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{{Short description|Indo-European language of the Italic branch}}
{{Short description|Bicycle sport}}
{{more citations needed|date=February 2016}}
{{other uses}}
{{Infobox sport
{{Distinguish|Ladin (disambiguation){{!}}Ladin}}
| image = MtnBiking SedonaMag.jpg
{{pp-move}}
| imagesize = 250px
{{Use dmy dates|date=September 2022}}
| caption = Mountain biker riding in the [[Arizona]] desert
{{Infobox language
| union = [[Union Cycliste Internationale|UCI]]
| states = {{ublist|[[Latium]]|[[Ancient Rome]]}}
| nickname =
| ethnicity = {{ublist|[[Latins (Italic tribe)|Latins]]|[[Roman people|Romans]]}}
| first = Open to debate. Modern era began in the late 1970s
| era = 7th century BC <!-- [[Praeneste fibula]] --> {{endash}} 18th century AD <!-- seems to be around when regular people stopped using Latin-the-language, as opposed to Latin-as-a-source-for-names-for-things -->
| registered =
| familycolor = Indo-European
| fam2 = [[Italic languages|Italic]]
| clubs =
| contact =
| fam3 = [[Latino-Faliscan languages|Latino-Faliscan]]
| ancestor = [[Old Latin]]
| team =
| mgender = Separate men's & women's championship although no restrictions on women competing against men.
| script = [[Latin alphabet]] ([[Latin script]])
| category =
| agency = [[Pontifical Academy for Latin]]
| iso1 = la
| ball =
| olympic = [[Cycling at the Summer Olympics#Mountain bike, men|Since 1996]]
| iso2 = lat
| iso3 = lat
| glotto = impe1234
| glottorefname = Imperial Latin
| glotto2 = lati1261
| glottorefname2 = Latin
| lingua = 51-AAB-aa to 51-AAB-ac
| image = Rome Colosseum inscription 2.jpg
| imagecaption = Latin inscription, in the [[Colosseum]] of [[Rome]], Italy
| map = Roman_Empire_Trajan_117AD.png
| mapcaption = {{legend|#b23938|Greatest extent of the Roman Empire under Emperor [[Trajan]] ({{circa|117 AD}}) and the area governed by Latin speakers.}} Many languages other than Latin were spoken within the empire.
| map2 = Romance_20c_en.png
| mapcaption2 = Range of the Romance languages, the modern descendants of Latin, in Europe.
| notice = IPA
| nation = {{Flag|Vatican City}}
}}
}}


'''Mountain biking''' is a sport of riding [[bicycle]]s off-road, often over rough terrain, usually using specially designed [[mountain bikes]]. Mountain bikes share similarities with other bikes but incorporate features designed to enhance durability and performance in rough terrain, such as air or coil-sprung shocks used as suspension, larger and wider wheels and tires, stronger frame materials, and mechanically or hydraulically actuated disc brakes. Mountain biking can generally be broken down into five distinct categories: [[Cross-country cycling|cross country]], [[trail riding#Mountain biking|trail riding]], [[Enduro (mountain biking)|all mountain]] (also referred to as "Enduro"), [[Downhill cycling|downhill]], and [[freeride (mountain biking)|freeride]].<ref>{{Cite book|last=Huddart, Stott|first=David, Tim|title=Outdoor Recreation: Environmental Impacts and Management|publisher=Palgrave Macmillan|date=October 25, 2019|isbn=9783319977577|pages=7}}</ref>
'''Latin''' ({{lang|la|lingua Latīna}} {{IPA-la|ˈlɪŋɡʷa ɫaˈtiːna|}} or {{lang|la|Latīnum}} {{IPA-la|ɫaˈtiːnʊ̃|}}) is a [[classical language]] belonging to the [[Italic languages|Italic branch]] of the [[Indo-European languages]]. Latin was originally a [[dialect]] spoken in [[Latium]] (also known as [[Lazio]]), the lower [[Tiber]] area around present-day [[Rome]],<ref>{{cite book |title=A companion to Latin studies |first=John Edwin |last=Sandys |location=Chicago |publisher=[[University of Chicago Press]] |year=1910 |pages=811–812}}</ref> but through the power of the [[Roman Republic]] it became the dominant language in the [[Italian Peninsula|Italic Peninsula]] and subsequently throughout the [[Roman Empire]]. Even after the [[Fall of the Western Roman Empire|fall of Western Rome]], Latin remained the [[common language]] of [[international communication]], science, scholarship and [[academia]] in Europe until well into the 18th century, when other regional vernaculars (including its own descendants, the [[Romance languages]]) supplanted it in common academic and political usage. For most of the time it was used, it would be considered a "[[dead language]]" in the modern linguistic definition; that is, it lacked native speakers, despite being used extensively and actively.


== About ==
Latin is a [[fusional language|highly inflected language]], with three distinct [[grammatical gender|genders]] (masculine, feminine, and neuter), six or seven [[grammatical case|noun cases]] (nominative, accusative, genitive, dative, ablative, vocative, and vestigial locative), five [[declensions]], four [[grammatical conjugation|verb conjugations]], six [[latin tenses|tenses]] (present, imperfect, future, perfect, pluperfect, and future perfect), three [[grammatical person|persons]], three [[grammatical mood|moods]], two [[voice (grammar)|voices]] (passive and active), two or three [[grammatical aspect|aspects]], and two [[grammatical number|numbers]] (singular and plural). The [[Latin alphabet]] is directly derived from the [[Etruscan alphabet|Etruscan]] and [[Greek alphabet]]s.
This sport requires endurance, core and back strength, balance, bike handling skills, and self-reliance. Advanced riders pursue both steep technical descents and high-incline climbs. In the case of freeride, downhill, and dirt jumping, aerial maneuvers are performed off both natural features and specially constructed jumps and ramps.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Barfe|first=Marion B|title=Mountain Biking: The Ultimate Guide to Mountain Biking For Beginners MTB|year=2019|isbn=978-1982747824}}</ref>


Mountain bikers ride on off-road trails such as [[Single track (mountain biking)|singletrack]], back-country roads, wider bike park trails, [[Firebreak|fire roads]], and some advanced trails are designed with jumps, berms, and drop-offs to add excitement to the trail. Riders with enduro and downhill bikes will often visit ski resorts that stay open in the summer to ride downhill-specific trails, using the ski lifts to return to the top with their bikes. Because riders are often far from civilization, there is a strong element of self-reliance in the sport. Riders learn to repair broken bikes and flat tires to avoid being stranded. Many riders carry a backpack, including water, food, tools for trailside repairs, and a first aid kit in case of injury. Group rides are common, especially on longer treks. [[Mountain bike orienteering]] adds the skill of map navigation to mountain biking.
By the late [[Roman Republic]] (75 BC), [[Old Latin]] had been standardized into [[Classical Latin]]. [[Vulgar Latin]] was the [[colloquial language|colloquial form]] with less prestigious variations attested in inscriptions and the works of comic playwrights [[Plautus]] and [[Terence]]<ref>{{harvnb|Clark|1900|pp=1–3}}</ref> and author [[Petronius]]. [[Late Latin]] is the written language from the 3rd century, and its various Vulgar Latin dialects developed in the 6th to 9th centuries into the modern [[Romance languages]].

In Latin's usage beyond the early medieval period, it lacked native speakers. [[Medieval Latin]] was used across Western and Catholic Europe during the [[Middle Ages]] as a working and literary language from the 9th century to the [[Renaissance]], which then developed a Classifying and purified form, called [[Renaissance Latin]]. This was the basis for [[Neo-Latin]] which evolved during the [[Early modern period|early modern era]]. In these periods, while Latin was used productively, it was generally taught to be written and spoken, at least until the late seventeenth century, when spoken skills began to erode. Later, it became increasingly taught only to be read.

One form of Latin, [[Ecclesiastical Latin]], remains the [[official language]] of the [[Holy See]] and the [[Roman Rite]] of the [[Catholic Church]] at [[Vatican City]]. The church continues to adapt concepts from modern languages, contributing to the continued development of the Latin language. [[Contemporary Latin]], however—Neo-Latin in its most recent form—is rarely spoken, and has limited productive use.

Latin has also [[Latin influence on English|greatly influenced]] the English language and historically contributed [[list of Latin words with English derivatives|many words]] to the English [[lexicon]] after the [[Christianity in Anglo-Saxon England|Christianization of Anglo-Saxons]] and the [[Norman conquest]]. In particular, Latin (and [[Ancient Greek]]) [[root (linguistics)|root]]s are still used in English descriptions of [[theology]], [[list of Latin and Greek words commonly used in systematic names|science disciplines]] (especially [[anatomy]] and [[taxonomy (biology)|taxonomy]]), [[list of medical roots, suffixes and prefixes|medicine]], and [[list of Latin legal terms|law]].

{{TOC limit}}


==History==
==History==
[[Image:25thregiment bicycles.jpg|thumb|US 25th Infantry Bicycle Corps, 1897]]
{{Main|History of Latin}}
[[Image:Mountain-biker-climbs.jpg|thumb|A cross-country mountain biker climbs on an unpaved track]]
<br />
[[File:New mountain bike skills track in Bwlch Nant yr Arian, Powys, Wales.webm|thumb|A mountain bike skills track in [[Wales]]]]
[[Image:Mountain biking.jpg|thumb|Mountain bike touring in high Alps]]
[[Image:MountainBiking MtHoodNF.jpg|thumb|right|Mountain biker gets air in [[Mount Hood National Forest]].]]
===Late 1800s===
One of the first examples of bicycles modified specifically for off-road use is the expedition of [[Buffalo Soldiers]] from [[Missoula, Montana]], to [[Yellowstone]] in August 1896.<ref>{{cite web|title=1896 excursion from Fort Missoula, Mont., to Yellowstone National Park, riders of the 25th Infantry Bicycle Corps.|date=30 November 2012 |url=https://www.historynet.com/the-buffalo-soldiers-who-rode-bikes.htm|access-date=2020-04-21}}</ref><ref name=":1">{{Cite web |last=Vendetti |first=Marc |date=2014-01-07 |title=HISTORY {{!}} Marin Museum of Bicycling and Mountain Bike Hall of Fame |url=https://mmbhof.org/mtn-bike-hall-of-fame/history/ |access-date=2023-05-01 |language=en-US}}</ref>


===1900s–1960s===
[[File:Linguistic Landscape of Central Italy.png|thumb|left|upright=1.5|The linguistic landscape of Central Italy at the beginning of Roman expansion]]
Bicycles were ridden off-road by road racing cyclists who used [[cyclocross]] as a means of keeping fit during the winter.<ref name=":1" /> Cyclo-cross eventually became a sport in its own right in the 1940s, with the first world championship taking place in 1950.<ref name=":1" />


The Rough Stuff Fellowship was established in 1955 by off-road cyclists in the United Kingdom.<ref>{{cite web
A number of phases of the language have been recognized, each distinguished by subtle differences in vocabulary, usage, spelling, and syntax. There are no hard and fast rules of classification; different scholars emphasize different features. As a result, the list has variants, as well as alternative names.
|url = http://www.rsf.org.uk/history.htm
|title = Off Road Origins
|author = Steve Griffith
|publisher = Rough Stuff Fellowship
|access-date = 2010-06-18
|url-status = dead
|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20100721163500/http://www.rsf.org.uk/history.htm
|archive-date = 2010-07-21
}}</ref>


In [[Oregon]] in 1966, one Chemeketan club member, D. Gwynn, built a rough terrain trail bicycle. He named it a "mountain bicycle" for its intended place of use. This may be the first use of that name.<ref>{{cite journal
In addition to the historical phases, [[Ecclesiastical Latin]] refers to the styles used by the writers of the [[Roman Catholic Church]] from [[Late Antiquity|late antiquity]] onward, as well as by Protestant scholars.
| title = The Chemeketan
| volume = 38
| date = September 1966
| issue = 9
| page = 4}}</ref>


In England in 1968, [[Geoff Apps]], a motorbike trials rider, began experimenting with off-road bicycle designs. By 1979 he had developed a custom-built lightweight bicycle which was uniquely suited to the wet and muddy off-road conditions found in the south-east of England. They were designed around 2&nbsp;inch × 650b Nokian snow tires though a 700x47c (28 in.) version was also produced. These were sold under the Cleland Cycles brand until late 1984. Bikes based on the Cleland design were also sold by English Cycles and Highpath Engineering until the early 1990s.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Hadland llast2=Lessing|first=Tony {{!}}first2=Hans-Erhard|title=Bicycle Design : An Illustrated History|publisher=The MIT Press.|year=2014|isbn=9780262026758|location=Cambridge, Massachusetts}}</ref>
After the [[Western Roman Empire]] fell in 476 and [[Barbarian kingdoms|Germanic kingdoms]] took its place, the [[Germanic people]] adopted Latin as a language more suitable for legal and other, more formal uses.<ref>{{Cite web|title=History of Europe – Barbarian migrations and invasions|url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/history-of-Europe|access-date=2021-02-06|website=Encyclopedia Britannica|language=en}}</ref>
{{Clear}}


===Old Latin===
===1970s–1980s===
There were several groups of riders in different areas of the U.S.A. who can make valid claims to playing a part in the birth of the sport. Riders in [[Crested Butte, Colorado]], and [[Mill Valley, California]], tinkered with bikes and adapted them to the rigors of off-road riding. Modified heavy [[cruiser bicycle]]s, old 1930s and '40s [[Schwinn]] bicycles retrofitted with better brakes and fat tires, were used for freewheeling down mountain trails in [[Marin County]], [[California]], in the mid-to-late 1970s. At the time, there were no mountain bikes. The earliest ancestors of modern mountain bikes were based around frames from cruiser bicycles such as those made by [[Schwinn]]. The Schwinn Excelsior was the frame of choice due to its geometry. Riders used [[Bicycle tire#Balloon|balloon-tired]] cruisers and modified them with gears and [[motocross]] or BMX-style handlebars, creating "klunkers". The term would also be used as a verb since the term "mountain biking" was not yet in use. The first person known to fit multiple speeds and drum brakes to a klunker is [[Russ Mahon]] of [[Cupertino, California]], who used the resulting bike in [[cyclo-cross]] racing.<ref>{{Cite web |title=From the Mag: Roots - The Cupertino Riders |url=https://dirtmountainbike.com/news/mag-roots-cupertino-riders |access-date=2022-05-22 |website=Dirt |language=en-US}}</ref> Riders would race down mountain [[fire road]]s, causing the hub brake to burn the grease inside, requiring the riders to repack the bearings. These were called "Repack Races" and triggered the first innovations in mountain bike technology as well as the initial interest of the public (on Mt. Tamalpais in Marin CA, there is still a trail titled "Repack"—in reference to these early competitions). The sport originated in California on [[Marin County, California|Marin County]]'s [[Mount Tamalpais]].<ref>{{cite book
{{Main|Old Latin}}
|publisher=Cycle Publishing/Van der Plas Publications
[[Image:Lapis-niger.jpg|thumb|right|The [[Lapis Niger]], probably the oldest extant Latin inscription, from Rome, {{Circa|600 BC|lk=no}} during the semi-legendary [[Roman Kingdom]]]]
|url=http://www.cyclepublishing.com/cyclingbooks/
|date=January 1, 2008
|title=The Birth of Dirt, 2nd Edition
|isbn=978-1-892495-61-7
|access-date=May 29, 2017
}}</ref>


It was not until the late 1970s and early 1980s that [[road bicycle]] companies started to manufacture mountain bicycles using high-tech lightweight materials. [[Joe Breeze]] is normally credited with introducing the first purpose-built mountain bike in 1978.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Feletti|first=Francesco|title=Extreme Sports Medicine|publisher=Springer International Publishing|date=September 19, 2016|isbn=9783319282657|location=Germany}}</ref> Tom Ritchey then went on to make frames for a company called MountainBikes, a partnership between [[Gary Fisher]], [[Charlie Kelly (businessman)|Charlie Kelly]] and [[Tom Ritchey]]. Tom Ritchey, a welder with skills in frame building, also built the original bikes. The company's three partners eventually dissolved their partnership, and the company became Fisher Mountain Bikes, while Tom Ritchey started his own frame shop.
The earliest known form of Latin is Old Latin, also called Archaic or Early Latin, which was spoken from the [[Roman Kingdom]], traditionally founded in 753 BC, through the later part of the [[Roman Republic]], up to 75 BC, i.e. before the age of [[Classical Latin]].<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|title=Archaic Latin|encyclopedia=The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language: Fourth Edition}}</ref> It is attested both in inscriptions and in some of the earliest extant Latin literary works, such as the comedies of [[Plautus]] and [[Terence]]. The [[Latin alphabet]] was devised from the [[Etruscan alphabet]]. The writing later changed from what was initially either a [[Right-to-left script|right-to-left]] or a [[boustrophedon]]<ref>{{harvnb|Diringer|1996|pp=533–4}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|title = Collier's Encyclopedia: With Bibliography and Index|url = https://books.google.com/books?id=H9xLAQAAMAAJ|publisher = Collier|date = 1 January 1958|language = en|page = 412|quote = In Italy, all alphabets were originally written from right to left; the oldest Latin inscription, which appears on the lapis niger of the seventh century BC, is in boustrophedon, but all other early Latin inscriptions run from right to left.|access-date = 15 February 2016|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20160421225204/https://books.google.com/books?id=H9xLAQAAMAAJ|archive-date = 21 April 2016|url-status = live}}</ref> script to what ultimately became a strictly left-to-right script.<ref>{{cite book |first=David |last=Sacks |year=2003 |title=Language Visible: Unraveling the Mystery of the Alphabet from A to Z |location=London |publisher=Broadway Books |page=[https://archive.org/details/languagevisibleu00sack/page/80 80] |isbn=978-0-7679-1172-6 |url=https://archive.org/details/languagevisibleu00sack/page/80 }}</ref>


The first mountain bikes were basically road bicycle frames (with heavier tubing and different geometry) with a wider frame and fork to allow for a wider tire. The handlebars were also different in that they were a straight, transverse-mounted handlebar, rather than the dropped, curved handlebars that are typically installed on road racing bicycles. Also, some of the parts on early production mountain bicycles were taken from the [[BMX]] bicycle. Other contributors were Otis Guy and [[Keith Bontrager]].<ref>Crown, Judith, and Glenn Coleman. ''No Hands : The Rise and Fall of the Schwinn Bicycle Company : An American Institution''. 1st ed., H. Holt, 1996.</ref>
===Classical Latin===
{{Main|Classical Latin}}
During the late republic and into the first years of the empire, from about 75 BC to 200 AD, a new [[Classical Latin]] arose, a conscious creation of the orators, poets, historians and other [[literate]] men, who wrote the great works of [[classical literature]], which were taught in [[grammar]] and [[rhetoric]] schools. Today's instructional grammars trace their roots to such [[Roman school|schools]], which served as a sort of informal language academy dedicated to maintaining and perpetuating educated speech.<ref>{{cite book|page=3|title=From Latin to modern French with especial consideration of Anglo-Norman; phonology and morphology|first=Mildred K |last=Pope|author-link=Mildred Pope|location=Manchester|publisher=Manchester university press|series=Publications of the University of Manchester, no. 229. French series, no. 6| year=1966}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|title=Source book of the history of education for the Greek and Roman period|first=Paul|last=Monroe|location=London, New York|publisher=[[Macmillan & Co.]]|year=1902|pages=346–352}}</ref>


[[Tom Ritchey]] built the first regularly available mountain bike frame, which was accessorized by Gary Fisher and [[Charlie Kelly (businessman)|Charlie Kelly]] and sold by their company called MountainBikes (later changed to Fisher Mountain Bikes, then bought by [[Trek Bicycle Corporation|Trek]], still under the name Gary Fisher, currently sold as Trek's "Gary Fisher Collection"). The first two mass-produced mountain bikes were sold in the early 1980s: the [[Specialized Stumpjumper]] and Univega Alpina Pro. In 1988, ''[[The Great Mountain Biking Video]]'' was released, soon followed by others. In 2007, ''[[Klunkerz: A Film About Mountain Bikes]]'' was released, documenting mountain bike history during the formative period in Northern California. Additionally, a group of mountain bikers called the Laguna Rads formed a club during the mid eighties and began a weekly ride, exploring the uncharted coastal hillsides of Laguna Beach, California.<ref>{{Cite web|title=The Laguna Rads {{!}} Marin Museum of Bicycling and Mountain Bike Hall of Fame|url=https://mmbhof.org/the-laguna-rads/|website=mmbhof.org|date=26 March 2014 |access-date=2020-05-04}}</ref> Industry insiders suggest that this was the birth of the freeride movement, as they were cycling up and down hills and mountains where no cycling specific trail network prexisted. The Laguna Rads have also held the longest running downhill race once a year since 1986.
===Vulgar Latin===
{{Main|Vulgar Latin}}


At the time, the bicycle industry was not impressed with the mountain bike, regarding mountain biking to be short-term fad. In particular, large manufacturers such as Schwinn and [[Fuji Advanced Sports|Fuji]] failed to see the significance of an all-terrain bicycle and the coming boom in 'adventure sports'. Instead, the first mass-produced mountain bikes were pioneered by new companies such as MountainBikes (later, Fisher Mountain Bikes), Ritchey, and [[Specialized Bicycles|Specialized]]. Specialized was an American startup company that arranged for production of mountain bike frames from factories in Japan and Taiwan. First marketed in 1981,<ref name="Rogers">{{cite news|url=http://www.bikeradar.com/news/article/interview-specialized-founder-mike-sinyard-28233|title=Interview: Specialized founder Mike Sinyard|last=Rogers|first=Seb|publisher=BikeRadar|date=23 October 2010|access-date=2 December 2010}}</ref> Specialized's mountain bike largely followed Tom Ritchey's frame geometry, but used TiG welding to join the frame tubes instead of fillet-brazing, a process better suited to mass production, and which helped to reduce labor and manufacturing cost.<ref>Ballantine, Richard, ''Richard's 21st Century Bicycle Book'', New York: Overlook Press (2001), {{ISBN|1-58567-112-6}}, pp. 25, 50</ref> The bikes were configured with 15 gears using [[derailleur gears|derailleurs]], a triple [[sprocket|chainring]], and a [[cogset]] with five sprockets.
Philological analysis of Archaic Latin works, such as those of [[Plautus]], which contain fragments of everyday speech, gives evidence of a spoken register of the language, Vulgar Latin (termed {{lang|la|sermo vulgi}}, "the speech of the masses", by [[Cicero]]). Some linguists, particularly in the nineteenth century, believed this to be a separate language, existing more or less in parallel with the literary or educated Latin, but this is now widely dismissed.<ref>{{harvnb|Herman|2000|p=5}} "Comparative scholars, especially in the nineteenth century … tended to see Vulgar Latin and literary Latin as two very different kinds of language, or even two different languages altogether … but [this] is now out of date"</ref>


===1990s–2000s===
The term 'Vulgar Latin' remains difficult to define, referring both to informal speech at any time within the history of Latin, and the kind of informal Latin that had begun to move away from the written language significantly in the post Imperial period, that led to [[Proto-Romance language|Proto-Romance]].


Throughout the 1990s and first decade of the 21st century, mountain biking moved from a little-known sport to a mainstream activity. Mountain bikes and mountain bike gear, once only available at specialty shops or via mail order, became available at standard bike stores. By the mid-first decade of the 21st century, even some department stores began selling inexpensive mountain bikes with full-suspension and disc brakes. In the first decade of the 21st century, trends in mountain bikes included the "all-mountain bike", the [[29er (bicycle)|29er]] and the one by drivetrain (though the first mass-produced 1x drivetrain was Sram's XX1 in 2012). "All-mountain bikes" were designed to descend and handle well in rough conditions, while still pedaling efficiently for climbing, and were intended to bridge the gap between cross-country bikes and those built specifically for downhill riding. They are characterized by {{convert|4|–|6|in|mm|abbr=off}} of fork travel. 29er bikes are those using 700c sized rims (as do most road bikes), but wider and suited for tires of two inches (50 mm) width or more; the increased diameter wheel is able to roll over obstacles better and offers a greater tire [[contact patch]], but also results in a longer wheelbase, making the bike less agile, and in less travel space for the suspension. The single-speed is considered a return to simplicity with no drivetrain components or shifters but thus requires a stronger rider.
During the Classical period, the informal language was rarely written, so philologists have been left with only individual words and phrases cited by classical authors, inscriptions such as [[Curse tablets]] and those found as [[Roman graffiti|graffiti]]. In the [[Late Latin]] period, language reflecting spoken norms tend to be found in greater quantities in texts.<ref>{{harvnb|Herman|2000|pp=17–18}}</ref>
As it was free to develop on its own, there is no reason to suppose that the speech was uniform either diachronically or geographically. On the contrary, Romanised European populations developed their own dialects of the language, which eventually led to the differentiation of [[Romance languages]].<ref>{{harvnb|Herman|2000|p=8}}</ref>


===Late Latin===
==== 2000's-2020's ====
Following the growing trend in 29-inch wheels, there have been other trends in the mountain biking community involving tire size. Some riders prefer to have a larger wheel in the front than on the rear, such as on a motorcycle, to increase maneuverability. This is called a mullet bicycle, most common with a 29-inch wheel in the front and a 27.5-inch wheel in the back. Another interesting trend in mountain bikes is outfitting dirt jump or urban bikes with rigid forks. These bikes normally use 4–5″ travel suspension forks. The resulting product is used for the same purposes as the original bike. A commonly cited reason for making the change to a rigid fork is the enhancement of the rider's ability to transmit force to the ground, which is important for performing tricks. In the mid-first decade of the 21st century, an increasing number of mountain bike-oriented resorts opened. Often, they are similar to or in the same complex as a [[ski resort]] or they retrofit the concrete steps and platforms of an abandoned factory as an obstacle course, as with [[Ray's MTB Indoor Park]]. Mountain bike parks which are operated as summer season activities at ski hills usually include chairlifts that are adapted to bikes, a number of trails of varying difficulty, and bicycle rental facilities.<ref>{{Cite web|title=mountain biking|url=http://waicol.digi.school.nz/year09/2017/Connor%27s%20website/mountainBiking.html|website=waicol.digi.school.nz|access-date=2020-05-04}}</ref>
{{Main|Late Latin}}


In 2020, due to [[COVID-19]], mountain bikes saw a surge in popularity in the US, with some vendors reporting that they were sold out of bikes under US$1000.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Mountain Biking Experiencing a Surge in Popularity|url=https://thelaker.com/2020/mountain-biking-experiencing-a-surge-in-popularity|access-date=2021-01-12|website=The Laker|date=24 June 2020 |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|last=Newcomb|first=Tim|title=Amid Cycling Surge, Sport Of Mountain Biking Is Seeing Increased Sales And Trail Usage|url=https://www.forbes.com/sites/timnewcomb/2020/07/13/amidst-cycling-surge-sport-of-mountain-biking-seeing-increased-sales-trail-usage/|access-date=2021-01-12|website=Forbes|language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|last=Stephenson|first=Brayden|date=2020-09-15|title=Mountain biking gains popularity during Covid-19 lockdown|url=https://snceagleseye.com/11808/outdoor/mountain-biking-gains-popularity-during-covid-19-lockdown/|access-date=2021-01-12|website=Eagle's Eye}}</ref>
Late Latin is the kind of written Latin used in the 3rd to 6th centuries. This began to diverge from Classical forms at a faster pace. It is characterised by greater use of prepositions, and word order that is closer to modern Romance languages, for example, while grammatically retaining more or less the same formal rules as Classical Latin.


==Equipment==
Ultimately, Latin diverged into a distinct written form, where the commonly spoken form was perceived as a separate language, for instance early French or Italian dialects, that could be transcribed differently. It took some time for these to be viewed as wholly different from Latin however.


===Romance languages===
===Bike===
[[File:HardtailMountainBike 2010 Specialized Rockhopper.jpg|thumb|A hardtail mountain bike]]
{{Main|Romance languages}}
[[File:Example all-mountain MTB.jpg|thumb|A dual suspension or full suspension mountain bike, 'all-mountain' mountain bike]]
{{See also|Lexical changes from Classical Latin to Proto-Romance}}
[[Image:All Mountain Mountain Bike.jpg|thumb|Typical more stout all-mountain bike on rough terrain]]
While the written form of Latin began to evolve into a fixed form, the spoken forms began to diverge more greatly. Currently, the five most widely spoken [[Romance languages]] by number of native speakers are [[Spanish language|Spanish]], [[Portuguese language|Portuguese]], [[French language|French]], [[Italian language|Italian]], and [[Romanian language|Romanian]]. Despite dialectal variation, which is found in any widespread language, the languages of Spain, France, Portugal, and Italy have retained a remarkable unity in phonological forms and developments, bolstered by the stabilising influence of their common [[Christians|Christian]] (Roman Catholic) culture.
{{Main|Mountain bike}}
*'''[[Mountain bike]]s''' differ from other bikes primarily in that they incorporate features aimed at increasing durability and improving performance in rough terrain. Most modern mountain bikes have some kind of [[Bicycle suspension|suspension]], 26, 27.5 or 29-inch diameter tires, usually between 1.7 and 2.5&nbsp;inches in width, and a wider, flat or upwardly-rising [[Bicycle handlebar|handlebar]] that allows a more upright riding position, giving the rider more control. They have a smaller, reinforced [[bicycle frame|frame]], usually made of wide tubing. Tires usually have a pronounced [[tire tread|tread]], and are mounted on rims which are stronger than those used on most non-mountain bicycles. Compared to other bikes, mountain bikes also use [[hydraulic disc brakes]]. They also tend to have lower ratio [[bicycle gearing|gears]] to facilitate climbing steep hills and traversing obstacles. [[Bicycle pedal|Pedals]] vary from simple ''[[Bicycle pedal#Flat and platform|platform]]'' pedals, where the rider simply places the shoes on top of the pedals, to ''[[Clipless pedals|clipless]]'', where the rider uses a specially equipped shoe with a cleat that engages mechanically into the pedal.


===Accessories===
It was not until the [[Umayyad conquest of Hispania|Muslim conquest of Spain]] in 711, cutting off communications between the major Romance regions, that the languages began to diverge seriously.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Pei |first1=Mario |last2=Gaeng |first2=Paul A. |title=The story of Latin and the Romance languages |edition=1st |year=1976 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/storyoflatinroma0000peim/page/76 76–81] |location=New York |publisher=Harper & Row |isbn=978-0-06-013312-2 |url=https://archive.org/details/storyoflatinroma0000peim/page/76 }}</ref> The spoken Latin form (often called Vulgar Latin, or at other times [[Proto-Romance]]) that would later become [[Romanian language|Romanian]] diverged somewhat more from the other varieties, as it was largely separated from the unifying influences in the western part of the Empire.
*'''Glasses''' with little or no difference from those used in other cycling sports, help protect against [[road debris|debris]] while on the trail. Filtered lenses, whether yellow for cloudy days or shaded for sunny days, protect the eyes from strain. Downhill, freeride, and enduro mountain bikers often use goggles similar to motocross or snowboard goggles in unison with their full face helmets.
*'''[[Bicycle shoe|Shoes]]''' generally have gripping soles similar to those of hiking boots for scrambling over un-ridable obstacles, unlike the smooth-bottomed shoes used in road cycling. The [[shank (footwear)|shank]] of mountain bike shoes is generally more flexible than road cycling shoes. Shoes compatible with clipless pedal systems are also frequently used.
*'''Clothing''' is chosen for comfort during physical exertion in the backcountry, and its ability to withstand falls. Road touring clothes are often inappropriate due to their delicate fabrics and construction. Depending on the type of mountain biking, different types of clothes and styles are commonly worn. Cross-country mountain bikers tend to wear lycra shorts and tight road style jerseys due to the need for comfort and efficiency. Downhill riders tend to wear heavier fabric baggy shorts or moto-cross style trousers to protect themselves from falls. All mountain/enduro riders tend to wear light fabric baggy shorts and jerseys as they can be in the saddle for long periods of time.
*'''[[Hydration system]]s''' are important for mountain bikers in the backcountry, ranging from simple water bottles to water bags with drinking tubes in lightweight backpacks known as a hydration pack. (e.g.[[CamelBak]]s).
*'''[[GPS navigation devices|GPS systems]]''' are sometimes added to the handlebars and are used to monitor progress on trails.
*'''[[Bicycle pump|Pump]]''' to inflate tires.
*'''[[Carbon dioxide|{{CO2}} Inflator with Cartridge]]''' to inflate a tube or [[Tubeless tire#Bicycle tires|tubeless tire]].
*'''[[Bicycle tools|Bike tools]]''' and extra bike tubes are important, as mountain bikers frequently find themselves miles from help, with flat tires or other mechanical problems that must be handled by the rider.
*'''[[Bicycle lighting#LEDs|High-power lights]]''' based on LED technology, used for mountain biking at night.
*Some sort of '''protective case'''


===Protective gear===
Spoken Latin began to diverge into distinct languages by the 9th century at the latest, when the earliest extant Romance writings begin to appear. They were, throughout the period, confined to everyday speech, as Medieval Latin was used for writing.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web|url=https://www.ruf.rice.edu/~kemmer/Words04/structure/latin.html|title=History of Latin|last=Pulju|first=Timothy|website=Rice University|access-date=3 December 2019}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/Romance-languages/Latin-and-the-development-of-the-Romance-languages#ref74713|title=Romance Languages|last1=Posner|first1=Rebecca|last2=Sala|first2=Marius|date=1 August 2019|website=Encyclopædia Britannica|access-date=3 December 2019}}</ref>
{{manual|section|date=February 2016}}
[[File:Worsleys Track 248.webm|thumb|Mountain bikers in the [[Port Hills]], New Zealand, wearing a variety of protective gear]]
The level of protection worn by individual riders varies greatly and is affected by speed, trail conditions, the weather, and numerous other factors, including personal choice. Protection becomes more important where these factors may be considered to increase the possibility or severity of a crash.


A helmet and gloves are usually regarded as sufficient for the majority of non-technical riding. Full-face helmets, goggles and armored suits or jackets are frequently used in downhill mountain biking, where the extra bulk and weight may help mitigate the risks of bigger and more frequent crashes.<ref>{{cite book|title=Complete Mountain Biking Manual|first=Tim|last=Brink|year=2007|location=London|publisher=New HollandPublishers|pages=40–61|isbn=978-1845372941}}</ref>
It should also be noted, however, that for many Italians using Latin, there was no complete separation between Italian and Latin, even into the beginning of the [[Renaissance]]. [[Petrarch]] for example saw Latin as an artificial and literary version of the spoken language.<ref>See Introduction, {{harvnb|Deneire|2014|pp=10–11}}</ref>


*'''[[Bicycle helmet|Helmet]]'''. The use of helmets, in one form or another, is almost universal amongst mountain bikers. The three main types are; cross-country, rounded skateboarder style (nicknamed "half shells" or "skate style"), and full-face. Cross-country helmets tend to be light and well ventilated, and more comfortable to wear for long periods, especially while perspiring in hot weather. In XC competitions, most bikers tend to use the usual road-racing style helmets, for their lightweight and aerodynamic qualities. Skateboard helmets are simpler and usually more affordable than other helmet types; provide great coverage of the head and resist minor scrapes and knocks. Unlike road-biking helmets, skateboard helmets typically have a thicker, hard plastic shell which can take multiple impacts before it needs to be replaced. The trade-off for this is that they tend to be much heavier and less ventilated (sweatier), therefore not suitable for endurance-based riding. Full-face helmets (BMX-style) provide the highest level of protection and tend to be stronger than skateboarding style and includes a jaw guard to protect the face. The weight is the main issue with this type, but today they are often reasonably well-ventilated and made of lightweight materials such as carbon fiber. (Full-face helmets with detachable chin-guards are available in some locations, but there are compromises to keep in mind with these designs.) As all helmets should meet minimum standards, SNELL B.95 (American Standard) BS EN 1078:1997 (European Standard), DOT, or "motorized ratings" are making their way into the market. The choice of helmet often comes down to rider preference, the likelihood of crashing, and on what features or properties of a helmet they place emphasis. Helmets are mandatory at competitive events and almost without exception at bike parks, most organizations also stipulate when and where full-face helmets must be used.<ref>Grant, Darren, and Stephen M. Rutner. "The Effect of Bicycle Helmet Legislation on Bicycling Fatalities." Journal of Policy Analysis and Management, vol. 23, no. 3, 2004, pp. 595–611. JSTOR, www.jstor.org/stable/3326268. Accessed 10 May 2020.</ref>
===Medieval Latin===
*'''Body armor and pads''', often referred to simply as "armor", are meant to protect limbs and body in the event of a crash. While initially made for and marketed for downhill riders, free-riders, and jump/street riders, body armor has trickled into other areas of mountain biking as trails have become steeper and more technically complex (hence bringing a commensurately higher injury risk). Armor ranges from simple neoprene sleeves for knees, and elbows to complex, articulated combinations of hard plastic shells and padding that cover a whole limb or the entire body. Some companies market body armor jackets and even full-body suits designed to provide greater protection through greater coverage of the body and more secure pad retention. Most upper-body protectors also include a spine protector that comprises plastic or metal reinforced plastic plates, over foam padding, which are joined so that they articulate and move with the back. Some mountain bikers also use BMX-style body armor, such as chest plates, abdomen protectors, and spine plates. New technology has seen an influx of integrated neck protectors that fit securely with full-face helmets, such as the [[Leatt-Brace]]. There is a general correlation between increased protection and increased weight/decreased mobility, although different styles balance these factors differently. Different levels of protection are deemed necessary/desirable by different riders in different circumstances. Backpack hydration systems such as [[Camelbak]]s, where a water-filled bladder is held close to the spine, are used by some riders for their perceived protective value. More recently, with the increase in enduro racing, backpack hydration systems are also being sold with inbuilt spine protection. However, there is only anecdotal evidence of protection.
{{Main|Medieval Latin}}
*'''[[Cycling gloves|Gloves]]''' can offer increased comfort while riding, by alleviating compression and friction, and can protect against superficial hand injuries.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Kloss|first1=F.R|last2=Tuli|first2=T|last3=Haechl|first3=O|last4=Gassner|first4=R|year=2006|title=Trauma injuries sustained by cyclists|journal=Trauma|volume=8, 2|pages=83|via=Scopus}}</ref> They provide protection in the event of strikes to the back or palm of the hand or when putting the hand out in a fall and can protect the hand, fingers, and knuckles from abrasion on rough surfaces. Many different styles of gloves exist, with various fits, sizes, finger lengths, palm padding, and armor options available. Armoring knuckles and the backs of hands with plastic panels is common in more extreme types of mountain biking. Most of it depends on preference and necessity.
[[File:Calligraphy.malmesbury.bible.arp.jpg|thumb|upright=1.13|The Latin Malmesbury Bible from 1407]]
*'''First aid''' kits are often carried by mountain bikers so that they are able to clean, dress cuts, abrasions, and splint broken limbs. Head, brain, and spinal injuries become more likely as speeds increase. All of these can bring permanent changes in quality of life. Experienced mountain bike guides may be trained in dealing with suspected spinal injuries (e.g., immobilizing the victim and keeping the neck straight). Seriously injured people may need to be removed by [[stretcher]], by a motor vehicle suitable for the terrain, or by helicopter.
Medieval Latin is the written Latin in use during that portion of the postclassical period when no corresponding Latin [[vernacular]] existed, that is from 700 to 1500 AD. The spoken language had developed into the various incipient Romance languages; however, in the educated and official world, Latin continued without its natural spoken base. Moreover, this Latin spread into lands that had never spoken Latin, such as the Germanic and Slavic nations. It became useful for international communication between the member states of the [[Holy Roman Empire]] and its allies.
Protective gear cannot provide immunity against injuries. For example, concussions can still occur despite the use of helmets, and spinal injuries can still occur with the use of spinal padding and neck braces.<ref>[http://www.amjorthopedics.com/specialty-focus/trauma/article/extreme-sports-provide-thrills-but-also-increased-incidence-of-head-and-neck-injuries.html Extreme Sports Provide Thrills But Also Increased Incidence of Head and Neck Injuries]{{Dead link|date=April 2020 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }} AAOS News</ref><ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Sharma | first1 = Vinay K. | last2 = Rango | first2 = Juan | last3 = Connaughton | first3 = Alexander J. | last4 = Lombardo | first4 = Daniel J. | last5 = Sabesan | first5 = Vani J. | title = The Current State of Head and Neck Injuries in Extreme Sports | journal = Orthopedic Journal of Sports Medicine | volume = 3 | issue = 1| pages = 2325967114564358 | year = 2015 | pmc = 4555583 | pmid = 26535369 | doi = 10.1177/2325967114564358 }}</ref> The use of high-tech protective gear can result in a revenge effect, whereupon some cyclists feel safe taking dangerous risks.<ref>Tenner, Edward. [http://www.edwardtenner.com/why_things_bite_back__technology_and_the_revenge_of_unintended_consequences_21108.htm Why Thing Bite Back: Technology and the Revenge of Unintended Consequences.] Retrieved November 26, 2015</ref>


Because the key determinant of injury risk is [[kinetic energy]], and because kinetic energy increases with the square of the speed, effectively each doubling of speed can quadruple the injury risk. Similarly, each tripling of speed can be expected to bring a nine-fold increase in risk, and each quadrupling of speed means that a sixteen-fold risk increase must be anticipated.
Without the institutions of the Roman Empire that had supported its uniformity, medieval Latin lost its linguistic cohesion: for example, in classical Latin {{lang|la|sum}} and {{lang|la|eram}} are used as auxiliary verbs in the perfect and pluperfect passive, which are compound tenses. Medieval Latin might use {{lang|la-x-medieval|fui}} and {{lang|la-x-medieval|fueram}} instead.<ref name=thorley13-15>{{cite book|pages=13–15|title=Documents in medieval Latin|first=Moe|last=Elabani|location=Ann Arbor|publisher=University of Michigan Press|year=1998|isbn=978-0-472-08567-5}}</ref> Furthermore, the meanings of many words have been changed and new vocabularies have been introduced from the vernacular. Identifiable individual styles of classically incorrect Latin prevail.<ref name=thorley13-15/>
Higher speeds of travel also add danger due to [[Mental chronometry|reaction time]]. Because higher speeds mean that the rider travels further during his/her reaction time, this leaves less travel distance within which to react safely.<ref>Adventure and Extreme Sports Injuries: Epidemiology, Treatment, Rehabilitation, and Prevention. By Omer Mei-Dan, Michael Carmont, Ed. Springer-Verlag, London, 2013.</ref> This, in turn, further multiplies the risk of an injurious crash.


In general, although protective gear cannot always prevent the occurrence of injuries, the use of such equipment is appropriate, as is maintaining it in serviceable condition. Because mountain biking takes place outdoors, ultraviolet radiation from sunlight is present, and UV rays are known to degrade plastic components.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Yousif E, Haddad R | title = Photodegradation and photostabilization of polymers, especially polystyrene: review | journal = SpringerPlus | volume = 2 | issue = 398 | date = 2013 | page = 398 | pmid = 25674392 | doi = 10.1186/2193-1801-2-398 | pmc = 4320144 | doi-access = free }}</ref> Accordingly, and as a rule of thumb, a bicycle helmet should be replaced every five years, or sooner if it appears damaged. Additionally, if the helmet has been involved in an accident or has otherwise incurred impact-type damage, then it should be replaced promptly, even if it does not appear to be visibly damaged.<ref>{{Cite news|title=Bike Helmet Buying Guide|url=https://www.consumerreports.org/cro/bike-helmets/buying-guide/index.htm|website=Consumer Reports|language=en-US|access-date=2020-05-09}}</ref>
===Renaissance and Neo-Latin===
{{Main|Renaissance Latin|Neo-Latin}}
[[File:Incunabula distribution by language.png|thumb|Most 15th-century printed books ([[incunabula]]) were in Latin, with the [[vernacular language]]s playing only a secondary role.<ref name="ISTC">{{cite web |url=https://www.bl.uk/catalogues/istc/index.html |title=Incunabula Short Title Catalogue |publisher=[[British Library]] |access-date=2 March 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110312185857/https://www.bl.uk/catalogues/istc/index.html |archive-date=12 March 2011 |url-status=live }}</ref>]]


==Categories==
Renaissance Latin, 1300 to 1500, and the classicised Latin that followed through to the present are often grouped together as ''Neo-Latin'', or New Latin, which have in recent decades become a focus of [[Neo-Latin studies|renewed study]], given their importance for the development of European culture, religion and science.<ref>"When we talk about "Neo-Latin", we refer to the Latin … from the time of the early Italian humanist Petrarch (1304–1374) up to the present day" {{harvnb|Knight|Tilg|2015|p=1}}</ref><ref>"Neo-Latin is the term used for the Latin which developed in Renaissance Italy … Its origins are normally associated with Petrarch" {{Cite web |url=http://www.mml.cam.ac.uk/neo-latin |title=What is Neo-Latin? |access-date=2016-10-09 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161009191707/http://www.mml.cam.ac.uk/neo-latin |archive-date=2016-10-09 |url-status=dead }}</ref> The vast majority of written Latin belongs to this period, but its full extent is unknown.<ref>{{harvnb|Demo|2022|p=3}}</ref>


===Cross-country cycling===
The [[Renaissance]] reinforced the position of Latin as a spoken and written language by the scholarship by the [[Renaissance Humanism|Renaissance Humanists]]. [[Petrarch]] and others began to change their usage of Latin as they explored the texts of the Classical Latin world. Skills of textual criticism evolved to create much more accurate versions of extant texts through the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries, and some important texts were rediscovered. Comprehensive versions of author's works were published by [[Isaac Casaubon]], [[Joseph Scaliger]] and others.<ref>''Latin Studies'' in {{harvnb|Bergin|Law|Speake|2004|p=272}}</ref> Nevertheless, despite the careful work of Petrarch, [[Politian]] and others, first the demand for manuscripts, and then the rush to bring works into print, led to the circulation of inaccurate copies for several centuries following.<ref>''Criticism, textual'' in {{harvnb|Bergin|Law|Speake|2004|p=272}}</ref>
{{Main|Cross-country cycling}}


Cross-Country (XC) generally means riding point-to-point or in a loop including climbs and descents on a variety of terrain. A typical XC bike weighs around 9-13 kilos (20-30&nbsp;lbs), and has {{convert|0|-|125|mm|in|abbr=off|sp=us}} of suspension travel front and sometimes rear. Cross country mountain biking focuses on physical strength and endurance more than the other forms, which require greater technical skill. Cross country mountain biking is the only mountain biking discipline in the [[Summer Olympic Games]].
Neo-Latin literature was extensive and prolific, but less well known or understood today. Works covered poetry, prose stories and early novels, occasional pieces and collections of letters, to name a few. Famous and well regarded writers included Petrarch, Erasmus, [[Salutati]], [[Conrad Celtes|Celtis]], [[George Buchanan]] and [[Thomas More]].<ref>''Neo-Latin literature'' in {{harvnb|Bergin|Law|Speake|2004|pp=338–9}}</ref> Non fiction works were long produced in many subjects, including the sciences, law, philosophy, historiography and theology. Famous examples include [[Isaac Newton]]'s ''[[Philosophiæ Naturalis Principia Mathematica|Principia]]''. Later, Latin was used as a convenient medium for translations of important works, such as those of [[Descartes]].


===All-mountain/Enduro===
Latin education underwent a process of reform to Classicise written and spoken Latin. Schooling remained largely Latin medium until approximately 1700. Until the end of the 17th century, the majority of books and almost all diplomatic documents were written in Latin.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Helander |first=Hans |date=2012-04-01 |title=The Roles of Latin in Early Modern Europe |url=https://journals.openedition.org/annuaire-cdf/1783 |journal=L'Annuaire du Collège de France. Cours et travaux |language=en |issue=111 |pages=885–887 |doi=10.4000/annuaire-cdf.1783 |s2cid=160298764 |issn=0069-5580}}</ref> Afterwards, most diplomatic documents were written in French (a [[Romance language]]) and later native or other languages.<ref>Laureys, Marc, ''Political Action'' in {{harvnb|Knight|Tilg|2015|p=356}}</ref> Education methods gradually shifted towards written Latin, and eventually concentrating solely on reading skills. The decline of Latin education took several centuries and proceeded much more slowly than the decline in written Latin output.
{{Main|Enduro (mountain biking)}}


All-mountain/Enduro bikes tend to have moderate-travel suspension systems and components which are stronger than XC models, typically 160-180 mm of travel on a full suspension frame, but at a weight that is suitable for both climbing and descending.
===Contemporary Latin===
{{Main|Contemporary Latin|Ecclesiastical Latin}}


Enduro racing includes elements of DH racing, but Enduro races are much longer, sometimes taking a full day to complete, and incorporate climbing sections to connect the timed downhill descents (often referred to as stages). Typically, there is a maximum time limit for how long a rider takes to reach the top of each climb, while finishers of the downhill portions are ranked by fastest times.
Despite having no native speakers, Latin is still used for a variety of purposes in the contemporary world.


Historically, many long-distance XC races would use the descriptor "enduro" in their race names to indicate their endurance aspect. Some long-standing race events have maintained this custom, sometimes leading to confusion with the modern Enduro format, that has been adopted to the Enduro World Series.
==== Religious use ====
[[File:Wallsend platfom 2 02.jpg|thumb|The signs at [[Wallsend Metro station]] are in English and Latin, as a tribute to [[Wallsend]]'s role as one of the outposts of the [[Roman Empire]], as the eastern end of [[Hadrian's Wall]] (hence the name) at [[Segedunum]].]]


Enduro racing was commonly seen as a race for all abilities. While there are many recreational riders that do compete in Enduro races, the sport is increasingly attracting high-level riders such as [[Sam Hill (cyclist)|Sam Hill]] or [[Isabeau Courdurier]].
The largest organisation that retains Latin in official and quasi-official contexts is the [[Catholic Church]]. The Catholic Church required that Mass be carried out in Latin until the Second Vatican Council of 1962–1965, which permitted the use of the [[vernacular language|vernacular]]. Latin remains the language of the [[Roman Rite]]. The [[Tridentine Mass]] (also known as the Extraordinary Form or Traditional Latin Mass) is celebrated in Latin. Although the [[Mass of Paul VI]] (also known as the Ordinary Form or the Novus Ordo) is usually celebrated in the local vernacular language, it can be and often is said in Latin, in part or in whole, especially at multilingual gatherings. It is the official language of the [[Holy See]], the primary language of its [[public journal]], the {{lang|la|[[Acta Apostolicae Sedis]]}}, and the working language of the [[Roman Rota]]. [[Vatican City]] is also home to the world's only [[automatic teller machine]] that gives instructions in Latin.<ref>{{cite news |last=Moore |first=Malcolm |title=Pope's Latinist pronounces death of a language |url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/1540843/Popes-Latinist-pronounces-death-of-a-language.html |work=[[The Daily Telegraph]] |date=28 January 2007|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090826081734/https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/1540843/Popes-Latinist-pronounces-death-of-a-language.html |archive-date=26 August 2009 |url-status=live }}</ref> In the [[pontifical university|pontifical universities]] postgraduate courses of [[Canon law]] are taught in Latin, and papers are written in the same language.


===Downhill===
There are a small number of Latin services held in the Anglican church. These include an annual service in Oxford, delivered with a Latin sermon; a relic from the period when Latin was the normal spoken language of the university.<ref>{{cite web |title=University Sermons |url=https://www.universitychurch.ox.ac.uk/content/university-sermons |website=University Church Oxford |access-date=25 March 2023}}</ref>
{{Main|Downhill mountain biking}}
[[Image:MTB downhill.jpg|thumb|[[Downhill mountain biking]]]]
Downhill (DH) is, in the most general sense, riding mountain bikes downhill. Courses include large jumps (up to and including {{convert|12|m|ft|abbr=off|sp=us}}), drops of 3+ meters (10+ feet), and are generally rough and steep from top to bottom. The rider commonly travels to the point of descent by other means than cycling, such as a ski lift or automobile, as the weight of the downhill mountain bike often precludes any serious climbing.
Because of the extremely steep terrain (often located in summer at ski resorts), downhill mountain biking is one of the most extreme and dangerous cycling disciplines. Minimum body protection in a true downhill setting entails wearing knee pads and a full-face helmet with goggles, albeit riders and racers commonly wear various forms of full-body suits that include padding at selected locations.


Downhill-specific bikes are universally equipped with front and rear suspension, large disc brakes, and use heavier frame tubing than other mountain bikes. Downhill bicycles now weigh around {{convert|16|-|20|kg|lb|abbr=on}}, while the most expensive professional downhill mountain bikes can weigh as little as {{convert|15|kg|lb|abbr=off}}, fully equipped with custom carbon fiber parts, air suspension, tubeless tires and more. Downhill frames have anywhere from {{convert|170|-|250|mm|in|abbr=off|sp=us}} of travel and are usually equipped with a {{convert|200|mm|in|abbr=off|sp=us}} travel dual-crown fork.
[[File:Former logo of the European Council and Council of the European Union (2009).svg|thumb|right|The polyglot [[European Union]] has adopted Latin names in the logos of some of its institutions for the sake of linguistic compromise, an "ecumenical nationalism" common to most of the continent and as a sign of the continent's heritage (such as the [[Council of the European Union|EU Council]]: {{lang|la|Consilium}}).]]


===Four-cross/Dual Slalom===
==== Use of Latin for mottos ====
{{Main|Four-cross}}
In the Western world, many organizations, governments and schools use Latin for their mottos due to its association with formality, tradition, and the roots of [[Western culture]].<ref>{{Cite web|title="Does Anybody Know What 'Veritas' Is?" {{!}} Gene Fant|url=https://www.firstthings.com/blogs/firstthoughts/2011/08/e2809cdoes-anybody-know-what-veritas-ise2809d|access-date=2021-02-19|website=First Things|date=August 2011 |language=en}}</ref>
[[File:4cross.JPG|thumb|Four-cross race]]


Four-cross/Dual Slalom (4X) is a discipline in which riders compete either on separate tracks, as in Dual Slalom, or on a short slalom track, as in 4X. Most bikes used are light hard-tails, although the last World Cup was actually won on a full-suspension bike. The track is downhill and has dirt jumps, berms, and gaps.
Canada's motto {{lang|la|[[A mari usque ad mare]]}} ("from sea to sea") and most [[list of Canadian provincial and territorial symbols|provincial mottos]] are also in Latin. The [[Victoria Cross (Canada)|Canadian Victoria Cross]] is modelled after the British [[Victoria Cross]] which has the inscription "For Valour". Because Canada is officially bilingual, the Canadian medal has replaced the English inscription with the Latin {{lang|la|Pro Valore}}.


Professionals in ''{{vanchor|gravity mountain biking}}'' tend to concentrate either on downhill mountain biking or 4X/dual slalom because they are very different. However, some riders, such as [[Cedric Gracia]], used to compete in both 4X and DH, although that is becoming more rare as 4X takes on its own identity.
Spain's motto {{Lang|la|[[Plus ultra]]}}, meaning "even further", or figuratively "Further!", is also Latin in origin.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.lamoncloa.gob.es/espana/simbolosdelestado/Paginas/index.aspx|title=La Moncloa. Símbolos del Estado|website=www.lamoncloa.gob.es|language=es|access-date=2019-09-30}}</ref> It is taken from the personal motto of [[Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor|Charles V]], Holy Roman Emperor and King of Spain (as Charles I), and is a reversal of the original phrase {{lang|la|Non terrae plus ultra}} ("No land further beyond", "No further!"). According to [[legend]], this phrase was inscribed as a warning on the [[Pillars of Hercules]], the rocks on both sides of the [[Strait of Gibraltar]] and the western end of the known, Mediterranean world. Charles adopted the motto following the discovery of the New World by Columbus, and it also has metaphorical suggestions of taking risks and striving for excellence.


===Freeride===
In the United States the unofficial national motto until 1956 was ''[[E pluribus unum]]'' meaning "Out of many, one". The motto continues to be featured on the [[Great Seal of the United States|Great Seal]], it also appears on the flags and seals of both houses of congress and the flags of the states of Michigan, North Dakota, New York, and Wisconsin. The mottos 13 letters symbolically represent the original Thirteen Colonies which revolted from the British Crown. The motto is featured on all presently minted coinage and has been featured in most coinage throughout the nation's history.
{{Main|Freeride (mountain biking)}}
[[File:Free-ride.jpg|thumb|Freeride]]
Freeride / Big Hit / Hucking, as the name suggests, is a 'do anything' discipline that encompasses everything from downhill racing without the clock to jumping, riding 'North Shore' style (elevated trails made of interconnecting bridges and logs), and generally riding trails and/or stunts that require more skill and aggressive techniques than XC.


"Slopestyle" type riding is an increasingly popular genre that combines big-air, stunt-ridden freeride with BMX style tricks. Slopestyle courses are usually constructed at already established mountain bike parks and include jumps, large drops, quarter-pipes, and other wooden obstacles. There are always multiple lines through a course and riders compete for judges' points by choosing lines that highlight their particular skills.
Several states of the United States [[list of U.S. state and territory mottos|have Latin mottos]], such as:


A "typical" freeride bike is hard to define, but typical specifications are 13-18 kilos (30-40&nbsp;lbs) with {{convert|150|-|250|mm|in|abbr=off|sp=us}} of suspension front and rear. Freeride bikes are generally heavier and more amply suspended than their XC counterparts, but usually, retain much of their climbing ability. It is up to the rider to build his or her bike to lean more toward a preferred level of aggressiveness.
* [[Arizona]]'s {{lang|la|Ditat deus}} ("God enriches");
* [[Connecticut]]'s {{lang|la|Qui transtulit sustinet}} ("He who transplanted sustains");
* [[Kansas]]'s {{lang|la|[[Per aspera ad astra|Ad astra per aspera]]}} ("Through hardships, to the stars");
* [[Colorado]]'s {{lang|la|Nil sine numine}} ("Nothing without providence");
* [[Michigan]]'s {{lang|la|Si quaeris peninsulam amoenam, circumspice}} ("If you seek a pleasant peninsula, look about you"), is based on that of Sir [[Christopher Wren]], in [[St. Paul's Cathedral]];
* [[Missouri]]'s {{lang|la|[[Salus populi suprema lex esto]]}} ("The health of the people should be the highest law");
* [[New York (state)]]'s {{lang|la|[[Coat of arms of New York|Excelsior]]}} ("Ever upward");
* [[North Carolina]]'s {{lang|la|[[Esse Quam Videri]]}} ("To be rather than to seem");
* [[South Carolina]]'s {{lang|la|[[Dum spiro spero]]}} ("While [still] breathing, I hope");
* [[Virginia]]'s {{lang|la|[[Sic semper tyrannis]]}} ("Thus always to [[tyrant]]s"); and
* [[West Virginia]]'s {{lang|la|[[Montani Semper Liberi]]}} ("Mountaineers [are] always free").


===Dirt Jumping===
Many military organizations today have Latin mottos, such as:
{{Main|Dirt jumping}}


Dirt Jumping (DJ) is the practice of riding bikes over shaped mounds of dirt or soil and becoming airborne. The goal is that after riding over the 'lip' the rider will become airborne, and aim to land on the 'knuckle'. Dirt jumping can be done on almost any bicycle, but the bikes chosen are generally smaller and more maneuverable hardtails so that tricks such as backflips, whips, and tabletops, are easier to complete. The bikes are simpler so that when a crash occurs there are fewer components to break or cause the rider injury. Bikes are typically built from sturdier materials such as steel to handle repeated heavy impacts of crashes and bails.
* {{lang|la|[[Semper Paratus]]}} ("always ready"), the motto of the [[United States Coast Guard]];
* {{lang|la|[[Semper Fidelis]]}} ("always faithful"), the motto of the [[United States Marine Corps]];
* [[Semper supra]] ("always above"), the motto of the [[United States Space Force]];
* {{lang|la|[[Per ardua ad astra]]}} ("Through adversity/struggle to the stars"), the motto of the [[Royal Air Force]] (RAF); and
* {{Lang|la|Vigilamus pro te}} ("We stand on guard for thee"), the motto of the [[Canadian Armed Forces]].


===Trials===
A law governing body in the Philippines have a Latin motto, such as:
{{Main|Mountain bike trials}}


Trials riding consists of hopping and jumping bikes over obstacles, without touching a foot onto the ground. It can be performed either off-road or in an urban environment. This requires an excellent sense of balance. The emphasis is placed on techniques of effectively overcoming the obstacles, although street-trials (as opposed to competition-oriented trials) is much like Street and DJ, where doing tricks with style is the essence. Trials bikes look almost nothing like mountain bikes. They use either 20″, 24″ or 26″ wheels and have very small, low frames, some types without a saddle.
* {{lang|la|Justitiae Pax Opus}} ("Justice, peace, work"), the motto of the [[Department of Justice (Philippines)]];


===Urban/Street===
Some colleges and universities have adopted Latin mottos, for example [[Harvard University]]'s motto is {{lang|la|[[Veritas]]}} ("truth"). Veritas was the goddess of truth, a daughter of Saturn, and the mother of Virtue.
{{Main|Freestyle BMX}}


Urban/Street is essentially the same as urban [[BMX]] (or Freestyle BMX), in which riders perform tricks by riding on/over man-made objects. The bikes are the same as those used for Dirt Jumping, having 24″ or 26″ wheels. Also, they are very light, many in the range of {{convert|25|-|30|lb|kg|abbr=on}}, and are typically hardtails with between 0-100 millimeters of the front suspension. As with Dirt Jumping and Trials, style and execution are emphasized.
==== Other modern uses ====
[[File:Rando VTT.jpg|thumb|Mountain bike trail riding (trail biking)]]
Switzerland has adopted the country's Latin short name {{lang|la|[[Helvetia]]}} on coins and stamps, since there is no room to use all of the nation's [[Languages of Switzerland|four official languages]]. For a similar reason, it adopted the international vehicle and internet code ''CH'', which stands for {{lang|la|Confœderatio Helvetica}}, the country's full Latin name.


===Trail riding===
Some film and television in ancient settings, such as ''[[Sebastiane]]'', ''[[The Passion of the Christ]]'' and ''[[Barbarians (2020 TV series)]]'', have been made with dialogue in Latin for the sake of realism.<ref>In ''The Passion of the Christ'', arguably Romans would have spoke Greek especially in public settings in ancient Palestine, and certainly would not have had an Ecclesiastical, post Classical pronunciation of Latin</ref> Occasionally, Latin dialogue is used because of its association with religion or philosophy, in such film/television series as ''[[The Exorcist (film)|The Exorcist]]'' and ''[[Lost (2004 TV series)|Lost]]'' ("[[Jughead (Lost)|Jughead]]"). Subtitles are usually shown for the benefit of those who do not understand Latin. There are also [[list of songs with Latin lyrics|songs written with Latin lyrics]]. The libretto for the opera-oratorio {{lang|la|[[Oedipus rex (opera)|Oedipus rex]]}} by [[Igor Stravinsky]] is in Latin.
{{Main|Trail riding#Mountain bike trails|l1=Trail riding: Mountain bike trails}}


Trail riding or trail biking is a varied and popular non-competitive form of mountain biking on recognized, and often waymarked and graded, [[trail]]s; unpaved tracks, forest paths, etc. Trails may take the form of single routes or part of a larger complex, known as trail centers. Trail difficulty typically varies from gentle 'family' trails (green) through routes with increasingly technical features (blue and red) to those requiring high levels of fitness and skill (black) incorporating demanding ascents with steep technical descents comparable to less extreme downhill routes. As difficulty increases trails incorporate more technical trail features such as berms, rock gardens, uneven surfaces, drop offs and jumps. The most basic of bike designs can be used for less severe trails, but there are [[Mountain bike#Designs|"trail bike" designs]] which balance climbing ability with good downhill performance, almost always having 120-150 mm of travel on a suspension fork, with either a hard tail or a similar travel rear suspension. Many more technical trails are also used as routes for cross country, enduro, and even downhill racing.
The continued instruction of Latin is often seen as a highly valuable component of a liberal arts education. Latin is taught at many high schools, especially in Europe and the Americas. It is most common in British [[public school (United Kingdom)|public schools]] and grammar schools, the Italian {{lang|it|[[liceo classico]]}} and {{lang|it|[[liceo scientifico]]}}, the German {{lang|de|Humanistisches [[Gymnasium (Germany)|Gymnasium]]}} and the Dutch {{lang|nl|[[gymnasium (school)|gymnasium]]}}.


===Marathon===
[[File:QDP Ep 84 - De Ludo "Mysterium".webm|thumb|QDP Ep 84 – De Ludo "Mysterium": A Latin-language podcast from the US]] Occasionally, some media outlets, targeting enthusiasts, broadcast in Latin. Notable examples include [[Radio Bremen]] in Germany, [[YLE]] radio in Finland (the [[Nuntii Latini]] broadcast from 1989 until it was shut down in June 2019),<ref name=RTE2019-06-24a>{{cite news|url=https://www.rte.ie/news/world/2019/0624/1057298-latin/|title=Finnish broadcaster ends Latin news bulletins|publisher=[[RTÉ News]]|date=24 June 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190625001655/https://www.rte.ie/news/world/2019/0624/1057298-latin/|archive-date=25 June 2019|url-status=live}}</ref> and Vatican Radio & Television, all of which broadcast news segments and other material in Latin.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.radiobremen.de/nachrichten/latein/ |title=Latein: Nuntii Latini mensis lunii 2010: Lateinischer Monats rückblick |publisher=Radio Bremen |language=la |access-date=16 July 2010 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100618130408/https://www.radiobremen.de/nachrichten/latein/ |archive-date=18 June 2010}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=https://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/6079852.stm|title=Finland makes Latin the King|last=Dymond|first=Jonny|date=24 October 2006|work=[[BBC Online]]|access-date=29 January 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110103171037/https://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/6079852.stm|archive-date=3 January 2011|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.yle.fi/radio1/tiede/nuntii_latini/ |title=Nuntii Latini |publisher=YLE Radio 1 |language=la |access-date=17 July 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100718065851/https://www.yle.fi/radio1/tiede/nuntii_latini/ |archive-date=18 July 2010 |url-status=live }}</ref>
Mountain Bike Touring or Marathon is long-distance touring on dirt roads and single track with a mountain bike.


With the popularity of the [[Great Divide Trail]], the [[Colorado Trail]] and other long-distance off-road biking trails, specially outfitted mountain bikes are increasingly being used for touring. Bike manufacturers like Salsa have even developed MTB touring bikes like the Fargo model.
A variety of organisations, as well as informal Latin 'circuli' ('circles'), have been founded in more recent times to support the use of spoken Latin.<ref>{{Cite web|date=13 September 2015|title=About us (English)|url=https://www.circuluslatinuslondiniensis.co.uk/in-english/|access-date=2021-06-29|website=Circulus Latínus Londiniénsis|language=la|archive-date=10 February 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230210114430/https://www.circuluslatinuslondiniensis.co.uk/in-english/|url-status=dead}}</ref> Moreover, a number of university classics departments have begun incorporating communicative pedagogies in their Latin courses. These include the University of Kentucky, the University of Oxford and also Princeton University.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Active Latin at Jesus College – Oxford Latinitas Project|url=https://oxfordlatinitas.org/2020/12/01/active-latin-at-jesus-college/|access-date=2021-06-29|language=en-GB}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=Graduate Certificate in Latin Studies – Institute for Latin Studies {{!}} Modern & Classical Languages, Literatures & Cultures|url=https://mcl.as.uky.edu/latin-institute|access-date=2021-06-29|website=mcl.as.uky.edu}}</ref>


[[Mixed Terrain Cycle-Touring]] or rough riding is a form of mountain-bike touring but involves cycling over a variety of surfaces and topography on a single route, with a single bicycle that is expected to be satisfactory for all segments. The recent surge in popularity of mixed-terrain touring is in part a reaction against the increasing specialization of the bicycle industry. Mixed-terrain bicycle travel has a storied history of focusing on efficiency, cost-effectiveness, and freedom of travel over varied surfaces.<ref>[https://www.adventurecycling.org/resources/blog/10-things-you-might-think-you-need-for-a-long-distance-tour-but-dont/ Ten Things You Might Think You Need for a Long-Distance Tour, but Don't.] Blog of Adventure Cycling Association, April 10, 2012.</ref>
There are many websites and forums maintained in Latin by enthusiasts. The [[Latin Wikipedia]] has more than 130,000 articles.


=== Bikepacking ===
[[Urdaneta, Pangasinan|Urdaneta City]]'s motto {{lang|la|Deo servire populo sufficere}} ("It is enough for the people to serve God") the Latin motto can be read in the old seal of this Philippine city.
Bikepacking is a self-supported style of lightly loaded single or multiple night mountain biking.<ref name=":0">{{Cite news|url=https://www.rei.com/learn/expert-advice/bikepacking.html|title=How to Get Started Bikepacking|website=REI|language=en-US|access-date=2018-03-22}}</ref> Bikepacking is similar to bike touring, however the two sports generally use different bikes and the main difference is the method of carrying gear. Bikepacking generally involves carrying less gear and using smaller frame bags while bike touring will use [[pannier]]s.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.cyclinguk.org/article/whats-difference-between-cycle-touring-and-bikepacking|title=What's the difference between cycle touring and bikepacking? {{!}} Cycling UK|website=www.cyclinguk.org|language=en|access-date=2018-03-22}}</ref>


A typical bikepacking set-up includes a frame bag, handlebar roll, seat pack, and backpack and typical gear includes lightweight and basic camping gear, and a bike repair kit.<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://www.bikepacking.com/bikepacking-101/|title=Bikepacking 101 - BIKEPACKING.com|work=BIKEPACKING.com|access-date=2018-03-22|language=en-US}}</ref>
==Legacy==
Italian, French, [[Portuguese language|Portuguese]], Spanish, [[Romanian language|Romanian]], [[Catalan language|Catalan]], [[Romansh language|Romansh]] and other [[Romance languages]] are direct descendants of Latin. There are also many Latin [[Loanword|borrowings]] in English and [[Albanian language|Albanian]],<ref name=Sawicka>Sawicka, Irena. [https://ispan.waw.pl/journals/index.php/ch/article/view/ch.2013.006/117 "A Crossroad Between West, East and Orient–The Case of Albanian Culture."] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210927124146/https://ispan.waw.pl/journals/index.php/ch/article/view/ch.2013.006/117 |date=27 September 2021 }} Colloquia Humanistica. No. 2. Instytut Slawistyki Polskiej Akademii Nauk, 2013. Page 97: "Even according to Albanian linguists, Albanian vocabulary is composed in 60 percent of Latin words from different periods... When albanological studies were just emerging, it happened that Albanian was classified as a Romance language. Already there exists the idea of a common origin of both Albanian and Rumanian languages. The Rumanian grammar is almost identical to that of Albanian, but it may be as well the effect of later convergence within the Balkan Sprachbund.."</ref> as well as a few in German, [[Dutch language|Dutch]], [[Norwegian language|Norwegian]], [[Danish language|Danish]] and [[Swedish language|Swedish]].<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.ezglot.com/etymologies.php?l2=lat |title=List of words of Latin origin}}</ref> Latin is still spoken in Vatican City, a city-state situated in Rome that is the seat of the [[Catholic Church]].


Mountain bikes are generally used as many bike packing destinations are reached via forest-service roads or [[Single track (mountain biking)|singletrack]] trails.<ref name=":0" /> Mountain bikes specific to bike-packing use a slightly taller frame to get the maximum frame bag capacity. This is achieved by using a longer headtube, a more horizontal top tube, and a reduced stem degree.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.cyclingabout.com/what-is-a-bikepacking-bike/|title=What Is A Bikepacking Bike? Is It Different To A Standard Bike? - CyclingAbout|date=2017-06-05|work=CyclingAbout|access-date=2018-03-22|language=en-US}}</ref>
===Inscriptions===
Some inscriptions have been published in an internationally agreed, monumental, multivolume series, the {{lang|la|[[Corpus Inscriptionum Latinarum]]}} (CIL). Authors and publishers vary, but the format is about the same: volumes detailing inscriptions with a critical apparatus stating the [[provenance]] and relevant information. The reading and interpretation of these inscriptions is the subject matter of the field of [[epigraphy]]. About 270,000 inscriptions are known.


Generally, bikepackers tend to cover anywhere from 25 to 75 miles (40 – 120&nbsp;km) in a given day as the riding can be technical.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://bicycletouringpro.com/bikepacking/|title=Bikepacking Basics - Everything You Need To Start Bikepacking|website=bicycletouringpro.com|language=en-US|access-date=2018-03-22}}</ref>
===Literature===
[[File:Commentarii de Bello Gallico.jpg|thumb|upright=1.36|[[Julius Caesar]]'s {{lang|la|[[Commentarii de Bello Gallico]]}} is one of the most famous classical Latin texts of the Golden Age of Latin. The unvarnished, journalistic style of this [[patrician (ancient Rome)|patrician]] general has long been taught as a model of the urbane Latin officially spoken and written in the [[floruit]] of the [[Roman Republic]].]]
The works of several hundred ancient authors who wrote in Latin have survived in whole or in part, in substantial works or in fragments to be analyzed in [[philology]]. They are in part the subject matter of the field of [[classics]]. Their works were published in manuscript form before the invention of printing and are now published in carefully annotated printed editions, such as the [[Loeb Classical Library]], published by [[Harvard University Press]], or the [[Oxford Classical Texts]], published by [[Oxford University Press]].


==Health Benefits==
[[Latin translations of modern literature]] such as: ''[[The Hobbit]]'', ''[[Treasure Island]]'', ''[[Robinson Crusoe]]'', ''[[Paddington Bear]]'', ''[[Winnie the Pooh]]'', ''[[The Adventures of Tintin]]'', ''[[Asterix]]'', ''[[Harry Potter]]'', {{lang|fr|[[The Little Prince|Le Petit Prince]]}}, ''[[Max and Moritz]]'', ''[[How the Grinch Stole Christmas!]]'', ''[[The Cat in the Hat]]'', and a book of fairy tales, "{{lang|la|fabulae mirabiles}}", are intended to garner popular interest in the language. Additional resources include phrasebooks and resources for rendering everyday phrases and concepts into Latin, such as [[Meissner's Latin Phrasebook]].
Cycling and green exercises have proven positive effects on self-esteem and total mood disturbance.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Pretty |first1=Professor J. |last2=Peacock |first2=J. |last3=Hine |first3=R. |last4=Sellens |first4=M. |last5=South |first5=N. |last6=Griffin |first6=M. |title=Green exercise in the UK countryside: Effects on health and psychological well-being, and implications for policy and planning |journal=Journal of Environmental Planning and Management |date=Mar 9, 2007 |volume=50 |issue=2 |pages=211–231 |doi=10.1080/09640560601156466 |s2cid=54179127 |url=https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/09640560601156466 |access-date=8 June 2023}}</ref> Mountain biking is proven to improve mental health and well-being relating to coping abilities and reducing stress. There are strong links between outdoor environments and their therapeutic potential.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Roberts |first1=L. |last2=Jones |first2=G. |last3=Brooks |first3=R. |title=A Characterization of Mountain Bikers, Their Engagement Methods, and Perceived Links to Mental Health and Well-Being |journal=Front Psychol |date=Sep 19, 2018 |volume=9 |page=1642 |doi=10.3389/fpsyg.2018.01642 |pmid=30283372 |pmc=6156442 |doi-access=free }}</ref>


==Risks==
===Influence on present-day languages===
Risk of injury is present when mountain biking, especially in the more extreme disciplines like downhill biking, free ride and dirt jumping. Injuries range from minor wounds, such as cuts and abrasions from falls on gravel or other surfaces, to major injuries such as broken bones, head or spinal injuries resulting from impacts with rocks, trees or the terrain being ridden on.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Kronisch|first1=R.L.|last2=Pfeiffer|first2=R.P.|year=2002|title=Mountain biking injuries: An update|journal=Sports Medicine|volume=32, 8|issue=8|pages=523–537|via=Scopus|doi=10.2165/00007256-200232080-00004|pmid=12076178|s2cid=33565397}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Carmont|first=M.R.|year=2008|title=Mountain biking injuries: A review|journal=British Medical Bulletin|volume=85, 1|pages=101–112|via=Scopus|doi=10.1093/bmb/ldn009|pmid=18296453|doi-access=free}}</ref> Another risk factor is that mountain biking often takes place in wilderness or remote areas so emergency response can be delayed in the event of sustained injury.
The [[Latin influence in English]] has been significant at all stages of its insular development. In the [[Middle Ages]], borrowing from Latin occurred from ecclesiastical usage established by Saint [[Augustine of Canterbury]] in the 6th century or indirectly after the [[Norman Conquest]], through the [[Anglo-Norman language]]. From the 16th to the 18th centuries, English writers cobbled together huge numbers of new words from Latin and Greek words, dubbed "[[inkhorn term]]s", as if they had spilled from a pot of ink. Many of these words were used once by the author and then forgotten, but some useful ones survived, such as 'imbibe' and 'extrapolate'. Many of the most common [[polysyllabic]] English words are of Latin origin through the medium of [[Old French]]. Romance words make respectively 59%, 20% and 14% of English, German and Dutch vocabularies.<ref>{{cite book |last=Finkenstaedt |first=Thomas |author2=Dieter Wolff |title=Ordered Profusion; studies in dictionaries and the English lexicon |publisher=C. Winter |year=1973 |isbn=978-3-533-02253-4}}</ref><ref>Uwe Pörksen, German Academy for Language and Literature's Jahrbuch [Yearbook] 2007 (Wallstein Verlag, Göttingen 2008, pp. 121–130)</ref><ref name="Walter">{{cite book |url=https://pure.knaw.nl/ws/files/475024/Van_der_Sijs_Loanwords_in_the_World's_Languages.pdf |title=Loanwords in the World's Languages: A Comparative Handbook |page=[https://books.google.com/books?id=HnKeVbwTwyYC&pg=PA370 370] |publisher=Walter de Gruyter |year=2009 |access-date=9 February 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170326062334/https://pure.knaw.nl/ws/files/475024/Van_der_Sijs_Loanwords_in_the_World%27s_Languages.pdf |archive-date=26 March 2017 |url-status=live }}</ref> Those figures can rise dramatically when only non-compound and non-derived words are included.


Protective equipment can protect against minor injuries and reduce the extent or seriousness of major impacts, but may not protect a rider from major impacts or accidents. To reduce the risk of injury, a rider will also take steps to minimize the risk of accidents, and thus the potential for injury; by choosing trails which fall within the range of their experience level, ensuring that they are fit enough to deal with the trail they have chosen, and keeping their bike in top mechanical condition.
The influence of Roman governance and [[Roman technology]] on the less-developed nations under Roman dominion led to the adoption of Latin phraseology in some specialized areas, such as science, technology, medicine, and law. For example, [[Linnaean taxonomy|the Linnaean system]] of plant and animal classification was heavily influenced by ''[[Natural History (Pliny)|Historia Naturalis]]'', an encyclopedia of people, places, plants, animals, and things published by [[Pliny the Elder]]. Roman medicine, recorded in the works of such physicians as [[Galen]], established that today's [[medical terminology]] would be primarily derived from Latin and Greek words, the Greek being filtered through the Latin. Roman engineering had the same effect on [[scientific terminology]] as a whole. Latin law principles have survived partly in a long [[list of Latin legal terms]].


Lastly, maintenance of the rider's bike is carried out more frequently for mountain biking than for utility cycling or casual commuter biking. Mountain biking places higher demands on every part of the bike. Jumps and impacts can crack the frame or damage components or the tire rims, and steep, fast descents can quickly wear out brake pads. Since the widespread adoption of hydraulic and mechanical disk brakes on most mountain bikes from the late 1990s, the issues of brake pad wear, misalignment with, or slippage of rim brake pads on rims designed for rim brakes or "V brakes", has become a non-issue. Thus, whereas a casual rider may only check over and maintain their bike every few months, a mountain biker will check and properly maintain the bike before and after every ride.
A few [[international auxiliary language]]s have been heavily influenced by Latin. [[Interlingua]] is sometimes considered a simplified, modern version of the language.{{Dubious|date=January 2017}} [[Latino sine Flexione]], popular in the early 20th century, is Latin with its inflections stripped away, among other grammatical changes.


==Advocacy organizations==
The [[Logudorese]] dialect of the [[Sardinian language]] is the closest contemporary language to Latin.<ref>{{cite book |title=Story of Language |last=Pei |first=Mario |author-link=Mario Pei |page=28|year=1949 |publisher=Lippincott |isbn=978-0-397-00400-3 }}</ref>
Mountain bikers have faced land access issues from the beginnings of the sport. Some areas where the first mountain bikers have ridden have faced extreme restrictions or elimination of riding.


This opposition has led to the development of local, regional, and international mountain bike groups. The different groups that formed generally work to create new trails, maintain existing trails, and help existing trails that may have issues. Groups work with private and public entities from the individual landowner to city parks departments, on up through the state level at the DNR, and into the federal level. Different groups will work individually or together to achieve results.
===Education===
[[File:Latin dictionary.jpg|thumb|A multivolume Latin dictionary in the [[University of Graz Library]] in Austria]]


Advocacy organizations work through numerous methods such as education, trail workdays, and trail patrols. Examples of the education an advocacy group can provide include: Educate local bicycle riders, property managers, and other user groups on the proper development of trails, and on the [[International Mountain Bicycling Association]]'s (IMBA), [[Single track (mountain biking)#"Rules of the Trail"|"Rules of the Trail."]] Examples of trail work days can include: Flagging, cutting, and signing a new trail, or removing downed trees after a storm. A trail patrol is a bike rider who has had some training to help assist others (including non-cyclists), trail users.
Throughout European history, an education in the classics was considered crucial for those who wished to join literate circles. This also was true in the United States where many of the nation's Founders obtained a classically based education in grammar schools or from tutors.<ref>Of the eighty-nine men who signed the Declaration of Independence and attended the Constitutional Convention, thirty-six went to a Colonial college, all of which offered only the classical curriculum. Richard M. Gummere, The American Colonial Mind and the Classical Tradition, p.66 (1963).</ref> Admission to Harvard in the Colonial era required that the applicant "Can readily make and speak or write true Latin prose and has skill in making verse . . ."<ref>Meyer Reinhold, Classica Americana: The Greek and Roman Heritage in the United States, p.27 (1984). Harvard's curriculum was patterned after those of Oxford and Cambridge, and the curricula of other Colonial colleges followed Harvard's. Lawrence A. Cremin, American Education: The Colonial Experience, 1607–1783, pp. 128–129 (1970), and Frederick Rudolph, Curriculum: A History of the American Undergraduate Course of Study Since 1636, pp.31–32 (1978).</ref> Latin Study and the classics were emphasized in American secondary schools and colleges well into the Antebellum era.<ref>Id. at 104.</ref>


The IMBA is a non-profit advocacy group whose mission is to create, enhance and preserve trail opportunities for mountain bikers worldwide. IMBA serves as an umbrella organization for mountain [[biking advocacy]] worldwide and represents more than 700 affiliated mountain biking groups. The group was originally formed to fight widespread trail closures. In 1988, five California mountain bike clubs linked to form IMBA. The founding clubs were: Concerned Off-Road Bicyclists Association, Bicycle Trails Council East Bay, Bicycle Trails Council Marin, Sacramento Rough Riders, and Responsible Organized Mountain.
[[Instruction in Latin]] is an essential aspect. In today's world, a large number of Latin students in the US learn from ''Wheelock's Latin: The Classic Introductory Latin Course, Based on Ancient Authors''. This book, first published in 1956,<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.wheelockslatin.com/ | title=The Official Wheelock's Latin Series Website | first=Richard A. | last=LaFleur | year=2011 | publisher=The Official Wheelock's Latin Series Website | access-date=17 February 2011 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110208122304/https://www.wheelockslatin.com/ | archive-date=8 February 2011 | url-status=live }}</ref> was written by [[Frederic M. Wheelock]], who received a PhD from Harvard University. ''Wheelock's Latin'' has become the standard text for many American introductory Latin courses.


==Environmental impact==
The numbers of people studying Latin varies significantly by country. In Britain, Latin is available in around 2.3% of state primary schools, representing a significant increase in availability.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Woolcock |first1=Nicola |title=Latin is now fourth most-taught language in primary schools |url=https://www.thetimes.co.uk/article/latin-language-lessons-uk-primary-schools-2023-wrqrtfj0s |access-date=20 August 2023 |work=The Times |date=29 June 2023}}</ref> In Germany, over 500,000 students study Latin each year, representing a decrease from over 800,000 in 2008. Latin is still required for some University courses, but this has become less frequent.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Breitenbach |first1=Dagmar |title=Why Latin should not become extinct in school |url=https://www.dw.com/en/why-latin-should-not-become-extinct-in-school/a-66373904 |access-date=20 August 2023 |publisher=Deutsche Welle |date=27 July 2023}}</ref>
According to a review published by the [[International Mountain Bicycling Association]], the environmental impact of mountain biking, as a relatively new sport, is poorly understood. The review notes that "as with all recreational pursuits, it is clear that mountain biking contributes some degree of environmental degradation".<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.imba.com/resources/research/trail-science/environmental-impacts-mountain-biking-science-review-and-best-practices|title=Environmental Impacts of Mountain Biking: Science Review and Best Practices|first1=Jeff|last1=Marion|first2=Jeremy|last2=Wimpey|publisher=International Mountain Bicycling Association|year=2007|access-date=12 August 2015}}</ref> Mountain biking can result in both soil and vegetation damage, which can be caused by skidding, but also by the construction of unauthorised features such as jumps and bridges, and trails themselves.<ref>{{cite journal|title=Comparing hiking, mountain biking and horse riding impacts on vegetation and soils in Australia and the United States of America|first1=Catherine Marina|last1=Pickering|first2=Wendy|last2=Hill|first3=David|last3=Newsome|first4=Yu-Fai|last4=Leung|journal=Journal of Environmental Management|volume=91|issue=3|pages=551–562|year=2010|doi=10.1016/j.jenvman.2009.09.025|pmid=19864052}}</ref> Several studies have reported that a mountain bike's impact on a given length of trail surface is comparable to that of a hiker, and substantially less than that of an [[equestrianism|equestrian]] or motorized off-road vehicle.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://js.sagamorepub.com/jpra/article/view/1406/1373|title = A Comparative Study of Impacts to Mountain Bike Trails in Five Common Ecological Regions of the Southwestern U.S.|access-date = 2015-02-27}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.pwrc.usgs.gov/prodabs/pubpdfs/6612_Marion.pdf|title = Assessing and Understanding Trail Degradation: Results from Big South Fork National River and Recreational Area|access-date = 2015-02-27|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080923200555/http://www.pwrc.usgs.gov/prodabs/pubpdfs/6612_Marion.pdf|archive-date = 2008-09-23|url-status = live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://ftp://www.bio.sdsu.edu/pub/IEMM/Recreation/3rdTierLiterature/TaylorKnight2003mtnbikinghiking.pdf|title = Wildlife Responses to Recreation and Associated Visitor Perceptions|access-date = 2015-02-27}}{{Dead link|date=April 2020 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|title = Responses of desert bighorn sheep to increased human recreation.|journal = The Journal of Wildlife Management|volume = 65|issue = 3|pages = 573–582|jstor = 3803110|last1 = Papouchis|first1 = Christopher M.|last2 = Singer|first2 = Francis J.|last3 = Sloan|first3 = William B.|year = 2001|doi = 10.2307/3803110}}</ref>{{unreliable source?|date=November 2013}}


A critical literature review by Jason Lathrop on the ecological impact of mountain biking notes that while recreational trail use in general is well studied, few studies explore the specific impact of mountain biking. He quotes the [[Bureau of Land Management]]: "An estimated 13.5 million mountain bicyclists visit public lands each year to enjoy the variety of trails. What was once a low use activity that was easy to manage has become more complex".<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.wildlandscpr.org/ecological-impacts-mountain-biking-critical-literature-review|title=Ecological Impacts of Mountain Biking: A Critical Literature Review|first=Jason|last=Lathrop|publisher=Wildlands CPR|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071012134126/http://www.wildlandscpr.org/ecological-impacts-mountain-biking-critical-literature-review|url-status=dead|archive-date=12 October 2007|access-date=12 August 2015}}</ref>
The [[Living Latin]] movement attempts to teach Latin in the same way that living languages are taught, as a means of both spoken and written communication. It is available in Vatican City and at some institutions in the US, such as the [[University of Kentucky]] and [[Iowa State University]]. The British [[Cambridge University Press]] is a major supplier of Latin textbooks for all levels, such as the [[Cambridge Latin Course]] series. It has also published a subseries of children's texts in Latin by Bell & Forte, which recounts the adventures of a mouse called [[Minimus]].


The environmental impacts of mountain biking can be greatly reduced by not riding on wet or sensitive trails, keeping speeds modest so as to minimize cornering forces and braking forces, not skidding, and by staying on the trail.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.imba.com/resources/nmbp/minimum-impact-riding|title=Minimum Impact Riding|author=<!--Not stated-->|website=International Mountain Bicycling Association|access-date=23 July 2017}}</ref>
[[File:Latin and Ancient Greek Language - Culture - Linguistics at Duke University in 2014.jpg|thumb|upright=0.9|Latin and Ancient Greek at [[Duke University]] in [[Durham, North Carolina]], 2014]]


Mountain biking has been demonstrated to act as a human-mediated form of [[seed dispersal]]. Due to advancements in technology mountain bikers have begun to move onto trail networks once only accessible by hikers. The nature of their movement patterns also plays an important role as a vector for seed dispersal. Mountain bikes are not bound to any specific type of infrastructure and can therefore move freely between ecological environments acting as a connecting dispersal vector between habitats. Combined with their relatively long range and speeds they also contribute to long-range dispersal.<ref name="Weiss">{{cite journal |last1=Weiss |first1=Fabio |last2=Brummer |first2=Tyler |last3=Pufal |first3=Gesine |title=Mountain bikes as seed dispersers and their potential socio-ecological consequences |journal=Journal of Environmental Management |date=2016 |volume=181 |pages=326–332 |doi=10.1016/j.jenvman.2016.06.037 |pmid=27379751 }}</ref> In an effort to understand and assess the socio-ecological consequences of mountain bikes as a vector for seed dispersal Fabio Weiss, Tyler J. Brummer, and Gesine Pufal conducted an environmental impact study on forest trails in Freiburg, Germany. The results of the study found that although the majority of seeds detached from tires within the first 5–20 meters; small portions of seeds were still present after 200–500 meters contributing to moderate dispersal. The potential for long-distance dispersal was found through the transport of seeds on areas of the bike that did not come into frequent contact with the ground. The study also found that the majority of participants only cleaned their bikes on average every 70&nbsp;km or every two rides.<ref name="Weiss" /> Rides executed in two different areas have the potential to connect previously unconnected habitats creating the potential for unwanted plant invasions.<br>
In the United Kingdom, the [[Classical Association]] encourages the study of antiquity through various means, such as publications and grants. The [[University of Cambridge]],<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.cambridgescp.com/ |title=University of Cambridge School Classics Project – Latin Course |publisher=Cambridgescp.com |access-date=2014-04-23}}</ref> the [[Open University]],<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www3.open.ac.uk/study/undergraduate/course/a297.htm |title=Open University Undergraduate Course – Reading classical Latin |publisher=.open.ac.uk |access-date=2014-04-23 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140427094907/https://www3.open.ac.uk/study/undergraduate/course/A297.htm |archive-date=27 April 2014 |url-status=live }}</ref> a number of independent schools, for example [[Eton College|Eton]], [[Harrow School|Harrow]], [[Haberdashers' Aske's Boys' School]], [[Merchant Taylors' School, Northwood|Merchant Taylors' School]], and [[Rugby School|Rugby]], and The Latin Programme/Via Facilis,<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.thelatinprogramme.co.uk/ |title=The Latin Programme – Via Facilis |publisher=Thelatinprogramme.co.uk |access-date=2014-04-23 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140429163517/https://www.thelatinprogramme.co.uk/ |archive-date=29 April 2014 |url-status=live }}</ref> a London-based charity, run Latin courses. In the United States and in Canada, the [[American Classical League]] supports every effort to further the study of classics. Its subsidiaries include the [[National Junior Classical League]] (with more than 50,000 members), which encourages high school students to pursue the study of Latin, and the [[National Senior Classical League]], which encourages students to continue their study of the classics into college. The league also sponsors the [[National Latin Exam]]. Classicist [[Mary Beard (classicist)|Mary Beard]] wrote in ''[[The Times Literary Supplement]]'' in 2006 that the reason for learning Latin is because of what was written in it.<ref name="timesonline train the brain">{{cite web | url=https://timesonline.typepad.com/dons_life/2006/07/does_latin_trai.html | title=Does Latin "train the brain"? | work=[[The Times Literary Supplement]] | date=10 July 2006| author=Beard, Mary | quote=No, you learn Latin because of what was written in it – and because of the sexual side of life direct access that Latin gives you to a literary tradition that lies at the very heart (not just at the root) of Western culture. | author-link=Mary Beard (classicist) | url-status=dead | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120114185439/https://timesonline.typepad.com/dons_life/2006/07/does_latin_trai.html | archive-date=14 January 2012}}</ref>
<br>

To mitigate the accidental dispersal of an unwanted invasive species, the authors of the study proposed the following measures to support conservation:<ref name="Weiss"/>
===Official status===
<blockquote>
Latin was or is the official language of European states:
a) Clean the bike between rides in different habitats, before traveling and especially before entering sensitive natural areas and regions.<br>
* {{flag|Hungary}} – Latin was an official language in the [[Kingdom of Hungary]] from the 11th century to the mid 19th century, when [[Hungarian language|Hungarian]] became the exclusive official language in 1844.{{citation needed|date=May 2022}} The best known Latin language poet of Croatian-Hungarian origin was [[Janus Pannonius]].
b) Control weeds and non-native species at trailheads and trail margins.<br>
* {{flag|Croatia}} – Latin was the official language of [[Croatian Parliament]] (Sabor) from the 13th to the 19th century (1847).{{citation needed|date=May 2022}} The oldest preserved records of the parliamentary sessions ({{lang|la|Congregatio Regni totius Sclavonie generalis}}) – held in Zagreb ({{lang|la|Zagabria}}), Croatia – date from 19 April 1273. An extensive [[Croatian Latin literature]] exists. Latin was used on Croatian coins on even years until 1 January 2023, when Croatia adopted the Euro as its official currency.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.hnb.hr/en/currency/coins |title=Coins |date=30 September 2016 |website=[[Croatian National Bank]] |access-date=15 November 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171116041640/https://www.hnb.hr/en/currency/coins |archive-date=16 November 2017 |url-status=dead }}</ref>
c) Educate mountain bike riders about the potential dispersal of different species (good stewardship begets riding privileges).<br>
* {{flag|Poland}}, [[Kingdom of Poland]] – officially recognised and widely used<ref>Who only knows Latin can go across the whole Poland from one side to the other one just like he was at his own home, just like he was born there. So great happiness! I wish a traveler in England could travel without knowing any other language than Latin!, Daniel Defoe, 1728</ref><ref>Anatol Lieven, The Baltic Revolution: Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania and the Path to Independence, Yale University Press, 1994, {{ISBN|0-300-06078-5}}, Google Print, p.48</ref><ref>Kevin O'Connor, Culture And Customs of the Baltic States, Greenwood Press, 2006, {{ISBN|0-313-33125-1}}, Google Print, p.115</ref><ref name="Friedrich">Karin Friedrich et al., ''The Other Prussia: Royal Prussia, Poland and Liberty, 1569–1772'', Cambridge University Press, 2000, {{ISBN|0-521-58335-7}}, [https://books.google.com/books?id=qsBco40rMPcC&dq=Latin+language+szlachta&pg=PA88 Google Print, p.88] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150915150106/https://books.google.com/books?id=qsBco40rMPcC&pg=PA88&dq=Latin+language+szlachta&as_brr=3&ei=J44rR5_XFZXC7AK4xeGVBQ&sig=3ecP0DjPuCLnTaEdVI76Ck8xSE8 |date=15 September 2015 }}</ref> between the 10th and 18th centuries, commonly used in foreign relations and popular as a second language among some of the [[szlachta|nobility]].<ref name="Friedrich"/>
d) Encourage cooperation between mountain bikers and managing authorities (avoid condescending regulations, establishment of monitored designated riding areas).<br>

</blockquote>
==Phonology==
{{Main|Latin phonology and orthography}}

The ancient pronunciation of Latin has been reconstructed; among the data used for reconstruction are explicit statements about pronunciation by ancient authors, misspellings, puns, ancient etymologies, the spelling of Latin loanwords in other languages, and the historical development of Romance languages.<ref>{{harvnb|Allen|1978|pp=viii–ix}}</ref>

===Consonants===
The consonant [[phoneme]]s of Classical Latin are as follows:<ref>{{cite book |first=Andrew L. |last=Sihler |title=New Comparative Grammar of Greek and Latin |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=IeHmqKY2BqoC|year=1995|publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-508345-3 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161109231225/https://books.google.com/books?id=IeHmqKY2BqoC |archive-date=9 November 2016 |url-status=live }}</ref>

{| class="wikitable IPA" style="text-align: center;"
|-
! colspan="2" rowspan="2" |
! rowspan="2" | [[Labial consonant|Labial]]
! rowspan="2" | [[Dental consonant|Dental]]
! rowspan="2" | [[Palatal consonant|Palatal]]
! colspan="2" | [[Velar consonant|Velar]]
! rowspan="2" | [[Glottal consonant|Glottal]]
|-
! plain
! [[Labialisation|labial]]
|-
! rowspan="2" | [[Plosive consonant|Plosive]]
! <small>[[voice (phonetics)|voiced]]</small>
| b
| d
|
| ɡ
| ɡʷ
|
|-
! <small>[[voicelessness|voiceless]]</small>
| p
| t
|
| k
| kʷ
|
|-
! rowspan="2" | [[Fricative consonant|Fricative]]
! <small>[[voice (phonetics)|voiced]]</small>
|
| (z)
|
|
|
|
|-
! <small>[[voicelessness|voiceless]]</small>
| f
| s
|
|
|
| h
|-
! colspan="2" | [[Nasal consonant|Nasal]]
| m
| n
|
| (ŋ)
|
|
|-
! colspan="2" | [[Rhotic consonant|Rhotic]]
|
| r
|
|
|
|
|-
! colspan="2" | [[Approximant consonant|Approximant]]
|
| l
| j
|
| w
|
|}

{{IPA|/z/}} was not native to Classical Latin. It appeared in Greek loanwords starting around the first century BC, when it was probably pronounced {{IPA|[z]}} initially and [[Gemination|doubled]] {{IPA|[zz]}} between vowels, in contrast to [[Ancient Greek|Classical Greek]] {{IPA|[dz]}} or {{IPA|[zd]}}. In Classical Latin poetry, the letter {{angbr|{{sqc|z}}}} between vowels always counts as two consonants for metrical purposes.<ref>{{Harvnb|Levy|1973|p=150}}</ref><ref name="Allen Z">{{Harvnb|Allen|1978|pp=45, 46}}</ref> The consonant ⟨b⟩ usually sounds as [b]; however, when ⟨t⟩ or ⟨s⟩ follows ⟨b⟩ then it is pronounced as in [pt] or [ps]. Further, [[consonant]]s do not blend together. So, ⟨ch⟩, ⟨ph⟩, and ⟨th⟩ are all sounds that would be pronounced as [kh], [ph], and [th]. In Latin, ⟨q⟩ is always followed by the [[vowel]] ⟨u⟩. Together they make a [kʷ] sound.<ref name="Wheelock 7th ed.">{{Cite book|last=Wheelock, Frederic M.|title=Wheelock's Latin|others=LaFleur, Richard A.|date=7 June 2011|isbn=978-0-06-199721-1|edition=7th|location=New York|oclc=670475844 |publisher=HarperCollins}}</ref>

In Old and Classical Latin, the Latin alphabet had no distinction between [[letter case|uppercase and lowercase]], and the letters {{angbr|J U W}} did not exist. In place of {{angbr|J U}}, {{angbr|I V}} were used, respectively; {{angbr|I V}} represented both vowels and consonants. Most of the letterforms were similar to modern uppercase, as can be seen in the inscription from the Colosseum shown at the top of the article.

The spelling systems used in Latin dictionaries and modern editions of Latin texts, however, normally use {{angbr|j u}} in place of Classical-era {{angbr|i v}}. Some systems use {{angbr|j v}} for the consonant sounds {{IPA|/j w/}} except in the combinations {{angbr|gu su qu}} for which {{angbr|v}} is never used.

Some notes concerning the mapping of Latin phonemes to English graphemes are given below:

{| class="wikitable"
|+ Notes
|-
! Latin<br />grapheme !! Latin<br />phoneme !! English examples
|-
! {{angbr|c}}, {{angbr|k}}
! {{IPA|[k]}}
| Always as ''k'' in ''sky'' ({{IPA|/skaɪ/}})
|-
! {{angbr|t}}
! {{IPA|[t]}}
| As ''t'' in ''stay'' ({{IPA|/steɪ/}})
|-
! {{angbr|s}}
! {{IPA|[s]}}
| As ''s'' in ''say'' ({{IPA|/seɪ/}})
|-
! rowspan="2" | {{angbr|g}}
! {{IPA|[ɡ]}}
| Always as ''g'' in ''good'' ({{IPA|/ɡʊd/}})
|-
! {{IPA|[ŋ]}}
| Before {{angbr|n}}, as ''ng'' in ''sing'' ({{IPA|/sɪŋ/}})
|-
! rowspan="2" | {{angbr|n}}
! {{IPA|[n]}}
| As ''n'' in ''man'' ({{IPA|/mæn/}})
|-
! {{IPA|[ŋ]}}
| Before {{angbr|c}}, {{angbr|x}}, and {{angbr|g}}, as ''ng'' in ''sing'' ({{IPA|/sɪŋ/}})
|-
! rowspan="2" | {{angbr|l}}
! {{IPA|[l]}}
| When doubled {{angbr|ll}} and before {{angbr|i}}, as [[Voiced dental, alveolar and postalveolar lateral approximants|"light L"]], {{IPA|[l̥]}} in ''link'' ({{IPA|[l̥ɪnk]}}) ({{lang|la|l exilis}})<ref>{{harvnb|Sihler|2008|p=174}}.</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Allen|1978|pp=33–34}}</ref>
|-
! {{IPA|[ɫ]}}
| In all other positions, as [[Voiced dental, alveolar and postalveolar lateral approximants|"dark L"]], {{IPA|[ɫ]}} in ''bowl'' ({{IPA|[boʊɫ]}}) ({{lang|la|l pinguis}})
|-
! {{angbr|qu}}
! {{IPA|[kʷ]}}
| Similar to ''qu'' in ''squint'' ({{IPA|/skwɪnt/}})
|-
! {{angbr|u}}
! {{IPA|[w]}}
| Sometimes at the beginning of a syllable, or after {{angbr|g}} and {{angbr|s}}, as {{IPA|/w/}} in ''wine'' ({{IPA|/waɪn/}})
|-
! rowspan="2" | {{angbr|i}}
! {{IPA|[j]}}
| Sometimes at the beginning of a syllable, as ''y'' ({{IPA|/j/}}) in ''yard'' ({{IPA|/jɑɹd/}})
|-
! {{IPA|[ij]}}
| "y" ({{IPA|/j/}}), in between vowels, becomes "i-y", being pronounced as parts of two separate syllables, as in {{lang|la|capiō}} ({{IPA|/kapiˈjo:/}})
|-
! {{angbr|x}}
! {{IPA|[ks]}}
| A letter representing {{angbr|c}} + {{angbr|s}}: as ''x'' in English ''axe'' ({{IPA|/æks/}})
|}

In Classical Latin, as in modern Italian, double consonant letters were pronounced as [[Gemination|long]] consonant sounds distinct from short versions of the same consonants. Thus the ''nn'' in Classical Latin {{lang|la|annus}} "year" (and in Italian {{lang|it|anno}}) is pronounced as a doubled {{IPA|/nn/}} as in English ''unnamed''. (In English, distinctive consonant length or doubling occurs only at the boundary between two words or [[morpheme]]s, as in that example.)

===Vowels===

====Simple vowels====
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"
|-
! !! Front !! Central !! Back
|-
! Close
| {{IPA|iː ɪ}} || || {{IPA|ʊ uː}}
|-
! Mid
| {{IPA|eː ɛ}} || || {{IPA|ɔ oː}}
|-
! Open
| || {{IPA|a aː}} ||
|}

In Classical Latin, {{angbr|U}} did not exist as a letter distinct from V; the written form {{angbr|V}} was used to represent both a vowel and a consonant. {{angbr|Y}} was adopted to represent [[upsilon]] in loanwords from [[Greek language|Greek]], but it was pronounced like {{angbr|u}} and {{angbr|i}} by some speakers. It was also used in native Latin words by confusion with Greek words of similar meaning, such as {{lang|la|sylva}} and {{lang|grc|ὕλη}}.

Classical Latin distinguished between [[vowel length|long and short vowels]]. Then, long vowels, except for {{angbr|I}}, were frequently marked using the [[apex (diacritic)|apex]], which was sometimes similar to an [[acute accent]] {{angbr|Á É Ó V́ Ý}}. Long {{IPA|/iː/}} was written using a taller version of {{angbr|I}}, called {{lang|la|i longa}} "[[long I]]": {{angbr|ꟾ}}. In modern texts, long vowels are often indicated by a [[macron (diacritic)|macron]] {{angbr|ā ē ī ō ū}}, and short vowels are usually unmarked except when it is necessary to distinguish between words, when they are marked with a [[breve]] {{angbr|ă ĕ ĭ ŏ ŭ}}. However, they would also signify a long vowel by writing the vowel larger than other letters in a word or by repeating the vowel twice in a row.<ref name="Wheelock 7th ed." /> The acute accent, when it is used in modern Latin texts, indicates stress, as in Spanish, rather than length.

Although called long vowels, their exact quality in Classical Latin is different from short vowels. The difference is described in the table below:

{| class="wikitable"
|+ Pronunciation of Latin vowels
! Latin<br />grapheme
! Latin<br />phone
! modern examples
|-
! rowspan="2" | {{angbr|a}}
! {{IPA|[a]}}
| similar to the ''a'' in ''part'' (/paɹt/)
|-
! {{IPA|[aː]}}
| similar to the ''a'' in ''father'' (/fɑːðəɹ/)
|-
! rowspan="2" | {{angbr|e}}
! {{IPA|[ɛ]}}
| as ''e'' in ''pet'' (/pɛt/)
|-
! {{IPA|[eː]}}
| similar to ''e'' in ''hey'' (/heɪ/)
|-
! rowspan="2" | {{angbr|i}}
! {{IPA|[ɪ]}}
| as ''i'' in ''pit'' (/pɪt/)
|-
! {{IPA|[iː]}}
| similar to ''i'' in ''machine'' (/məʃiːn/)
|-
! rowspan="2" | {{angbr|o}}
! {{IPA|[ɔ]}}
| as ''o'' in ''port'' (/pɔɹt/)
|-
! {{IPA|[oː]}}
| similar to ''o'' in ''post'' (/poʊst/)
|-
! rowspan="2" | {{angbr|u}}
! {{IPA|[ʊ]}}
| as ''u'' in put (/pʊt/)
|-
! {{IPA|[uː]}}
| similar to ''ue'' in ''true'' (/tɹuː/)
|-
! rowspan="2" | {{angbr|y}}
! {{IPA|[ʏ]}}
| does not exist in English, closest approximation is the ''u'' in ''mule''
|-
! {{IPA|[yː]}}
| does not exist in English, closest approximation is the ''u'' in ''cute''
|}

This difference in quality is posited by [[W. Sidney Allen]] in his book ''Vox Latina''. However, Andrea Calabrese has disputed this assertion, based in part upon the observation that in Sardinian and some Lucanian dialects, each long and short vowel pair merged, as opposed to in Italo-Western languages in which short /i/ and /u/ merged with long /eː/ and /o:/ (c.f. Latin 'siccus', Italian 'secco', and Sardinian 'siccu').

A vowel letter followed by {{angbr|m}} at the end of a word, or a vowel letter followed by {{angbr|n}} before {{angbr|s}} or {{angbr|f}}, represented a short [[nasal vowel]], as in {{lang|la|monstrum}} {{IPA|[mõːstrũ]}}.

====Diphthongs====
Classical Latin had several [[diphthong]]s. The two most common were {{angbr|ae au}}. {{angbr|oe}} was fairly rare, and {{angbr|ui eu ei}} were very rare, at least in native Latin words.<ref name="classical diphthongs">{{Harvnb|Allen|1978|pp=60–63}}</ref> There has also been debate over whether {{angbr|ui}} is truly a diphthong in Classical Latin, due to its rarity, absence in works of Roman grammarians, and the roots of Classical Latin words (i.e. {{lang|la|hui ce}} to {{lang|la|huic}}, {{lang|la|quoi}} to {{lang|la|cui}}, etc.) not matching or being similar to the pronunciation of classical words if {{angbr|ui}} were to be considered a diphthong.<ref>{{cite journal|jstor=282713|title=The Diphthong -ui in Latin|journal=Transactions and Proceedings of the American Philological Association|volume=41|pages=19–23|last=Husband|first=Richard|date=1910|doi=10.2307/282713}}{{cbignore|bot=medic}}</ref>

The sequences sometimes did not represent diphthongs. {{angbr|ae}} and {{angbr|oe}} also represented a sequence of two vowels in different syllables in {{lang|la|aēnus}} {{IPA|[aˈeː.nʊs]}} "of bronze" and {{lang|la|coēpit}} {{IPA|[kɔˈeː.pɪt]}} "began", and {{angbr|au ui eu ei ou}} represented sequences of two vowels or of a vowel and one of the semivowels {{IPA|/j w/}}, in {{lang|la|cavē}} {{IPA|[ˈka.weː]}} "beware!", {{lang|la|cuius}} {{IPA|[ˈkʊj.jʊs]}} "whose", {{lang|la|monuī}} {{IPA|[ˈmɔn.ʊ.iː]}} "I warned", {{lang|la|solvī}} {{IPA|[ˈsɔɫ.wiː]}} "I released", {{lang|la|dēlēvī}} {{IPA|[deːˈleː.wiː]}} "I destroyed", {{lang|la|eius}} {{IPA|[ˈɛj.jʊs]}} "his", and {{lang|la|novus}} {{IPA|[ˈnɔ.wʊs]}} "new".

Old Latin had more diphthongs, but most of them changed into long vowels in Classical Latin. The Old Latin diphthong {{angbr|ai}} and the sequence {{angbr|āī}} became Classical {{angbr|ae}}. Old Latin {{angbr|oi}} and {{angbr|ou}} changed to Classical {{angbr|ū}}, except in a few words whose {{angbr|oi}} became Classical {{angbr|oe}}. These two developments sometimes occurred in different words from the same root: for instance, Classical {{lang|la|poena}} "punishment" and {{lang|la|pūnīre}} "to punish".<ref name="classical diphthongs" /> Early Old Latin {{angbr|ei}} usually changed to Classical {{angbr|ī}}.<ref>{{Harvnb|Allen|1978|pp=53–55}}</ref>

In Vulgar Latin and the Romance languages, {{angbr|ae oe}} merged with {{angbr|e ē}}. During the Classical Latin period this form of speaking was deliberately avoided by well-educated speakers.<ref name="classical diphthongs" />

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"
|+ Diphthongs classified by beginning sound
! !! Front !! Back
|-
! Close
| || ui {{IPA|/ui̯/}}
|-
! Mid
| ei {{IPA|/ei̯/}}<br />eu {{IPA|/eu̯/}} || oe {{IPA|/oe̯/}}<br />ou {{IPA|/ou̯/}}
|-
! Open
| colspan="2" | ae {{IPA|/ae̯/}}<br />au {{IPA|/au̯/}}
|}

=== Syllables ===
[[Syllable]]s in Latin are signified by the presence of diphthongs and [[vowel]]s. The number of syllables is the same as the number of vowel sounds.<ref name="Wheelock 7th ed." />

Further, if a consonant separates two vowels, it will go into the syllable of the second vowel. When there are two consonants between vowels, the last consonant will go with the second vowel. An exception occurs when a [[Phonetic transcription|phonetic]] stop and liquid come together. In this situation, they are thought to be a single consonant, and as such, they will go into the syllable of the second vowel.<ref name="Wheelock 7th ed." />

==== Length ====
Syllables in Latin are considered either [[Syllable weight#Basic definitions|long or short]]. Within a word, a syllable may either be long by nature or long by position.<ref name="Wheelock 7th ed." /> A syllable is long by nature if it has a diphthong or a long vowel. On the other hand, a syllable is long by position if the vowel is followed by more than one consonant.<ref name="Wheelock 7th ed." />

==== Stress ====
There are two rules that define which syllable is [[Stress (linguistics)|stressed]] in the Latin language.<ref name="Wheelock 7th ed." />

# In a word with only two syllables, the emphasis will be on the first syllable.
# In a word with more than two syllables, there are two cases.
#* If the second-to-last syllable is long, that syllable will have stress.
#* If the second-to-last syllable is not long, the syllable before that one will be stressed instead.<ref name="Wheelock 7th ed." />

== Orthography ==
{{Main|Latin alphabet}}
[[File:Duenos inscription.jpg|thumb|The [[Duenos Inscription]], from the 6th century BC, is one of the earliest known [[Old Latin]] texts. It was found on the [[Quirinal Hill]] in Rome.]]

Latin was written in the Latin alphabet ([[A]], [[B]], [[C]], [[D]], [[E]], [[F]], [[G]], [[H]], [[I]], [[K]], [[L]], [[M]], [[N]], [[O]], [[P]], [[Q]], [[R]], [[S]], [[T]], [[V]], [[X]]), derived from the [[Etruscan alphabet]], which was in turn drawn from the [[Greek alphabet]] and ultimately the [[Phoenician alphabet]].<ref>{{Harvnb|Diringer|1996|pp=451, 493, 530}}</ref> This alphabet has continued to be used over the centuries as the script for the Romance, Celtic, Germanic, Baltic, Finnic and many Slavic languages ([[Polish language|Polish]], [[Slovak language|Slovak]], [[Slovene language|Slovene]], [[Croatian language|Croatian]], [[Bosnian language|Bosnian]], [[Serbian language|Serbian]] and [[Czech language|Czech]]); and it has been adopted by many languages around the world, including [[Vietnamese language|Vietnamese]], the [[Austronesian languages]], many [[Turkic languages]], and most languages in [[sub-Saharan Africa]], the Americas and Oceania, making it by far the world's single most widely used writing system.

The number of letters in the Latin alphabet has varied. When it was first derived from the Etruscan alphabet, it contained only 21 letters.<ref>{{Harvnb|Diringer|1996|p=536}}</ref> Later, ''G'' was added to represent {{IPA|/ɡ/}}, which had previously been spelled ''C'', and ''Z'' ceased to be included in the alphabet, as the language then had no [[voiced alveolar fricative]].<ref name=D538>{{Harvnb|Diringer|1996|p=538}}</ref> The letters ''Y'' and ''Z'' were later added to represent Greek letters, [[upsilon]] and [[zeta]] respectively, in Greek loanwords.<ref name=D538/>

''W'' was created in the 11th century from ''VV''. It represented {{IPA|/w/}} in Germanic languages, not Latin, which still uses ''V'' for the purpose. ''J'' was distinguished from the original ''I'' only during the late Middle Ages, as was the letter ''U'' from ''V''.<ref name=D538/> Although some Latin dictionaries use ''J'', it is rarely used for Latin text, as it was not used in classical times, but many other languages use it.

===Punctuation===
Classical Latin did not contain sentence [[punctuation]], letter case,<ref>{{Harvnb|Diringer|1996|p=540}}</ref> or [[interword spacing]], but [[apex (diacritic)|apices]] were sometimes used to distinguish length in vowels and the [[interpunct]] was used at times to separate words.

The first line of [[Catullus 3]] ("Mourn, O [[Venus (mythology)|Venuses]] and [[Cupid]]s") was originally written as:

{| class="wikitable"
! simply
| {{sm|lv́géteóveneréscupidinésqve}}
|-
! with [[long I]]
| {{Smallcaps|lv́géteóveneréscupIdinésqve}}
|-
! with interpunct
| {{sm|lv́géte·ó·venerés·cupidinésqve}}
|}

It would be rendered in a modern edition as:

{| class="wikitable"
! simply
| {{lang|la|Lugete, o Veneres Cupidinesque}}
|-
! with macrons
| {{lang|la|Lūgēte, ō Venerēs Cupīdinēsque}}
|-
! with apices
| {{lang|la|Lúgéte, ó Venerés Cupídinésque}}
|}

[[File:Hocgracili.jpg|thumb|upright=1.33|A modern Latin text written in the Old Roman Cursive inspired by the [[Vindolanda tablets]], the oldest surviving handwritten documents in Britain. The word ''Romani'' ('Romans') is at bottom left.]]

The [[Roman cursive]] script is commonly found on the many [[wax tablet]]s excavated at sites such as forts, an especially extensive set having been discovered at Vindolanda on [[Hadrian's Wall]] in [[Great Britain|Britain]]. Most notable is the fact that while most of the [[Vindolanda tablets]] show spaces between words, spaces were avoided in monumental inscriptions from that era.

===Alternative scripts===
Occasionally, Latin has been written in other scripts:
* The [[Praeneste fibula]] is a 7th-century BC pin with an Old Latin inscription written using the Etruscan script.
* The rear panel of the early 8th-century [[Franks Casket]] has an inscription that switches from [[Old English]] in [[Anglo-Saxon runes]] to Latin in Latin script and to Latin in runes.

==Grammar==
{{Main|Latin grammar|Latin syntax}}

Latin is a [[synthetic language|synthetic]], [[fusional language]] in the terminology of linguistic typology. Words involve an objective semantic element and markers (usually suffixes) specifying the grammatical use of the word, expressing [[grammatical gender|gender]], [[grammatical number|number]], and [[grammatical case|case]] in [[adjective]]s, [[noun]]s, and [[pronoun]]s (''[[declension]]'') and verbs to denote [[grammatical person|person]], [[grammatical number|number]], [[grammatical tense|tense]], [[grammatical voice|voice]], [[grammatical mood|mood]], and [[grammatical aspect|aspect]] (''[[grammatical conjugation|conjugation]]''). Some words are uninflected and undergo neither process, such as adverbs, prepositions, and interjections.

Latin inflection can result in words with much ambiguity: For example, {{lang|la|amābit}}, "he/she/it will love", is formed from {{lang|la|amā-}}, a future tense morpheme {{lang|la|-bi-}} and a third person singular morpheme, {{lang|la|-t}}, the last of which {{lang|la|-t}} does not masculine, feminine, or neuter gender. A major task in understanding Latin phrases and clauses is to clarify such ambiguities by an analysis of context.

===Nouns===
{{Main|Latin declension}}

A regular Latin noun belongs to one of five main declensions, a group of nouns with similar inflected forms. The declensions are identified by the genitive singular form of the noun.
* The first declension, with a predominant ending letter of ''a'', is signified by the genitive singular ending of ''-ae''.
* The second declension, with a predominant ending letter of ''us'', is signified by the genitive singular ending of ''-i''.
* The third declension, with a predominant ending letter of ''i'', is signified by the genitive singular ending of ''-is''.
* The fourth declension, with a predominant ending letter of ''u'', is signified by the genitive singular ending of ''-ūs''.
* The fifth declension, with a predominant ending letter of ''e'', is signified by the genitive singular ending of ''-ei''.

There are seven Latin noun cases, which also apply to adjectives and pronouns and mark a noun's syntactic role in the sentence by means of inflections. Thus, [[word order]] is not as important in Latin as it is in English, which is less inflected. The general structure and word order of a Latin sentence can therefore vary. The cases are as follows:

# [[Nominative case|Nominative]] – used when the noun is the [[Subject (grammar)|subject]] or a [[predicate nominative]]. The thing or person acting: the girl ran: {{lang|la|puella cucurrit,}} or {{lang|la|cucurrit puella}}
# [[Genitive case|Genitive]] – used when the noun is the possessor of or connected with an object: "the horse of the man", or "the man's horse"; in both instances, the word ''man'' would be in the [[genitive case]] when it is translated into Latin. It also indicates the [[partitive]], in which the material is quantified: "a group of people"; "a number of gifts": ''people'' and ''gifts'' would be in the genitive case. Some nouns are genitive with special verbs and adjectives: The cup is full of wine. ({{lang|la|Poculum plēnum vīnī est.}}) The master of the slave had beaten him. ({{lang|la|Dominus servī eum verberāverat.}})
# [[Dative case|Dative]] – used when the noun is the indirect object of the sentence, with special verbs, with certain prepositions, and if it is used as agent, reference, or even possessor: The merchant hands the [[stola]] to the woman. ({{lang|la|Mercātor fēminae stolam trādit.}})
# [[Accusative case|Accusative]] – used when the noun is the direct object of the subject, as the object of a preposition demonstrating place to which, and sometimes to indicate a duration of time: The man killed the boy. ({{lang|la|Vir puerum necāvit.}})
# [[Ablative case|Ablative]] – used when the noun demonstrates separation or movement from a source, cause, [[agent (grammar)|agent]] or [[instrumental case|instrument]] or when the noun is used as the object of certain prepositions, and to indicate a specific place in time.; adverbial: You walked with the boy. ({{lang|la|Cum puerō ambulāvistī.}})
# [[Vocative case|Vocative]] – used when the noun is used in a direct address. The vocative form of a noun is often the same as the nominative, with the exception of second-declension nouns ending in {{lang|la|-us}}. The {{lang|la|-us}} becomes an {{lang|la|-e}} in the vocative singular. If it ends in {{lang|la|-ius}} (such as {{lang|la|fīlius}}), the ending is just {{lang|la|-ī}} ({{lang|la|filī}}), as distinct from the nominative plural ({{lang|la|filiī}}) in the vocative singular: "Master!" shouted the slave. ({{lang|la|"Domine!" clāmāvit servus.}})
# [[Locative case|Locative]] – used to indicate a location (corresponding to the English "in" or "at"). It is far less common than the other six cases of Latin nouns and usually applies to cities and small towns and islands along with a few common nouns, such as the words {{lang|la|domus}} (house), {{lang|la|humus}} (ground), and {{lang|la|rus}} (country). In the singular of the first and second declensions, its form coincides with the genitive ({{lang|la|Roma}} becomes {{lang|la|Romae}}, "in Rome"). In the plural of all declensions and the singular of the other declensions, it coincides with the ablative ({{lang|la|Athēnae}} becomes {{lang|la|Athēnīs}}, "at Athens"). In the fourth-declension word {{lang|la|domus}}, the locative form, {{lang|la|domī}} ("at home") differs from the standard form of all other cases.

Latin lacks both definite and indefinite [[article (grammar)|articles]] so {{lang|la|puer currit}} can mean either "the boy is running" or "a boy is running".

===Adjectives===
{{Main|Latin declension#Adjectives}}

There are two types of regular Latin adjectives: first- and second-declension and third-declension. They are so-called because their forms are similar or identical to first- and second-declension and third-declension nouns, respectively. Latin adjectives also have [[comparative and superlative]] forms. There are also a number of Latin [[participles]].

Latin numbers are sometimes declined as adjectives. See ''[[Latin#Numbers|Numbers]]'' below.

<em>First- and second-declension adjectives</em> are declined like first-declension nouns for the feminine forms and like second-declension nouns for the masculine and neuter forms. For example, for {{lang|la|mortuus, mortua, mortuum}} (dead), {{lang|la|mortua}} is declined like a regular first-declension noun (such as {{lang|la|puella}} (girl)), {{lang|la|mortuus}} is declined like a regular second-declension masculine noun (such as {{lang|la|dominus}} (lord, master)), and {{lang|la|mortuum}} is declined like a regular second-declension neuter noun (such as {{lang|la|auxilium}} (help)).

<em>Third-declension adjectives</em> are mostly declined like normal third-declension nouns, with a few exceptions. In the plural nominative neuter, for example, the ending is ''-ia'' ({{lang|la|omnia}} (all, everything)), and for third-declension nouns, the plural nominative neuter ending is ''-a'' or ''-ia'' ({{lang|la|capita}} (heads), {{lang|la|animalia}} (animals)) They can have one, two or three forms for the masculine, feminine, and neuter nominative singular.

====Participles====

Latin participles, like English participles, are formed from a verb. There are a few main types of participles: Present Active Participles, Perfect Passive Participles, Future Active Participles, and Future Passive Participles.

===Prepositions===
Latin sometimes uses prepositions, depending on the type of prepositional phrase being used. Most prepositions are followed by a noun in either the accusative or ablative case: "apud puerum" (with the boy), with "puerum" being the accusative form of "puer", boy, and "sine puero" (without the boy), "puero" being the ablative form of "puer". A few [[adposition]]s, however, govern a noun in the genitive (such as "gratia" and "tenus").

===Verbs===
{{Main|Latin grammar|Latin conjugation}}

A regular verb in Latin belongs to one of four main [[Latin conjugation|conjugations]]. A conjugation is "a class of verbs with similar inflected forms."<ref>{{cite encyclopedia | title=Conjugation | encyclopedia=Webster's II new college dictionary | location=Boston | publisher=Houghton Mifflin | year=1999}}</ref> The conjugations are identified by the last letter of the verb's present stem. The present stem can be found by omitting the -{{lang|la|re}} (-{{lang|la|rī}} in deponent verbs) ending from the present infinitive form. The infinitive of the first conjugation ends in {{lang|la|-ā-re}} or {{lang|la|-ā-ri}} (active and passive respectively): {{lang|la|amāre}}, "to love", {{lang|la|hortārī}}, "to exhort"; of the second conjugation by {{lang|la|-ē-re}} or {{lang|la|-ē-rī}}: {{lang|la|monēre}}, "to warn", {{lang|la|verērī}}, "to fear;" of the third conjugation by {{lang|la|-ere}}, {{lang|la|-ī}}: {{lang|la|dūcere}}, "to lead", {{lang|la|ūtī}}, "to use"; of the fourth by {{lang|la|-ī-re}}, {{lang|la|-ī-rī}}: {{lang|la|audīre}}, "to hear", {{lang|la|experīrī}}, "to attempt".<ref name="Wheelock 2011">{{cite book|title=Wheelock's Latin|last=Wheelock|first=Frederic M.|publisher=CollinsReference|edition=7th|location=New York|date=2011}}</ref> The stem categories descend from [[Proto-Indo-European language|Indo-European]] and can therefore be compared to similar conjugations in other Indo-European languages.

[[Regular and irregular verbs|Irregular verbs]] are verbs that do not follow the regular conjugations in the formation of the inflected form. Irregular verbs in Latin are ''esse'', "to be"; ''velle'', "to want"; ''ferre'', "to carry"; ''edere'', "to eat"; ''dare'', "to give"; ''ire'', "to go"; ''posse'', "to be able"; ''fieri'', "to happen"; and their compounds.<ref name="Wheelock 2011"/>

There are six general [[grammatical tense|tenses]] in Latin (present, imperfect, future, perfect, pluperfect and future perfect), three [[grammatical mood|moods]] (indicative, imperative and subjunctive, in addition to the [[infinitive]], [[participle]], [[gerund]], [[gerundive]] and [[supine]]), three [[grammatical person|persons]] (first, second and third), two numbers (singular and plural), two [[grammatical voice|voices]] (active and passive) and two [[grammatical aspect|aspects]] ([[perfective and imperfective]]). Verbs are described by four principal parts:

# The first principal part is the first-person singular, present tense, active voice, indicative mood form of the verb. If the verb is impersonal, the first principal part will be in the third-person singular.
# The second principal part is the present active infinitive.
# The third principal part is the first-person singular, perfect active indicative form. Like the first principal part, if the verb is impersonal, the third principal part will be in the third-person singular.
# The fourth principal part is the supine form, or alternatively, the nominative singular of the perfect passive participle form of the verb. The fourth principal part can show one gender of the participle or all three genders (-''us ''for masculine, -''a'' for feminine and -''um'' for neuter) in the nominative singular. The fourth principal part will be the future participle if the verb cannot be made passive. Most modern Latin dictionaries, if they show only one gender, tend to show the masculine; but many older dictionaries instead show the neuter, as it coincides with the supine. The fourth principal part is sometimes omitted for intransitive verbs, but strictly in Latin, they can be made passive if they are used impersonally, and the supine exists for such verbs.

The six tenses of Latin are divided into two tense systems: the present system, which is made up of the present, imperfect and future tenses, and the perfect system, which is made up of the perfect, pluperfect and future perfect tenses. Each tense has a set of endings corresponding to the person, number, and voice of the subject. Subject (nominative) pronouns are generally omitted for the first (''I, we'') and second (''you'') persons except for emphasis.

The table below displays the common inflected endings for the indicative mood in the active voice in all six tenses. For the future tense, the first listed endings are for the first and second conjugations, and the second listed endings are for the third and fourth conjugations:

{| class="wikitable"
! rowspan=2|Tense !! colspan=3|Singular !! colspan=3|Plural
|-
! 1st Person !! 2nd Person !! 3rd Person !! 1st Person !! 2nd Person !! 3rd Person
|-
! Present
| -ō/m || -s || -t || -mus || -tis || -nt
|-
! Future
| -bō, -am || -bis, -ēs || -bit, -et || -bimus, -ēmus || -bitis, -ētis
| -bunt, -ent
|-
! Imperfect
| -bam || -bās || -bat || -bāmus || -bātis || -bant
|-
! Perfect
| -ī || -istī || -it || -imus || -istis || -ērunt
|-
! Future Perfect
| -erō || -eris/erīs || -erit || -erimus/-erīmus || -eritis/-erītis || -erint
|-
! Pluperfect
| -eram || -erās || -erat || -erāmus || -erātis || -erant
|}

====Deponent verbs====
Some Latin verbs are [[deponent verb|deponent]], causing their forms to be in the passive voice but retain an active meaning: ''hortor, hortārī, hortātus sum'' (to urge).

==Vocabulary==

As Latin is an Italic language, most of its vocabulary is likewise Italic, ultimately from the ancestral [[Proto-Indo-European language]]. However, because of close cultural interaction, the Romans not only adapted the Etruscan alphabet to form the Latin alphabet but also borrowed some [[Etruscan language|Etruscan]] words into their language, including {{lang|la|persona}} "mask" and {{lang|la|histrio}} "actor".<ref name=H&S13>{{harvnb|Holmes|Schultz|1938|p=13}}</ref> Latin also included vocabulary borrowed from [[Oscan language|Oscan]], another Italic language.

After the [[History of Taranto|Fall of Tarentum]] (272 BC), the Romans began Hellenising, or adopting features of Greek culture, including the borrowing of Greek words, such as {{lang|la|camera}} (vaulted roof), {{lang|la|sumbolum}} (symbol), and {{lang|la|balineum}} (bath).<ref name=H&S13/> This Hellenisation led to the addition of "Y" and "Z" to the alphabet to represent Greek sounds.<ref>{{cite book |first=David |last=Sacks |year=2003 |title=Language Visible: Unraveling the Mystery of the Alphabet from A to Z |location=London |publisher=Broadway Books |page=[https://archive.org/details/languagevisibleu00sack/page/351 351] |isbn=978-0-7679-1172-6 |url=https://archive.org/details/languagevisibleu00sack/page/351 }}</ref> Subsequently, the Romans transplanted [[Greek art]], medicine, science and philosophy to Italy, paying almost any price to entice Greek skilled and educated persons to Rome and sending their youth to be educated in Greece. Thus, many Latin scientific and philosophical words were Greek loanwords or had their meanings expanded by association with Greek words, as {{lang|el|ars}} (craft) and τέχνη (art).<ref name=H&S14>{{harvnb|Holmes|Schultz|1938|p=14}}</ref>

Because of the Roman Empire's expansion and subsequent trade with outlying European tribes, the Romans borrowed some northern and central European words, such as {{lang|la|beber}} (beaver), of Germanic origin, and {{lang|la|bracae}} (breeches), of Celtic origin.<ref name=H&S14/> The specific dialects of Latin across Latin-speaking regions of the former Roman Empire after its fall were influenced by languages specific to the regions. The dialects of Latin evolved into different Romance languages.

During and after the adoption of Christianity into Roman society, Christian vocabulary became a part of the language, either from Greek or Hebrew borrowings or as Latin neologisms.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Norberg |first1=Dag |translator-last1=Johnson |translator-first1=Rand H. |title=Manuel pratique de latin médiéval |chapter-url=https://homepages.wmich.edu/~johnsorh/MedievalLatin/Norberg/NORBINTR.html |chapter=Latin at the End of the Imperial Age |orig-year=1980 |year=2004 |publisher=University of Michigan |access-date=20 May 2015 |archive-date=4 March 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304084225/http://homepages.wmich.edu/~johnsorh/MedievalLatin/Norberg/NORBINTR.html |url-status=dead }}</ref> Continuing into the Middle Ages, Latin incorporated many more words from surrounding languages, including [[Old English]] and other [[Germanic languages]].

Over the ages, Latin-speaking populations produced new adjectives, nouns, and verbs by [[affix]]ing or [[compound (linguistics)|compounding]] meaningful [[segment (linguistics)|segments]].<ref>{{harvnb|Jenks|1911|pp=3, 46}}</ref> For example, the compound adjective, {{lang|la|omnipotens}}, "all-powerful", was produced from the adjectives {{lang|la|omnis}}, "all", and {{lang|la|potens}}, "powerful", by dropping the final ''s'' of {{lang|la|omnis}} and concatenating. Often, the concatenation changed the part of speech, and nouns were produced from verb segments or verbs from nouns and adjectives.<ref>{{harvnb|Jenks|1911|pp=35, 40}}</ref>

==Conversational phrases==
{{MOS|section|[[MOS:WORDSASWORDS]]|date=August 2022}}
{{main|List of Latin phrases}}
The phrases are here written with macrons, from which it is easy to calculate where stress is placed.<ref>[[Ebbe Vilborg]] – ''Norstedts svensk-latinska ordbok'' – Second edition, 2009.</ref>

* {{lang|la|salvē}} <small>to one person</small> / {{lang|la|salvēte}} <small>to more than one person</small> – hello
* {{lang|la|havē}} <small>to one person</small> / {{lang|la|havēte}} <small>to more than one person</small> – greetings. ''{{lang|la|havē}}'' is a loanword from Carthaginian {{lang|xpu|[[:wikt:Reconstruction:Punic/ḥawe|𐤇𐤅𐤉]]}} and it may be spelled without the H, as in the prayer ''{{lang|la|Avē Marīa}}'' ([[Hail Mary]])
* {{lang|la|valē}} <small>to one person</small> / {{lang|la|valēte}} <small>to more than one person</small> – goodbye
* {{lang|la|cūrā ut valeās}} – take care
* {{lang|la|quōmodo valēs?}}, {{lang|la|ut valēs?}} – how are you?
* {{lang|la|bene (valeō)}} – good, I'm fine
* {{lang|la|male (valeō)}} – bad, I'm not good
* {{lang|la|quaesō}} – please
* {{lang|la|amābō tē}} – please (idiomatic, the literal meaning is ''I will love you'')
* {{lang|la|libenter}} – you're welcome
* Latin has no words that truly translate ''yes'' or ''no'', so it is usual to just repeat the core point of the question (usually the verb), but one may also use the following adverbs as well:
** {{lang|la|ita}}, {{lang|la|ita est}}, {{lang|la|ita vērō}}, {{lang|la|sīc est}}, {{lang|la|etiam}} – All meaning ''yes'', but also more literally ''it is so'', ''indeed''
** {{lang|la|minimē}} – not at all
* {{lang|la|grātiās tibi (agō)}} – thank you, in singular (use ''{{lang|la|vōbīs}}'' instead of ''{{lang|la|tibi}}'' for the plural)
* {{lang|la|magnās/maximās grātiās (agō)}}, {{lang|la|magnās grātiās agō}} – thank you very much
* {{lang|la|quā aetāte es?/quantōrum annōrum es?}} – how old are you?
* {{lang|la|XX annōs nātus/a sum / XX annōrum sum}} – I am XX years old
* {{lang|la|ubi est lātrīna?}} – where is the toilet?
* {{lang|la|loquērisne/loquiminī ...?}} – do you speak ...? (singular and plural). This is then followed by an adverb of the language, some of which are listed below:
** {{lang|la|Latīnē}} (Latin), {{lang|la|Graecē}} (Greek), {{lang|la|Anglicē}} (English), {{lang|la|Theodiscē/Germānicē}} (German), {{lang|la|Ītalicē}} (Italian), {{lang|la|Gallicē/Francēnse}}<ref>There are many ways in which modern Latin speakers can refer to the [[French language]], among which ''gallicum'', ''francicum'', ''francense'', ''francogallicum''. All variants would be understood, but ''gallicum'' could also mean [[Gaulish language|Gaulish]] and ''francicum'' could also mean [[Frankish language|Frankish]].</ref> (French), {{lang|la|Russicē}} (Russian), {{lang|la|Hispānicē}} (Spanish), {{lang|la|Lūsītānicē}} (Portuguese), {{lang|la|Dācorōmānice/Vālāchice}} (Romanian), {{lang|la|Sēricē/Sīnicē}} (Chinese), {{lang|la|Iapōnicē}} (Japanese), {{lang|la|Hebraicē}} (Hebrew), {{lang|la|Arabicē}} (Arabic), {{lang|la|Hindicē}} (Hindi)
* {{lang|la|amō tē}} / {{lang|la|tē amō}} – I love you

==Numbers==
{{Unreferenced section|date=May 2020}}
{{further|Latin numerals (linguistics)}}
In ancient times, numbers in Latin were written only with letters. Today, the numbers can be written with the [[Arabic numerals|Arabic numbers]] as well as with [[Roman numerals]]. The numbers 1, 2 and 3 and every whole hundred from 200 to 900 are declined as nouns and adjectives, with some differences.

{|
|-
| {{lang|la|ūnus, ūna, ūnum}} (masculine, feminine, neuter)
|
| I
|
| one
|-
| {{lang|la|duo, duae, duo}} (m., f., n.)
|
| II
|
| two
|-
| {{lang|la|trēs, tria}} (m./f., n.)
|
| III
|
| three
|-
| {{lang|la|quattuor}}
|
| IIII <small>or</small> IV
|
| four
|-
| {{lang|la|quīnque}}
|
| V
|
| five
|-
| {{lang|la|sex}}
|
| VI
|
| six
|-
| {{lang|la|septem}}
|
| VII
|
| seven
|-
| {{lang|la|octō}}
|
| IIX <small>or</small> VIII
|
| eight
|-
| {{lang|la|novem}}
|
| VIIII <small>or</small> IX
|
| nine
|-
| {{lang|la|decem}}
|
| X
|
| ten
|-
| {{lang|la|quīnquāgintā}}
|
| L
|
| fifty
|-
| {{lang|la|centum}}
|
| C
|
| one hundred
|-
| {{lang|la|quīngentī, quīngentae, quīngenta}} (m., f., n.)
|
| D
|
| five hundred
|-
| {{lang|la|mīlle}}
|
| M
|
| one thousand
|}

The numbers from 4 to 100 do not change their endings. As in modern descendants such as Spanish, the gender for naming a number in isolation is masculine, so that "1, 2, 3" is counted as {{lang|la|ūnus, duo, trēs}}.

==Example text==

{{lang|la|[[Commentarii de Bello Gallico]]}}, also called {{lang|la|De Bello Gallico}} (''The Gallic War''), written by [[Julius Caesar|Gaius Julius Caesar]], begins with the following passage:

{{blockquote|Gallia est omnis divisa in partes tres, quarum unam incolunt Belgae, aliam Aquitani, tertiam qui ipsorum lingua Celtae, nostra Galli appellantur. Hi omnes lingua, institutis, legibus inter se differunt. Gallos ab Aquitanis Garumna flumen, a Belgis Matrona et Sequana dividit. Horum omnium fortissimi sunt Belgae, propterea quod a cultu atque humanitate provinciae longissime absunt, minimeque ad eos mercatores saepe commeant atque ea quae ad effeminandos animos pertinent important, proximique sunt Germanis, qui trans Rhenum incolunt, quibuscum continenter bellum gerunt. Qua de causa Helvetii quoque reliquos Gallos virtute praecedunt, quod fere cotidianis proeliis cum Germanis contendunt, cum aut suis finibus eos prohibent aut ipsi in eorum finibus bellum gerunt. Eorum una pars, quam Gallos obtinere dictum est, initium capit a flumine Rhodano, continetur Garumna flumine, Oceano, finibus Belgarum; attingit etiam ab Sequanis et Helvetiis flumen Rhenum; vergit ad septentriones. Belgae ab extremis Galliae finibus oriuntur; pertinent ad inferiorem partem fluminis Rheni; spectant in septentrionem et orientem solem. Aquitania a Garumna flumine ad Pyrenaeos montes et eam partem Oceani quae est ad Hispaniam pertinet; spectat inter occasum solis et septentriones.}}

The same text may be marked for all long vowels (before any possible elisions at word boundary) with [[apex (diacritic)|apices]] over vowel letters, including customarily before "nf" and "ns" where a long vowel is automatically produced:

<!-- Vowel lengths are per the 2016 edition of Gaffiot esp. for proper names, and per LaNe, and de Vaan -->
{{blockquote|Gallia est omnis dívísa in partés trés, quárum únam incolunt Belgae, aliam Aquítání, tertiam quí ipsórum linguá Celtae, nostrá Gallí appellantur. Hí omnés linguá, ínstitútís, légibus inter sé differunt. Gallós ab Aquítánís Garumna flúmen, á Belgís Mátrona et Séquana dívidit. Hórum omnium fortissimí sunt Belgae, proptereá quod á cultú atque húmánitáte próvinciae longissimé absunt, miniméque ad eós mercátórés saepe commeant atque ea quae ad efféminandós animós pertinent important, proximíque sunt Germánís, quí tráns Rhénum incolunt, quibuscum continenter bellum gerunt. Quá dé causá Helvétií quoque reliquós Gallós virtúte praecédunt, quod feré cotídiánís proeliís cum Germánís contendunt, cum aut suís fínibus eós prohibent aut ipsí in eórum fínibus bellum gerunt. Eórum úna pars, quam Gallós obtinére dictum est, initium capit á flúmine Rhodanó, continétur Garumná flúmine, Óceanó, fínibus Belgárum; attingit etiam ab Séquanís et Helvétiís flúmen Rhénum; vergit ad septentriónés. Belgae ab extrémís Galliae fínibus oriuntur; pertinent ad ínferiórem partem flúminis Rhéní; spectant in septentriónem et orientem sólem. Aquítánia á Garumná flúmine ad Pýrénaeós montés et eam partem Óceaní quae est ad Hispániam pertinet; spectat inter occásum sólis et septentriónés.}}


==See also==
==See also==
*[[Mountain bike]]
{{Portal|Ancient Rome|Language|Catholicism}}
*[[Mountain bike racing]]
{{div col|colwidth=22em}}
* [[Accademia Vivarium Novum]]
*[[Downhill mountain biking]]
*[[Enduro (mountain biking)]]
* [[Botanical Latin]]
* [[Classical compound]]
*[[Singletrack]]
*[[List of professional mountain bikers]]
* [[Contemporary Latin]]
* [[Greek and Latin roots in English]]
*[[Mountain Bike Hall of Fame]]
* [[Hybrid word]]
*[[Glossary of cycling]]
* [[International Roman Law Moot Court]]
* [[Latin grammar]]
* [[Latin mnemonics]]
* [[Latin obscenity]]
* Latin school
* [[Latino sine flexione]] (Latin without Inflections)
* [[List of Greek and Latin roots in English]]
* [[List of Latin abbreviations]]
* [[List of Latin and Greek words commonly used in systematic names]]
* [[List of Latin phrases]]
* [[List of Latin translations of modern literature]]
* [[List of Latin words with English derivatives]]
* [[List of Latinised names]]
* [[Lorem ipsum]]
* [[Romanization (cultural)]]
* [[Toponymy]]
* [[Vulgar Latin]]
{{div col end}}


== References ==
==References==
{{Reflist}}
{{Reflist}}

==Bibliography==
{{columns-list|colwidth=30em|
* {{Cite book |last=Allen |first=William Sidney |title=Vox Latina – a Guide to the Pronunciation of Classical Latin |date=1978 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-22049-1 |edition=2nd |location=Cambridge |orig-year=1965|ol=OL4483781M}}
* {{cite book | title=The foundations of Latin | first=Philip | last=Baldi |author-link=Philip Baldi | location=Berlin | publisher=Mouton de Gruyter | year=2002}}
* {{cite book |editor1-last=Bergin |editor1-first=Thomas G |editor2-last=Law |editor2-first=Jonathan|editor3-first=Jennifer |editor3-last=Speake |title=Encyclopedia of the Renaissance and Reformation |date=2004 |publisher=Facts On File |isbn=0816054517|ol=OL3681138M}}
* {{cite book| last=Bennett|first=Charles E.|title=Latin Grammar|publisher=Allyn and Bacon|location=Chicago|year=1908 |isbn=978-1-176-19706-0}}
* {{cite book | first=Victor Selden |last=Clark |year=1900 |title=Studies in the Latin of the Middle Ages and the Renaissance |location=Lancaster |publisher=The New Era Printing Company}}
* {{cite book | last=Curtius | first=Ernst | title=European Literature and the Latin Middle Ages | publisher=Princeton University | year=2013 | isbn=978-0-691-15700-9 }}
* {{cite journal |last1=Demo |first1=Šime |title=A paradox of the linguistic research of Neo–Latin. Symptoms and causes |journal=Suvremena Lingvistika |date=2022 |volume=48 |issue=93 |doi=10.22210/suvlin.2022.093.01 |s2cid=251119298 |doi-access=free }}
* {{cite book |editor1-last=Deneire |editor1-first=Thomas |title=Dynamics of Neo-Latin and the Vernacular: Language and Poetics, Translation and Transfer |date=2014 |publisher=Koninklijke Brill |location=Leiden |isbn=9789004269071}}
* {{cite book| last=Diringer|first=David|title=The Alphabet – A Key to the History of Mankind|publisher=Munshiram Manoharlal Publishers Private Ltd.|location=New Delhi|year=1996|orig-year=1947|isbn=978-81-215-0748-6}}
* {{cite book| title=Vulgar Latin|first1=József |last1=Herman |translator-first1=Roger |translator-last1=Wright |location=University Park, PA|publisher=[[Pennsylvania State University Press]]|year=2000 |isbn=978-0-271-02000-6}}
* {{cite book|last1=Holmes|first1=Urban Tigner|last2=Schultz|first2=Alexander Herman|title=A History of the French Language|location=New York|publisher=Biblo-Moser|isbn=978-0-8196-0191-9|year=1938}}
* {{cite book |editor1-last=Knight|editor1-first=Sarah|editor2-first=Stefan|editor2-last=Tilg|date=2015 |title=The Oxford Handbook of Neo-Latin|place=New York|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=9780190886998|ol=OL28648475M}}
* {{cite book |last=Levy |first=Harry Louis |title=A Latin reader for colleges |date=1973 |publisher=University of Chicago Press |isbn=0-226-47602-2 |location=Chicago}}
* {{cite book |last=[[Tore Janson|Janson, Tore]] |year=2004 |title=A Natural History of Latin |location=Oxford |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |isbn=978-0-19-926309-7 |url-access=registration |url=https://archive.org/details/naturalhistoryof0000jans|ol=OL3322272M}}
* {{cite book | last=Jenks |first=Paul Rockwell |year=1911 |title=A Manual of Latin Word Formation for Secondary Schools |location=New York |publisher=D.C. Heath & Co}}
* {{cite book| first=Frank Robert | last=Palmer | title=Grammar |edition=2nd | location=Harmondsworth, Middlesex, England; New York, N.Y., U.S. | publisher=[[Penguin Books]] | year=1984| isbn=978-81-206-1306-5}}
* {{cite book |title=New comparative grammar of Greek and Latin | first=Andrew L | last=Sihler | location=New York | publisher=Oxford University Press | year=2008}}
* {{cite book | first=N. | last=Vincent | contribution=Latin | title=The Romance Languages| editor1-first=M. | editor1-last=Harris | editor2-first=N. | editor2-last=Vincent | publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |year= 1990 | location=Oxford | isbn=978-0-19-520829-0|ol=OL28312718M}}
* {{cite book | last1=Waquet | first1=Françoise | title=Latin, or the Empire of a Sign: From the Sixteenth to the Twentieth Centuries | publisher=Verso | year=2003 | isbn=978-1-85984-402-1 | translator-first1=John | translator-last= Howe|ol=OL8624251M}}
* {{cite book | last=Wheelock | first=Frederic |title=Latin: An Introduction | publisher=Collins | edition=6th | year=2005| isbn=978-0-06-078423-2|ol=OL9236394M}}
}}


==External links==
==External links==
{{Commons category-inline|Mountain biking}}
{{WikisourceWiki|code=la}}
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20160714193637/https://www.imba.com/ International Mountain Biking Association]
{{InterWiki|code=la}}
{{Wikiquote|Latin proverbs}}
{{Wikibooks|Latin}}
{{Wikiversity|Latin}}
{{Wiktionary category|category=Latin language}}
{{commons|Latin language}}


{{Adventure travel}}
===Language tools===
{{Extreme sports}}
* {{cite web | url=https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/resolveform?lang=la | title=Latin Dictionary Headword Search | work=Perseus Hopper | publisher=Tufts University}} Searches Lewis & Short's ''A Latin Dictionary'' and Lewis's ''An Elementary Latin Dictionary''. Online results.
{{Cycling}}
* {{cite web | url=https://www.online-latin-dictionary.com | title=Online Latin Dictionary with conjugator and declension tool | publisher=Olivetti Media Communication}} Search on line Latin-English and English-Latin dictionary with complete declension or conjugation. Online results.
{{Orienteering}}
* {{cite web | url=https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/morph?lang=la | title=Latin Word Study Tool | work=Perseus Hopper | publisher=Tufts University}} Identifies the grammatical functions of words entered. Online results.
{{Authority control}}
* {{cite web | url=https://isidore.co/LatinInflector/latin/ | title=Latin Inflector | first=Alan | last=Aversa | access-date=8 June 2023 }} Identifies the grammatical functions of all the words in sentences entered, using Perseus.
* {{cite web | url=https://www.verbix.com/languages/latin.shtml | title=Latin Verb Conjugator | publisher=Verbix}} Displays complete conjugations of verbs entered in first-person present singular form.
* {{cite web | url=https://stranica.net63.net/verba_latina | title=Online Latin Verb Conjugator | access-date=30 September 2014 | archive-url=http://arquivo.pt/wayback/20160518085747/https://stranica.net63.net/verba_latina | archive-date=18 May 2016 | url-status=dead }} Displays conjugation of verbs entered in their infinitive form.
* {{cite web|url=https://lysy2.archives.nd.edu/cgi-bin/words.exe |title=Words |first=William |last=Whittaker |publisher=Notre Dame Archives |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060618211448/https://lysy2.archives.nd.edu/cgi-bin/words.exe |archive-date=18 June 2006 }} Identifies Latin words entered. Translates English words entered.
* {{cite web | url=https://alpheios.net | title=Alpheios | publisher=Alpheios Project}} Combines Whittakers Words, Lewis and Short, Bennett's grammar and inflection tables in a browser addon.
* {{curlie|Reference/Dictionaries/World_Languages/L/Latin/|Latin Dictionaries}}
* {{cite book | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2sIDAAAAQAAJ | title=A new abridgment of Ainsworth's Dictionary, English and Latin, for the use of Grammar Schools | first=John | last=Dymock | edition=4th | location=Glasgow | publisher=Hutchison & Brookman | year=1830}}
* "[https://docs.cltk.org/en/latest/latin.html Classical Language Toolkit] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160524154553/https://docs.cltk.org/en/latest/latin.html |date=24 May 2016 }}" (CLTK). A [[Natural language processing]] toolkit for [[Python (programming language)|Python]] offering a variety of functionality for Latin and other classical languages.
* "[https://outils.biblissima.fr/en/collatinus-web/index.php Collatinus web]". Online lemmatizer and morphological analysis for Latin texts.
* "[https://dictzone.com/latin-english-dictionary/ Latin English dictionary]". Online Latin English dictionary.


{{DEFAULTSORT:Mountain Biking}}
===Courses===
[[Category:Mountain biking| ]]
* [https://lrc.la.utexas.edu/eieol/latol Latin Lessons] (free online through the [https://web.archive.org/web/20160523020601/https://www.utexas.edu/cola/lrctr/ Linguistics Research Center] at UT Austin)
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20150503145706/https://www.learnlangs.com/latin/#Lessons Free 47-Lesson Online Latin Course], Learnlangs
* [https://learn101.org/latin.php Learn Latin] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220308081320/http://learn101.org/latin.php |date=8 March 2022 }} Grammar, vocabulary and audio
* [https://frcoulter.com/latin/links.html Latin Links and Resources], Compiled by Fr. Gary Coulter
* {{cite web| url=https://latinum.org.uk | title=Latinum | work=Latin Latin Course on YouTube and audiobooks | first=Evan | last=der Millner| year=2007 | publisher=Molendinarius | access-date=2 February 2012}}
* {{cite web |url=https://www.u.arizona.edu/~aversa/latin/simplicissimus.pdf |title=Simplicissimus |first=Carol |last=Byrne |year=1999 |publisher=The Latin Mass Society of England and Wales |access-date=20 April 2011 |archive-date=30 April 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110430044833/http://www.u.arizona.edu/~aversa/latin/simplicissimus.pdf |url-status=dead }} (a course in [[ecclesiastical Latin]]).
* {{cite web| url=https://www.hs-augsburg.de/~harsch/Ludus/lud_port.html | title=Ludus Latinus Cursus linguae latinae | work=Bibliotheca Augustana |first=Ulrich |last=Harsch |date=1996–2010 | location=Augsburg | publisher=University of Applied Sciences |language=la |access-date=24 June 2010}}
* [https://www.nationalarchives.gov.uk/latin/beginners/default.htm Beginners' Latin] on [[The National Archives (United Kingdom)]]

===Grammar and study===
* {{cite book |url=https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/15665 |title=New Latin Grammar |first=Charles E. |last=Bennett | year=2005 |publisher= Project Gutenberg | orig-year=1908 |edition=2nd |isbn=978-1-176-19706-0}}
* {{cite book | last=Griffin | first=Robin | title=A student's Latin Grammar | publisher=University of Cambridge | edition=3rd | year=1992 | isbn=978-0-521-38587-9 | url=https://archive.org/details/studentslatingra00grif }}
* {{cite web|title=Latin Online|url=https://lrc.la.utexas.edu/eieol/latol|first1=Winifred P.|last1=Lehmann|first2=Jonathan|last2=Slocum|publisher=The University of Texas at Austin|year=2008|access-date=17 April 2020}}
* {{cite book |last1=Ørberg |first1=Hans |title=LINGVA LATINA PER SE ILLVSTRATA – Pars I FAMILIA ROMANA|date=1991 |publisher=Museum Tusculanum Press |isbn=87-997016-5-0}}
* {{cite book |last1=Ørberg |first1=Hans |title=LINGVA LATINA PER SE ILLVSTRATA - Pars II ROMA AETERNA|date=2007 |publisher=Hackett Publishing Company, Incorporated |isbn=978-1-58510-067-5}}
* {{cite book |last1=Allen and Greenough |title=New Latin Grammar |date=1903 |publisher=Athanæum Press}}

===Phonetics===
* {{cite web |title=Phonetica Latinae-How to pronounce Latin |url=https://la.raycui.com/ |first=Ray |last=Cui |year=2005 |publisher=Ray Cui |access-date=25 June 2010}}
* {{Cite EB1911|wstitle=Latin Language|volume=16|pages=244–257|first1=Augustus Samuel|last1=Wilkins|author-link1=Augustus Samuel Wilkins|first2=Robert Seymour|last2=Conway|author-link2=Robert Seymour Conway|short=x}}
* {{cite web |last1=Ranieri |first1=Luke |title=Latin Pronunciation (for Classical Latin) |website=[[YouTube]] |url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=eH8E5RKq31I | archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/varchive/youtube/20211027/eH8E5RKq31I| archive-date=2021-10-27|access-date=31 August 2018}}{{cbignore}}

===Libraries===
* [https://www.thelatinlibrary.com/ The latin library], ancient Latin books and writings (without translations) ordered by author
* [https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/ LacusCurtius], a small collection of Greek and Roman authors along with their books and writings (original texts are in Latin and Greek, translations in English and occasionally in a few other languages are available)

===Latin language news and audio===
* [https://ephemeris.alcuinus.net/ Ephemeris], online Latin newspaper: {{lang|la|nuntii latini universi}} = news in Latin of the universe (whole world)
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20190830212232/https://ephemeris.alcuinus.net/ Ephemeris archive], archived copy of online Latin newspaper
* [https://yle.fi/radio1/tiede/nuntii_latini/ Nuntii Latini], from Finnish YLE Radio 1
* [https://www.bremenzwei.de/themen/nuntii-latini-100.html Nuntii Latini], monthly review from German [[Radio Bremen]] ([[Bremen Zwei]])
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20150129091342/https://www.haverford.edu/classics/audio/ Classics Podcasts in Latin and Ancient Greek], Haverford College
* [https://sites.google.com/site/janualinguae/latin Latinum Latin Language course and Latin Language YouTube Index]

=== Latin language online communities ===
* [http://www.alcuinus.net/GLL/ Grex Latine Loquentium] (Flock of those Speaking Latin)
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20130520083843/https://circuluslatinusinterretialis.co.uk/ Circulus Latinus Interretialis] (Internet Latin Circle)
* [https://www.vatican.va/roman_curia/institutions_connected/latinitas/documents/index_en.htm Latinitas Foundation, at the Vatican]
* [https://discord.com/invite/latin Latin Discord Forum]

{{Clear}}
{{Italic languages}}
{{Latin periods}}
{{Ancient Rome topics | collapsed }}

{{Authority control}}


[[Category:Languages attested from the 7th century BC]]
[[Category:Adventure travel]]
[[Category:Latin language| ]]
[[Category:Cycle sport]]
[[fr:Vélo tout terrain]]
[[Category:Forms of Latin| ]]
[[Category:Fusional languages]]
[[Category:Languages of Andorra]]
[[Category:Languages of France]]
[[Category:Languages of Italy]]
[[Category:Languages of Portugal]]
[[Category:Languages of Romania]]
[[Category:Languages of Spain]]
[[Category:Languages of Vatican City]]
[[Category:Languages with own distinct writing systems]]
[[Category:Subject–object–verb languages]]

Revision as of 08:55, 20 October 2023

Latin
Mountain biker riding in the Arizona desert
Highest governing bodyUCI
First playedOpen to debate. Modern era began in the late 1970s
Characteristics
Mixed-sexSeparate men's & women's championship although no restrictions on women competing against men.
Presence
OlympicSince 1996

Mountain biking is a sport of riding bicycles off-road, often over rough terrain, usually using specially designed mountain bikes. Mountain bikes share similarities with other bikes but incorporate features designed to enhance durability and performance in rough terrain, such as air or coil-sprung shocks used as suspension, larger and wider wheels and tires, stronger frame materials, and mechanically or hydraulically actuated disc brakes. Mountain biking can generally be broken down into five distinct categories: cross country, trail riding, all mountain (also referred to as "Enduro"), downhill, and freeride.[1]

About

This sport requires endurance, core and back strength, balance, bike handling skills, and self-reliance. Advanced riders pursue both steep technical descents and high-incline climbs. In the case of freeride, downhill, and dirt jumping, aerial maneuvers are performed off both natural features and specially constructed jumps and ramps.[2]

Mountain bikers ride on off-road trails such as singletrack, back-country roads, wider bike park trails, fire roads, and some advanced trails are designed with jumps, berms, and drop-offs to add excitement to the trail. Riders with enduro and downhill bikes will often visit ski resorts that stay open in the summer to ride downhill-specific trails, using the ski lifts to return to the top with their bikes. Because riders are often far from civilization, there is a strong element of self-reliance in the sport. Riders learn to repair broken bikes and flat tires to avoid being stranded. Many riders carry a backpack, including water, food, tools for trailside repairs, and a first aid kit in case of injury. Group rides are common, especially on longer treks. Mountain bike orienteering adds the skill of map navigation to mountain biking.

History

US 25th Infantry Bicycle Corps, 1897
A cross-country mountain biker climbs on an unpaved track


A mountain bike skills track in Wales
Mountain bike touring in high Alps
Mountain biker gets air in Mount Hood National Forest.

Late 1800s

One of the first examples of bicycles modified specifically for off-road use is the expedition of Buffalo Soldiers from Missoula, Montana, to Yellowstone in August 1896.[3][4]

1900s–1960s

Bicycles were ridden off-road by road racing cyclists who used cyclocross as a means of keeping fit during the winter.[4] Cyclo-cross eventually became a sport in its own right in the 1940s, with the first world championship taking place in 1950.[4]

The Rough Stuff Fellowship was established in 1955 by off-road cyclists in the United Kingdom.[5]

In Oregon in 1966, one Chemeketan club member, D. Gwynn, built a rough terrain trail bicycle. He named it a "mountain bicycle" for its intended place of use. This may be the first use of that name.[6]

In England in 1968, Geoff Apps, a motorbike trials rider, began experimenting with off-road bicycle designs. By 1979 he had developed a custom-built lightweight bicycle which was uniquely suited to the wet and muddy off-road conditions found in the south-east of England. They were designed around 2 inch × 650b Nokian snow tires though a 700x47c (28 in.) version was also produced. These were sold under the Cleland Cycles brand until late 1984. Bikes based on the Cleland design were also sold by English Cycles and Highpath Engineering until the early 1990s.[7]

1970s–1980s

There were several groups of riders in different areas of the U.S.A. who can make valid claims to playing a part in the birth of the sport. Riders in Crested Butte, Colorado, and Mill Valley, California, tinkered with bikes and adapted them to the rigors of off-road riding. Modified heavy cruiser bicycles, old 1930s and '40s Schwinn bicycles retrofitted with better brakes and fat tires, were used for freewheeling down mountain trails in Marin County, California, in the mid-to-late 1970s. At the time, there were no mountain bikes. The earliest ancestors of modern mountain bikes were based around frames from cruiser bicycles such as those made by Schwinn. The Schwinn Excelsior was the frame of choice due to its geometry. Riders used balloon-tired cruisers and modified them with gears and motocross or BMX-style handlebars, creating "klunkers". The term would also be used as a verb since the term "mountain biking" was not yet in use. The first person known to fit multiple speeds and drum brakes to a klunker is Russ Mahon of Cupertino, California, who used the resulting bike in cyclo-cross racing.[8] Riders would race down mountain fire roads, causing the hub brake to burn the grease inside, requiring the riders to repack the bearings. These were called "Repack Races" and triggered the first innovations in mountain bike technology as well as the initial interest of the public (on Mt. Tamalpais in Marin CA, there is still a trail titled "Repack"—in reference to these early competitions). The sport originated in California on Marin County's Mount Tamalpais.[9]

It was not until the late 1970s and early 1980s that road bicycle companies started to manufacture mountain bicycles using high-tech lightweight materials. Joe Breeze is normally credited with introducing the first purpose-built mountain bike in 1978.[10] Tom Ritchey then went on to make frames for a company called MountainBikes, a partnership between Gary Fisher, Charlie Kelly and Tom Ritchey. Tom Ritchey, a welder with skills in frame building, also built the original bikes. The company's three partners eventually dissolved their partnership, and the company became Fisher Mountain Bikes, while Tom Ritchey started his own frame shop.

The first mountain bikes were basically road bicycle frames (with heavier tubing and different geometry) with a wider frame and fork to allow for a wider tire. The handlebars were also different in that they were a straight, transverse-mounted handlebar, rather than the dropped, curved handlebars that are typically installed on road racing bicycles. Also, some of the parts on early production mountain bicycles were taken from the BMX bicycle. Other contributors were Otis Guy and Keith Bontrager.[11]

Tom Ritchey built the first regularly available mountain bike frame, which was accessorized by Gary Fisher and Charlie Kelly and sold by their company called MountainBikes (later changed to Fisher Mountain Bikes, then bought by Trek, still under the name Gary Fisher, currently sold as Trek's "Gary Fisher Collection"). The first two mass-produced mountain bikes were sold in the early 1980s: the Specialized Stumpjumper and Univega Alpina Pro. In 1988, The Great Mountain Biking Video was released, soon followed by others. In 2007, Klunkerz: A Film About Mountain Bikes was released, documenting mountain bike history during the formative period in Northern California. Additionally, a group of mountain bikers called the Laguna Rads formed a club during the mid eighties and began a weekly ride, exploring the uncharted coastal hillsides of Laguna Beach, California.[12] Industry insiders suggest that this was the birth of the freeride movement, as they were cycling up and down hills and mountains where no cycling specific trail network prexisted. The Laguna Rads have also held the longest running downhill race once a year since 1986.

At the time, the bicycle industry was not impressed with the mountain bike, regarding mountain biking to be short-term fad. In particular, large manufacturers such as Schwinn and Fuji failed to see the significance of an all-terrain bicycle and the coming boom in 'adventure sports'. Instead, the first mass-produced mountain bikes were pioneered by new companies such as MountainBikes (later, Fisher Mountain Bikes), Ritchey, and Specialized. Specialized was an American startup company that arranged for production of mountain bike frames from factories in Japan and Taiwan. First marketed in 1981,[13] Specialized's mountain bike largely followed Tom Ritchey's frame geometry, but used TiG welding to join the frame tubes instead of fillet-brazing, a process better suited to mass production, and which helped to reduce labor and manufacturing cost.[14] The bikes were configured with 15 gears using derailleurs, a triple chainring, and a cogset with five sprockets.

1990s–2000s

Throughout the 1990s and first decade of the 21st century, mountain biking moved from a little-known sport to a mainstream activity. Mountain bikes and mountain bike gear, once only available at specialty shops or via mail order, became available at standard bike stores. By the mid-first decade of the 21st century, even some department stores began selling inexpensive mountain bikes with full-suspension and disc brakes. In the first decade of the 21st century, trends in mountain bikes included the "all-mountain bike", the 29er and the one by drivetrain (though the first mass-produced 1x drivetrain was Sram's XX1 in 2012). "All-mountain bikes" were designed to descend and handle well in rough conditions, while still pedaling efficiently for climbing, and were intended to bridge the gap between cross-country bikes and those built specifically for downhill riding. They are characterized by 4–6 inches (100–150 millimetres) of fork travel. 29er bikes are those using 700c sized rims (as do most road bikes), but wider and suited for tires of two inches (50 mm) width or more; the increased diameter wheel is able to roll over obstacles better and offers a greater tire contact patch, but also results in a longer wheelbase, making the bike less agile, and in less travel space for the suspension. The single-speed is considered a return to simplicity with no drivetrain components or shifters but thus requires a stronger rider.

2000's-2020's

Following the growing trend in 29-inch wheels, there have been other trends in the mountain biking community involving tire size. Some riders prefer to have a larger wheel in the front than on the rear, such as on a motorcycle, to increase maneuverability. This is called a mullet bicycle, most common with a 29-inch wheel in the front and a 27.5-inch wheel in the back. Another interesting trend in mountain bikes is outfitting dirt jump or urban bikes with rigid forks. These bikes normally use 4–5″ travel suspension forks. The resulting product is used for the same purposes as the original bike. A commonly cited reason for making the change to a rigid fork is the enhancement of the rider's ability to transmit force to the ground, which is important for performing tricks. In the mid-first decade of the 21st century, an increasing number of mountain bike-oriented resorts opened. Often, they are similar to or in the same complex as a ski resort or they retrofit the concrete steps and platforms of an abandoned factory as an obstacle course, as with Ray's MTB Indoor Park. Mountain bike parks which are operated as summer season activities at ski hills usually include chairlifts that are adapted to bikes, a number of trails of varying difficulty, and bicycle rental facilities.[15]

In 2020, due to COVID-19, mountain bikes saw a surge in popularity in the US, with some vendors reporting that they were sold out of bikes under US$1000.[16][17][18]

Equipment

Bike

A hardtail mountain bike
A dual suspension or full suspension mountain bike, 'all-mountain' mountain bike
Typical more stout all-mountain bike on rough terrain
Main article: Mountain bike
  • Mountain bikes differ from other bikes primarily in that they incorporate features aimed at increasing durability and improving performance in rough terrain. Most modern mountain bikes have some kind of suspension, 26, 27.5 or 29-inch diameter tires, usually between 1.7 and 2.5 inches in width, and a wider, flat or upwardly-rising handlebar that allows a more upright riding position, giving the rider more control. They have a smaller, reinforced frame, usually made of wide tubing. Tires usually have a pronounced tread, and are mounted on rims which are stronger than those used on most non-mountain bicycles. Compared to other bikes, mountain bikes also use hydraulic disc brakes. They also tend to have lower ratio gears to facilitate climbing steep hills and traversing obstacles. Pedals vary from simple platform pedals, where the rider simply places the shoes on top of the pedals, to clipless, where the rider uses a specially equipped shoe with a cleat that engages mechanically into the pedal.

Accessories

  • Glasses with little or no difference from those used in other cycling sports, help protect against debris while on the trail. Filtered lenses, whether yellow for cloudy days or shaded for sunny days, protect the eyes from strain. Downhill, freeride, and enduro mountain bikers often use goggles similar to motocross or snowboard goggles in unison with their full face helmets.
  • Shoes generally have gripping soles similar to those of hiking boots for scrambling over un-ridable obstacles, unlike the smooth-bottomed shoes used in road cycling. The shank of mountain bike shoes is generally more flexible than road cycling shoes. Shoes compatible with clipless pedal systems are also frequently used.
  • Clothing is chosen for comfort during physical exertion in the backcountry, and its ability to withstand falls. Road touring clothes are often inappropriate due to their delicate fabrics and construction. Depending on the type of mountain biking, different types of clothes and styles are commonly worn. Cross-country mountain bikers tend to wear lycra shorts and tight road style jerseys due to the need for comfort and efficiency. Downhill riders tend to wear heavier fabric baggy shorts or moto-cross style trousers to protect themselves from falls. All mountain/enduro riders tend to wear light fabric baggy shorts and jerseys as they can be in the saddle for long periods of time.
  • Hydration systems are important for mountain bikers in the backcountry, ranging from simple water bottles to water bags with drinking tubes in lightweight backpacks known as a hydration pack. (e.g.CamelBaks).
  • GPS systems are sometimes added to the handlebars and are used to monitor progress on trails.
  • Pump to inflate tires.
  • CO2 Inflator with Cartridge to inflate a tube or tubeless tire.
  • Bike tools and extra bike tubes are important, as mountain bikers frequently find themselves miles from help, with flat tires or other mechanical problems that must be handled by the rider.
  • High-power lights based on LED technology, used for mountain biking at night.
  • Some sort of protective case

Protective gear

Mountain bikers in the Port Hills, New Zealand, wearing a variety of protective gear

The level of protection worn by individual riders varies greatly and is affected by speed, trail conditions, the weather, and numerous other factors, including personal choice. Protection becomes more important where these factors may be considered to increase the possibility or severity of a crash.

A helmet and gloves are usually regarded as sufficient for the majority of non-technical riding. Full-face helmets, goggles and armored suits or jackets are frequently used in downhill mountain biking, where the extra bulk and weight may help mitigate the risks of bigger and more frequent crashes.[19]

  • Helmet. The use of helmets, in one form or another, is almost universal amongst mountain bikers. The three main types are; cross-country, rounded skateboarder style (nicknamed "half shells" or "skate style"), and full-face. Cross-country helmets tend to be light and well ventilated, and more comfortable to wear for long periods, especially while perspiring in hot weather. In XC competitions, most bikers tend to use the usual road-racing style helmets, for their lightweight and aerodynamic qualities. Skateboard helmets are simpler and usually more affordable than other helmet types; provide great coverage of the head and resist minor scrapes and knocks. Unlike road-biking helmets, skateboard helmets typically have a thicker, hard plastic shell which can take multiple impacts before it needs to be replaced. The trade-off for this is that they tend to be much heavier and less ventilated (sweatier), therefore not suitable for endurance-based riding. Full-face helmets (BMX-style) provide the highest level of protection and tend to be stronger than skateboarding style and includes a jaw guard to protect the face. The weight is the main issue with this type, but today they are often reasonably well-ventilated and made of lightweight materials such as carbon fiber. (Full-face helmets with detachable chin-guards are available in some locations, but there are compromises to keep in mind with these designs.) As all helmets should meet minimum standards, SNELL B.95 (American Standard) BS EN 1078:1997 (European Standard), DOT, or "motorized ratings" are making their way into the market. The choice of helmet often comes down to rider preference, the likelihood of crashing, and on what features or properties of a helmet they place emphasis. Helmets are mandatory at competitive events and almost without exception at bike parks, most organizations also stipulate when and where full-face helmets must be used.[20]
  • Body armor and pads, often referred to simply as "armor", are meant to protect limbs and body in the event of a crash. While initially made for and marketed for downhill riders, free-riders, and jump/street riders, body armor has trickled into other areas of mountain biking as trails have become steeper and more technically complex (hence bringing a commensurately higher injury risk). Armor ranges from simple neoprene sleeves for knees, and elbows to complex, articulated combinations of hard plastic shells and padding that cover a whole limb or the entire body. Some companies market body armor jackets and even full-body suits designed to provide greater protection through greater coverage of the body and more secure pad retention. Most upper-body protectors also include a spine protector that comprises plastic or metal reinforced plastic plates, over foam padding, which are joined so that they articulate and move with the back. Some mountain bikers also use BMX-style body armor, such as chest plates, abdomen protectors, and spine plates. New technology has seen an influx of integrated neck protectors that fit securely with full-face helmets, such as the Leatt-Brace. There is a general correlation between increased protection and increased weight/decreased mobility, although different styles balance these factors differently. Different levels of protection are deemed necessary/desirable by different riders in different circumstances. Backpack hydration systems such as Camelbaks, where a water-filled bladder is held close to the spine, are used by some riders for their perceived protective value. More recently, with the increase in enduro racing, backpack hydration systems are also being sold with inbuilt spine protection. However, there is only anecdotal evidence of protection.
  • Gloves can offer increased comfort while riding, by alleviating compression and friction, and can protect against superficial hand injuries.[21] They provide protection in the event of strikes to the back or palm of the hand or when putting the hand out in a fall and can protect the hand, fingers, and knuckles from abrasion on rough surfaces. Many different styles of gloves exist, with various fits, sizes, finger lengths, palm padding, and armor options available. Armoring knuckles and the backs of hands with plastic panels is common in more extreme types of mountain biking. Most of it depends on preference and necessity.
  • First aid kits are often carried by mountain bikers so that they are able to clean, dress cuts, abrasions, and splint broken limbs. Head, brain, and spinal injuries become more likely as speeds increase. All of these can bring permanent changes in quality of life. Experienced mountain bike guides may be trained in dealing with suspected spinal injuries (e.g., immobilizing the victim and keeping the neck straight). Seriously injured people may need to be removed by stretcher, by a motor vehicle suitable for the terrain, or by helicopter.

Protective gear cannot provide immunity against injuries. For example, concussions can still occur despite the use of helmets, and spinal injuries can still occur with the use of spinal padding and neck braces.[22][23] The use of high-tech protective gear can result in a revenge effect, whereupon some cyclists feel safe taking dangerous risks.[24]

Because the key determinant of injury risk is kinetic energy, and because kinetic energy increases with the square of the speed, effectively each doubling of speed can quadruple the injury risk. Similarly, each tripling of speed can be expected to bring a nine-fold increase in risk, and each quadrupling of speed means that a sixteen-fold risk increase must be anticipated.

Higher speeds of travel also add danger due to reaction time. Because higher speeds mean that the rider travels further during his/her reaction time, this leaves less travel distance within which to react safely.[25] This, in turn, further multiplies the risk of an injurious crash.

In general, although protective gear cannot always prevent the occurrence of injuries, the use of such equipment is appropriate, as is maintaining it in serviceable condition. Because mountain biking takes place outdoors, ultraviolet radiation from sunlight is present, and UV rays are known to degrade plastic components.[26] Accordingly, and as a rule of thumb, a bicycle helmet should be replaced every five years, or sooner if it appears damaged. Additionally, if the helmet has been involved in an accident or has otherwise incurred impact-type damage, then it should be replaced promptly, even if it does not appear to be visibly damaged.[27]

Categories

Cross-country cycling

Main article: Cross-country cycling

Cross-Country (XC) generally means riding point-to-point or in a loop including climbs and descents on a variety of terrain. A typical XC bike weighs around 9-13 kilos (20-30 lbs), and has 0–125 millimeters (0.0–4.9 inches) of suspension travel front and sometimes rear. Cross country mountain biking focuses on physical strength and endurance more than the other forms, which require greater technical skill. Cross country mountain biking is the only mountain biking discipline in the Summer Olympic Games.

All-mountain/Enduro

Main article: Enduro (mountain biking)

All-mountain/Enduro bikes tend to have moderate-travel suspension systems and components which are stronger than XC models, typically 160-180 mm of travel on a full suspension frame, but at a weight that is suitable for both climbing and descending.

Enduro racing includes elements of DH racing, but Enduro races are much longer, sometimes taking a full day to complete, and incorporate climbing sections to connect the timed downhill descents (often referred to as stages). Typically, there is a maximum time limit for how long a rider takes to reach the top of each climb, while finishers of the downhill portions are ranked by fastest times.

Historically, many long-distance XC races would use the descriptor "enduro" in their race names to indicate their endurance aspect. Some long-standing race events have maintained this custom, sometimes leading to confusion with the modern Enduro format, that has been adopted to the Enduro World Series.

Enduro racing was commonly seen as a race for all abilities. While there are many recreational riders that do compete in Enduro races, the sport is increasingly attracting high-level riders such as Sam Hill or Isabeau Courdurier.

Downhill

Main article: Downhill mountain biking
Downhill mountain biking

Downhill (DH) is, in the most general sense, riding mountain bikes downhill. Courses include large jumps (up to and including 12 meters (39 feet)), drops of 3+ meters (10+ feet), and are generally rough and steep from top to bottom. The rider commonly travels to the point of descent by other means than cycling, such as a ski lift or automobile, as the weight of the downhill mountain bike often precludes any serious climbing.

Because of the extremely steep terrain (often located in summer at ski resorts), downhill mountain biking is one of the most extreme and dangerous cycling disciplines. Minimum body protection in a true downhill setting entails wearing knee pads and a full-face helmet with goggles, albeit riders and racers commonly wear various forms of full-body suits that include padding at selected locations.

Downhill-specific bikes are universally equipped with front and rear suspension, large disc brakes, and use heavier frame tubing than other mountain bikes. Downhill bicycles now weigh around 16–20 kg (35–44 lb), while the most expensive professional downhill mountain bikes can weigh as little as 15 kilograms (33 pounds), fully equipped with custom carbon fiber parts, air suspension, tubeless tires and more. Downhill frames have anywhere from 170–250 millimeters (6.7–9.8 inches) of travel and are usually equipped with a 200 millimeters (7.9 inches) travel dual-crown fork.

Four-cross/Dual Slalom

Main article: Four-cross
Four-cross race

Four-cross/Dual Slalom (4X) is a discipline in which riders compete either on separate tracks, as in Dual Slalom, or on a short slalom track, as in 4X. Most bikes used are light hard-tails, although the last World Cup was actually won on a full-suspension bike. The track is downhill and has dirt jumps, berms, and gaps.

Professionals in gravity mountain biking tend to concentrate either on downhill mountain biking or 4X/dual slalom because they are very different. However, some riders, such as Cedric Gracia, used to compete in both 4X and DH, although that is becoming more rare as 4X takes on its own identity.

Freeride

Main article: Freeride (mountain biking)
Freeride

Freeride / Big Hit / Hucking, as the name suggests, is a 'do anything' discipline that encompasses everything from downhill racing without the clock to jumping, riding 'North Shore' style (elevated trails made of interconnecting bridges and logs), and generally riding trails and/or stunts that require more skill and aggressive techniques than XC.

"Slopestyle" type riding is an increasingly popular genre that combines big-air, stunt-ridden freeride with BMX style tricks. Slopestyle courses are usually constructed at already established mountain bike parks and include jumps, large drops, quarter-pipes, and other wooden obstacles. There are always multiple lines through a course and riders compete for judges' points by choosing lines that highlight their particular skills.

A "typical" freeride bike is hard to define, but typical specifications are 13-18 kilos (30-40 lbs) with 150–250 millimeters (5.9–9.8 inches) of suspension front and rear. Freeride bikes are generally heavier and more amply suspended than their XC counterparts, but usually, retain much of their climbing ability. It is up to the rider to build his or her bike to lean more toward a preferred level of aggressiveness.

Dirt Jumping

Main article: Dirt jumping

Dirt Jumping (DJ) is the practice of riding bikes over shaped mounds of dirt or soil and becoming airborne. The goal is that after riding over the 'lip' the rider will become airborne, and aim to land on the 'knuckle'. Dirt jumping can be done on almost any bicycle, but the bikes chosen are generally smaller and more maneuverable hardtails so that tricks such as backflips, whips, and tabletops, are easier to complete. The bikes are simpler so that when a crash occurs there are fewer components to break or cause the rider injury. Bikes are typically built from sturdier materials such as steel to handle repeated heavy impacts of crashes and bails.

Trials

Main article: Mountain bike trials

Trials riding consists of hopping and jumping bikes over obstacles, without touching a foot onto the ground. It can be performed either off-road or in an urban environment. This requires an excellent sense of balance. The emphasis is placed on techniques of effectively overcoming the obstacles, although street-trials (as opposed to competition-oriented trials) is much like Street and DJ, where doing tricks with style is the essence. Trials bikes look almost nothing like mountain bikes. They use either 20″, 24″ or 26″ wheels and have very small, low frames, some types without a saddle.

Urban/Street

Main article: Freestyle BMX

Urban/Street is essentially the same as urban BMX (or Freestyle BMX), in which riders perform tricks by riding on/over man-made objects. The bikes are the same as those used for Dirt Jumping, having 24″ or 26″ wheels. Also, they are very light, many in the range of 25–30 lb (11–14 kg), and are typically hardtails with between 0-100 millimeters of the front suspension. As with Dirt Jumping and Trials, style and execution are emphasized.

Mountain bike trail riding (trail biking)

Trail riding

Main article: Trail riding: Mountain bike trails

Trail riding or trail biking is a varied and popular non-competitive form of mountain biking on recognized, and often waymarked and graded, trails; unpaved tracks, forest paths, etc. Trails may take the form of single routes or part of a larger complex, known as trail centers. Trail difficulty typically varies from gentle 'family' trails (green) through routes with increasingly technical features (blue and red) to those requiring high levels of fitness and skill (black) incorporating demanding ascents with steep technical descents comparable to less extreme downhill routes. As difficulty increases trails incorporate more technical trail features such as berms, rock gardens, uneven surfaces, drop offs and jumps. The most basic of bike designs can be used for less severe trails, but there are "trail bike" designs which balance climbing ability with good downhill performance, almost always having 120-150 mm of travel on a suspension fork, with either a hard tail or a similar travel rear suspension. Many more technical trails are also used as routes for cross country, enduro, and even downhill racing.

Marathon

Mountain Bike Touring or Marathon is long-distance touring on dirt roads and single track with a mountain bike.

With the popularity of the Great Divide Trail, the Colorado Trail and other long-distance off-road biking trails, specially outfitted mountain bikes are increasingly being used for touring. Bike manufacturers like Salsa have even developed MTB touring bikes like the Fargo model.

Mixed Terrain Cycle-Touring or rough riding is a form of mountain-bike touring but involves cycling over a variety of surfaces and topography on a single route, with a single bicycle that is expected to be satisfactory for all segments. The recent surge in popularity of mixed-terrain touring is in part a reaction against the increasing specialization of the bicycle industry. Mixed-terrain bicycle travel has a storied history of focusing on efficiency, cost-effectiveness, and freedom of travel over varied surfaces.[28]

Bikepacking

Bikepacking is a self-supported style of lightly loaded single or multiple night mountain biking.[29] Bikepacking is similar to bike touring, however the two sports generally use different bikes and the main difference is the method of carrying gear. Bikepacking generally involves carrying less gear and using smaller frame bags while bike touring will use panniers.[30]

A typical bikepacking set-up includes a frame bag, handlebar roll, seat pack, and backpack and typical gear includes lightweight and basic camping gear, and a bike repair kit.[31]

Mountain bikes are generally used as many bike packing destinations are reached via forest-service roads or singletrack trails.[29] Mountain bikes specific to bike-packing use a slightly taller frame to get the maximum frame bag capacity. This is achieved by using a longer headtube, a more horizontal top tube, and a reduced stem degree.[32]

Generally, bikepackers tend to cover anywhere from 25 to 75 miles (40 – 120 km) in a given day as the riding can be technical.[33]

Health Benefits

Cycling and green exercises have proven positive effects on self-esteem and total mood disturbance.[34] Mountain biking is proven to improve mental health and well-being relating to coping abilities and reducing stress. There are strong links between outdoor environments and their therapeutic potential.[35]

Risks

Risk of injury is present when mountain biking, especially in the more extreme disciplines like downhill biking, free ride and dirt jumping. Injuries range from minor wounds, such as cuts and abrasions from falls on gravel or other surfaces, to major injuries such as broken bones, head or spinal injuries resulting from impacts with rocks, trees or the terrain being ridden on.[36][37] Another risk factor is that mountain biking often takes place in wilderness or remote areas so emergency response can be delayed in the event of sustained injury.

Protective equipment can protect against minor injuries and reduce the extent or seriousness of major impacts, but may not protect a rider from major impacts or accidents. To reduce the risk of injury, a rider will also take steps to minimize the risk of accidents, and thus the potential for injury; by choosing trails which fall within the range of their experience level, ensuring that they are fit enough to deal with the trail they have chosen, and keeping their bike in top mechanical condition.

Lastly, maintenance of the rider's bike is carried out more frequently for mountain biking than for utility cycling or casual commuter biking. Mountain biking places higher demands on every part of the bike. Jumps and impacts can crack the frame or damage components or the tire rims, and steep, fast descents can quickly wear out brake pads. Since the widespread adoption of hydraulic and mechanical disk brakes on most mountain bikes from the late 1990s, the issues of brake pad wear, misalignment with, or slippage of rim brake pads on rims designed for rim brakes or "V brakes", has become a non-issue. Thus, whereas a casual rider may only check over and maintain their bike every few months, a mountain biker will check and properly maintain the bike before and after every ride.

Advocacy organizations

Mountain bikers have faced land access issues from the beginnings of the sport. Some areas where the first mountain bikers have ridden have faced extreme restrictions or elimination of riding.

This opposition has led to the development of local, regional, and international mountain bike groups. The different groups that formed generally work to create new trails, maintain existing trails, and help existing trails that may have issues. Groups work with private and public entities from the individual landowner to city parks departments, on up through the state level at the DNR, and into the federal level. Different groups will work individually or together to achieve results.

Advocacy organizations work through numerous methods such as education, trail workdays, and trail patrols. Examples of the education an advocacy group can provide include: Educate local bicycle riders, property managers, and other user groups on the proper development of trails, and on the International Mountain Bicycling Association's (IMBA), "Rules of the Trail." Examples of trail work days can include: Flagging, cutting, and signing a new trail, or removing downed trees after a storm. A trail patrol is a bike rider who has had some training to help assist others (including non-cyclists), trail users.

The IMBA is a non-profit advocacy group whose mission is to create, enhance and preserve trail opportunities for mountain bikers worldwide. IMBA serves as an umbrella organization for mountain biking advocacy worldwide and represents more than 700 affiliated mountain biking groups. The group was originally formed to fight widespread trail closures. In 1988, five California mountain bike clubs linked to form IMBA. The founding clubs were: Concerned Off-Road Bicyclists Association, Bicycle Trails Council East Bay, Bicycle Trails Council Marin, Sacramento Rough Riders, and Responsible Organized Mountain.

Environmental impact

According to a review published by the International Mountain Bicycling Association, the environmental impact of mountain biking, as a relatively new sport, is poorly understood. The review notes that "as with all recreational pursuits, it is clear that mountain biking contributes some degree of environmental degradation".[38] Mountain biking can result in both soil and vegetation damage, which can be caused by skidding, but also by the construction of unauthorised features such as jumps and bridges, and trails themselves.[39] Several studies have reported that a mountain bike's impact on a given length of trail surface is comparable to that of a hiker, and substantially less than that of an equestrian or motorized off-road vehicle.[40][41][42][43][unreliable source?]

A critical literature review by Jason Lathrop on the ecological impact of mountain biking notes that while recreational trail use in general is well studied, few studies explore the specific impact of mountain biking. He quotes the Bureau of Land Management: "An estimated 13.5 million mountain bicyclists visit public lands each year to enjoy the variety of trails. What was once a low use activity that was easy to manage has become more complex".[44]

The environmental impacts of mountain biking can be greatly reduced by not riding on wet or sensitive trails, keeping speeds modest so as to minimize cornering forces and braking forces, not skidding, and by staying on the trail.[45]

Mountain biking has been demonstrated to act as a human-mediated form of seed dispersal. Due to advancements in technology mountain bikers have begun to move onto trail networks once only accessible by hikers. The nature of their movement patterns also plays an important role as a vector for seed dispersal. Mountain bikes are not bound to any specific type of infrastructure and can therefore move freely between ecological environments acting as a connecting dispersal vector between habitats. Combined with their relatively long range and speeds they also contribute to long-range dispersal.[46] In an effort to understand and assess the socio-ecological consequences of mountain bikes as a vector for seed dispersal Fabio Weiss, Tyler J. Brummer, and Gesine Pufal conducted an environmental impact study on forest trails in Freiburg, Germany. The results of the study found that although the majority of seeds detached from tires within the first 5–20 meters; small portions of seeds were still present after 200–500 meters contributing to moderate dispersal. The potential for long-distance dispersal was found through the transport of seeds on areas of the bike that did not come into frequent contact with the ground. The study also found that the majority of participants only cleaned their bikes on average every 70 km or every two rides.[46] Rides executed in two different areas have the potential to connect previously unconnected habitats creating the potential for unwanted plant invasions.

To mitigate the accidental dispersal of an unwanted invasive species, the authors of the study proposed the following measures to support conservation:[46]

a) Clean the bike between rides in different habitats, before traveling and especially before entering sensitive natural areas and regions.
b) Control weeds and non-native species at trailheads and trail margins.
c) Educate mountain bike riders about the potential dispersal of different species (good stewardship begets riding privileges).
d) Encourage cooperation between mountain bikers and managing authorities (avoid condescending regulations, establishment of monitored designated riding areas).

See also

References

  1. ^ Huddart, Stott, David, Tim (October 25, 2019). Outdoor Recreation: Environmental Impacts and Management. Palgrave Macmillan. p. 7. ISBN 9783319977577.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  2. ^ Barfe, Marion B (2019). Mountain Biking: The Ultimate Guide to Mountain Biking For Beginners MTB. ISBN 978-1982747824.
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