[nonlinear optics|frequency tripled]] to the [[optical frequency multiplier|third harmonic]] at 351&nbsp;nm in laser fusion devices.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Wang |first=W. |last2=Wang |first2=J. |last3=Wang |first3=F. |last4=Feng |first4=B. |last5=Li |first5=K. |last6=Jia |first6=H. |last7=Han |first7=W. |last8=Xiang |first8=Y. |last9=Li |first9=F. |last10=Wang |first10=L. |last11=Zhong |first11=W. |last12=Zhang |first12=X. |last13=Zhao |first13=S. |date=2010-10-01 |title=Third harmonic generation of Nd:glass laser with novel composite deuterated KDP crystals |url=https://doi.org/10.1134/S1054660X10190175 |journal=Laser Physics |language=en |volume=20 |issue=10 |pages=1923–1926 |doi=10.1134/S1054660X10190175 |issn=1555-6611}}</ref>
 ===Substitute for uranyl acetate===
@@ Line 203: / Line 194: @@
 [[Uranyl acetate]] has been the standard contrasting agent in transmission [[electron microscope|electron microscopy (TEM)]] for decades.<ref>Watson ML (1958a) Staining of tissue sections for electron microscopy with heavy metals. II. Application of solutions containing lead and barium. J Biophys Biochem Cytol 4:727–730</ref><ref>Watson ML (1958b) Staining of tissue sections for electron microscopy with heavy metals. J Cell Biol 4:475–478</ref> However, its use is increasingly hampered by regulations by governments due to its [[radioactive decay|radioactive]] properties as well as its high [[toxicity]]. Therefore, alternatives are being searched for, including [[lanthanide]] [[acetates]] or [[platinum]] blue <ref>Hosogi N, Nishioka H, Nakakoshi M (2015) Evaluation of lanthanide salts as alternative stains to uranyl acetate. Microscopy (Oxf) 64:429–435</ref><ref>Ikeda K, Inoue K, Kanematsu S, Horiuchi Y, Park P (2011) Enhanced effects of nonisotopic hafnium chloride in methanol as a substitute for uranyl acetate in TEM contrast of ultrastructure of fungal and plant cells. Microsc Res Tech 74:825–830</ref><ref>Inaga S, Katsumoto T, Tanaka K, Kameie T, Nakane H, Naguro T (2007) Platinum blue as an alternative to uranyl acetate for staining in transmission electron microscopy. Arch Histol Cytol 70:43–49</ref><ref>Yamaguchi K, Suzuki K, Tanaka K (2010) Examination of electron stains as a substitute for uranyl acetate for the ultrathin sections of bacterial cells. J Electron Microsc (Tokyo) 59:113–118</ref> as well as the use of less defined substances such as oolong tea extract.<ref>Sato S, Adachi A, Sasaki Y, Ghazizadeh M (2008) Oolong tea extract as a substitute for uranyl acetate in staining of ultrathin sections. J Microsc 229:17–20</ref><ref>He X, Liu B (2017) [[Oolong|Oolong tea]] extract as a substitute for uranyl acetate in staining of ultrathin sections based on examples of animal tissues for transmission electron microscopy. J Microsc 267:27–33</ref> Despite these published alternatives, uranyl acetate (UAc) is still the standard for EM contrasting.<ref name="uranyl acetate" />
-In the [[periodic table]] the vertical ordering of elements in groups is based on the presence of the same number of [[electron]]s in their [[Electron shell|outermost shell]], which determines their [[chemical property|chemical]] and [[physical properties|physical]] properties.<ref>Wernick J.H. (1973) Structure and Composition in Relation to Properties. In: Hannay N.B. (eds) The Chemical Structure of Solids. Treatise on Solid State Chemistry, vol 1. Springer, New York, NY. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4684-2661-8_4</ref> Because neodymium (Nd) is right above [[uranium]] (U) the chemical properties of UAc and [[Neodymium acetate|NdAc]] would be very similar in binding to tissue in ultrathin sections thus leading to a similar amount of contrast.<ref>Epiotis N.D. (1989) Chemical bonding across the periodic table. In: Relationships and Mechanisms in the Periodic Table. Topics in Current Chemistry, vol 150. Springer, Berlin, Heidelberg. https://doi.org/10.1007/BFb0111260</ref>
+In the [[periodic table]] the vertical ordering of elements in groups is based on the presence of the same number of [[electron]]s in their [[Electron shell|outermost shell]], which determines their [[chemical property|chemical]] and [[physical properties|physical]] properties.<ref>{{Citation |last=Wernick |first=J. H. |title=Structure and Composition in Relation to Properties |date=1973 |url=https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4684-2661-8_4 |work=The Chemical Structure of Solids |pages=175–282 |editor-last=Hannay |editor-first=N. B. |access-date=2023-06-07 |series=Treatise on Solid State Chemistry |place=New York, NY |publisher=Springer US |language=en |doi=10.1007/978-1-4684-2661-8_4 |isbn=978-1-4684-2661-8}}</ref> Because neodymium (Nd) is right above [[uranium]] (U) the chemical properties of UAc and [[Neodymium acetate|NdAc]] would be very similar in binding to tissue in ultrathin sections thus leading to a similar amount of contrast.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Epiotis |first=Nicolaos D. |date=1989 |editor-last=Clouthier |editor-first=D. J. |editor2-last=Corio |editor2-first=P. L. |editor3-last=Epiotis |editor3-first=N. D. |editor4-last=Jørgensen |editor4-first=C. K. |editor5-last=Moule |editor5-first=D. C. |title=Chemical bonding across the periodic table |url=https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/BFb0111260 |journal=Relationships and Mechanisms in the Periodic Table |series=Topics in Current Chemistry |language=en |location=Berlin, Heidelberg |publisher=Springer |pages=47–166 |doi=10.1007/BFb0111260 |isbn=978-3-540-45906-4}}</ref>
 ==Biological role and precautions==
@@ Line 222: / Line 213: @@
 }}
-The early lanthanides have been found to be essential to some [[methanotrophic]] bacteria living in [[Mudpot|volcanic mudpots]], such as ''[[Methylacidiphilum fumariolicum]]'': lanthanum, cerium, praseodymium, and neodymium are about equally effective.<ref>{{cite journal |doi=10.1111/1462-2920.12249 |pmid=24034209 |title=Rare earth metals are essential for methanotrophic life in volcanic mudpots |date=2013 |last1=Pol |first1=Arjan |last2=Barends |first2=Thomas R. M. |last3=Dietl |first3=Andreas |last4=Khadem |first4=Ahmad F. |last5=Eygensteyn |first5=Jelle |last6=Jetten |first6=Mike S. M. |last7=Op Den Camp |first7=Huub J. M. |journal=Environmental Microbiology |volume=16 |issue=1 |pages=255–64}}</ref><ref>Kang, L., Shen, Z. & Jin, C. Neodymium cations Nd<sup>3+</sup> were transported to the interior of ''Euglena gracilis'' 277. ''Chin.Sci.Bull.'' '''45''', 585–592 (2000). https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02886032</ref> Neodymium is otherwise not known to have a biological role in any other organisms.<ref>Vais, V., Li, C. & Cornett, J. Condensation reaction in the bandpass reaction cell improves sensitivity for uranium, thorium, neodymium and praseodymium measurements. Anal Bioanal Chem 377, 85–88 (2003). https://doi.org/10.1007/s00216-003-2084-x</ref>
+The early lanthanides have been found to be essential to some [[methanotrophic]] bacteria living in [[Mudpot|volcanic mudpots]], such as ''[[Methylacidiphilum fumariolicum]]'': lanthanum, cerium, praseodymium, and neodymium are about equally effective.<ref>{{cite journal |doi=10.1111/1462-2920.12249 |pmid=24034209 |title=Rare earth metals are essential for methanotrophic life in volcanic mudpots |date=2013 |last1=Pol |first1=Arjan |last2=Barends |first2=Thomas R. M. |last3=Dietl |first3=Andreas |last4=Khadem |first4=Ahmad F. |last5=Eygensteyn |first5=Jelle |last6=Jetten |first6=Mike S. M. |last7=Op Den Camp |first7=Huub J. M. |journal=Environmental Microbiology |volume=16 |issue=1 |pages=255–64}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Kang |first=Lin |last2=Shen |first2=Zhiqiang |last3=Jin |first3=Chengzhi |date=2000-04-01 |title=Neodymium cations Nd3+ were transported to the interior ofEuglena gracilis 277 |url=https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02886032 |journal=Chinese Science Bulletin |language=en |volume=45 |issue=7 |pages=585–592 |doi=10.1007/BF02886032 |issn=1861-9541}}</ref> Neodymium is otherwise not known to have a biological role in any other organisms.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Vais |first=Vladimir |last2=Li |first2=Chunsheng |last3=Cornett |first3=Jack |date=2003-09-01 |title=Condensation reaction in the bandpass reaction cell improves sensitivity for uranium, thorium, neodymium and praseodymium measurements |url=https://doi.org/10.1007/s00216-003-2084-x |journal=Analytical and Bioanalytical Chemistry |language=en |volume=377 |issue=1 |pages=85–88 |doi=10.1007/s00216-003-2084-x |issn=1618-2650}}</ref>
 Neodymium metal dust is combustible and therefore an explosion hazard. Neodymium compounds, as with all rare-earth metals, are of low to moderate toxicity; however, its toxicity has not been thoroughly investigated. Neodymium salts are regarded as more toxic if they are soluble than if they are insoluble if they are ingested.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.lenntech.com/periodic/elements/nd.htm|title = Neodymium (Nd) - Chemical properties, Health and Environmental effects}}</ref> Neodymium dust and salts are very irritating to the eyes and [[mucous membrane]]s, and moderately irritating to skin. Breathing the dust can cause lung [[embolism]]s, and accumulated exposure damages the liver. Neodymium also acts as an [[anticoagulant]], especially when given intravenously.<ref name="history" />

v t e Neodymium compounds
Nd(II)	Nd₂C NdF₂ NdCl₂ NdBr₂ NdH₂ NdI₂ NdS
Nd(III)	NdAl₃(BO₃)₄ NdAsO₄ Nd(CH₃COO)₃ Nd(acac)₃ NdBi NdBr₃ Nd₄C₃ Nd₂(CO₃)₃ Nd₂(C₂O₄)₃ NdCl₃ Nd(ClO₄)₃ NdF₃ NdH₃ Nd(OH)₃ NdI₃ Nd(IO₃)₃ Nd₂(MoO₄)₃ NdNiO₃ NdN Nd(NO₃)₃ Nd₂O₃ Nd(ReO₄)₃ NdPO₄ NdP Nd₂S₃ Nd₂(SO₄)₃ NdTaO₄ Nd₂(WO₄)₃ NdVO₄ Nd(C₅H₅)₃
Nd(IV)	NdF₄