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The House Sparrow is a common victim of [[roadkill]]; on European roads, it is the species most frequently found dead.<ref>{{cite journal|author=Erritzoe J.; Mazgajski T. D.; Rejt L.|date=2003|url=http://www.birdresearch.dk/unilang/articles/traffic.pdf|title=Bird casualties on European roads — a review|journal=Acta Ornithologica|volume=38|issue=2|pages=77–93}}</ref>
The House Sparrow is a common victim of [[roadkill]]; on European roads, it is the species most frequently found dead.<ref>{{cite journal|author=Erritzoe J.; Mazgajski T. D.; Rejt L.|date=2003|url=http://www.birdresearch.dk/unilang/articles/traffic.pdf|title=Bird casualties on European roads — a review|journal=Acta Ornithologica|volume=38|issue=2|pages=77–93}}</ref>

The House Sparrow is host to a huge number of parasites and diseases. It is host to [[Arbovirus infection|arboviruses]] such as [[West Nile virus]] and [[equine encephalitis]] for which it acts as a [[Natural reservoir|reservoir host]].<ref name="AndersonDisease">{{harvnb|Anderson|2006| pp=311–317}}</ref> It is home to [[avian pox]] and [[avian malaria]], which it has spread to the native forest birds of Hawaii.<ref>{{cite journal|last=van Riper|first=Charles III|coauthors=Sandra G. van Riper and Wallace R. Hansen|journal=The Auk|volume=119|issue=4|date=October 2002|pages=929–942|url=http://www.jstor.org/stable/4090224}}</ref> Common bacterial pathogens of the House Sparrow include ''[[Salmonella]]'', ''[[Escherichia coli]]'', [[anthrax]], and [[avian tuberculosis]].<ref>{{harvnb|Summers-Smith|1963| p=128}}</ref> There are a few records of disease having a serious effect on the House Sparrow's population, especially from the Scottish islands, but this seems to be rare.<ref>{{harvnb|Summers-Smith|1963| p=129}}</ref> The House Sparrow is infested by a number of external parasites, which usually cause little harm to adult sparrows. The most common [[mite]] found on sparrows in ''[[Proctophyllodes]]'', the most common [[tick]]s are ''[[Argas reflexus]]'' and ''[[Ixodes passericola]]''.<ref name="NN131–132"/> A number of [[chewing louse|chewing lice]] occupy different niches on the House Sparrow's body, with the generalist ''[[Menacanthus annulatus]]'' being found across the House Sparrows body, while the species of ''[[Bruelia]]'' are found on feathers and ''[[Philopterus fringillae]]'' is found on head feathers. The most common flea on the House Sparrow is ''[[Ceratophyllus gallinae]]''.<ref name="NN131–132">{{harvnb|Summers-Smith|1963| pp=131–132}}</ref>


The oldest known wild House Sparrow lived for nearly two decades; it was found dead 19 years and 9 months after it was [[bird ringing|ringed]] (banded) in Denmark.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.euring.org/data_and_codes/longevity-voous.htm |accessdate=24 November 2009 |publisher=EURING: The European Union for Bird Ringing |title=European Longevity Records}}</ref>
The oldest known wild House Sparrow lived for nearly two decades; it was found dead 19 years and 9 months after it was [[bird ringing|ringed]] (banded) in Denmark.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.euring.org/data_and_codes/longevity-voous.htm |accessdate=24 November 2009 |publisher=EURING: The European Union for Bird Ringing |title=European Longevity Records}}</ref>

Revision as of 18:57, 29 January 2010

House Sparrow
Male in Victoria
Female in England
Nesting birds callingⓘ
Scientific classification
Kingdom:
Animalia
Phylum:
Chordata
Class:
Aves
Order:
Passeriformes
Suborder:
Passeri
Infraorder:
Passerida
Superfamily:
Passeroidea
Family:
Passeridae
Genus:
Passer
Species:
P. domesticus
Binomial name
Passer domesticus
(Linnaeus 1758)
Native range in dark green and introduced range in light green.
Synonyms
  • Fringilla domestica Linnaeus 1758
  • Passer domesticus: Pallas 1811
  • Pyrtiga domestica: Cuvier 1817
  • Passer indicus Jardine and Selby 1835
  • Passer arboreus Bonaparte 1850 (preoccupied)
  • Passer confucius Bonaparte 1853
  • Passer rufidorsalis Brehm 1855
  • Passer engimaticus Zarudny 1903
  • Passer ahasvar Kleinschmidt 1904

The House Sparrow (Passer domesticus) is a species of passerine bird in the sparrow family Passeridae. It occurs naturally in most of Europe, the Mediterranean basin, and much of Asia. It has also followed humans all over the world and has been intentionally or accidentally introduced to most of the Americas, sub-Saharan Africa, New Zealand and Australia as well as urban areas in other parts of the world. It is now the most widely distributed wild bird on the planet. It is strongly associated with human habitations, but it is not the only sparrow species found near houses. In the United States it is also colloquially known as the English Sparrow to distinguish it from American sparrows.

Description

The House Sparrow is a chunky bird,[2] ranging from 14–18 centimetres (5.5–7.1 in) in length,[3] and from 24–39.5 grams (0.85–1.39 oz) in mass,[4] depending on sex, subspecies, and environment. Females average smaller than males,[4] and southern birds are smaller than their northern counterparts, though altitude may be equally important.[5]

Like most of the members of its genus, the House Sparrow is sexually dimorphic. The male's mantle and upper back are a warm brown, broadly streaked with black, while the lower back, rump and uppertail coverts are a greyish-brown. The crown, cheeks and underparts are pale grey, with black on the throat, upper breast and between the bill and eyes. The bill in summer is blue-black, and the legs are brown. In winter the plumage is dulled by pale edgings, and the bill is yellowish brown.[6] The black throat patch on the males is variable in size, and the size of that patch or badge may be correlated with the aggressiveness, suggesting that it is a signal to show dominance in a social situation.[7] The female has no black on head or throat, nor a grey crown; her upperparts are streaked with brown.[citation needed] The juveniles are deeper brown, and the white is replaced by buff; the beak is pink to dull yellow.[citation needed] The House Sparrow is often confused with the smaller and more slender Eurasian Tree Sparrow, which, however, has a chestnut and not grey crown, two distinct wing bars, and a black patch on each cheek.[citation needed]

Voice

All of the House Sparrow's calls are variations on its short and incessant double chirp call note "phillip" or "chirrup" made as a contact call by birds away from their nesting area, or by males as a proclamation of nest ownership or to invite pairing;[8] this call led to the now obsolete folk name of "Phillip Sparrow".[9] House Sparrows give also give this call in what is known as "social singing", while resting between periods of feeding, or while roosting. In the breeding season this call becomes what is called an "ecstatic call", which is similar to a song, as it is uttered by the male at great speed.[8] Aggressive male House Sparrows give a trilled version of their call, transcribed as "chur-chur-r-r-it-it-it-it". This call is also used by females in the breeding season, to establish dominance over males in order to displace them and feed young or incubate eggs.[10] House Sparrows give a nasal alarm call, the basic sound of which is transcribed as "quer". When in great distress, they give a shrill "chree" call.[11] Another House Sparrow vocalisation is what has been described as an "appeasement call," given to inhibit aggression, usually by a mated pair.[10] These vocalisations are not unique to the House Sparrow, but are shared with only minor variations by most sparrows.[12]

Taxonomy

Description of the House and Tree Sparrows from the Systema naturae

The House Sparrow is part of the Old World sparrow genus Passer, which contains 15-25 species, depending on the authority.[13] Its members are typically found in open, lightly wooded, habitats. Most species in the genus are between 10–20 centimetres (3.9–7.9 in) long, dull-coloured birds with short square tails and stubby conical beaks. They are mostly ground-feeding seed-eaters, although they also consume invertebrates, especially when breeding.[14] The House Sparrow is part of a group with Mediterranean origins, and its closest relatives are the Spanish and Italian Sparrows.[15][16]

The bird's English and scientific names have the same meaning. The Latin word passer, like the English word "sparrow," was a term for small active birds, coming from a root word referring to speed.[17][18] The Latin word domesticus means "of the house," like the common name a reference to the long association between the sparrow and humans.[19] The House Sparrow was named by Carl Linnaeus, the founder of modern biological taxonomy, as Fringilla domestica.[20] Later the genus Fringilla came to be used only for the Chaffinch and its relatives, and the sparrows came to be placed in the genus Passer created by French zoologist Mathurin Jacques Brisson in 1760.[21]

Subspecies

A large number of subspecies, distinguished mostly by their plumage, have been named, and ten are generally recognised. These subspecies are divided into two groups, the Palearctic domesticus group, and the Oriental indicus group. The indicus group is distinguished by white cheeks, bright colouration on the crown, a smaller bill, and a longer black bib.[22] Migratory birds of the subspecies bactrianus in the indicus group were recorded breeding beside with the subspecies domesticus without hybridising in the 1970s, so the Soviet scientists E. I. Gavrilov and M. N. Korelov proposed indicus to be a separate species. The subspecies biblicus and its relatives are sometimes considered a third group.[23]

  • domesticus group
  • P. d. domesticus, the nominate subspecies described by Carl Linnaeus from Sweden, is the only subspecies found in Europe, and is common across northern Asia, besides being the subspecies most widely introduced worldwide. This includes a number of proposed subspecies, especially from Central Asia and the Mediterranean, which are generally not recognised.[22][24]
  • P. d. tingitanus, described by Victor Loche in 1867 from Algeria, is found in the Maghreb from Ajdabiya in Libya to Béni Abbès in Algeria, and to Morocco's Atlantic coast. It hybridises extensively with the Spanish Sparrow, especially in the eastern part of its range. It is not very different from the nominate subspecies, but it is smaller, and has a distinctive mottled moult plumage.[25]
  • P. d. niloticus, described by Nicoll and Bonhote in 1909 from El Faiyûm, is found in Egypt along the Nile from Wadi Halfa, where it integrades with rufidorsalis in a narrow zone, north. It also integrades with bibilicus in the Sinai. It is similar to bibilicus, but smaller.[26]
  • P. d. persicus, described by Sarudney and Kudaschev in 1916 from the Karun River in Khūzestān, Iran, is found in the western half of Iran to the south of the Elbruz mountains, gradually integrading with indicus across central Iran.[26]
  • P. d. biblicus, described by Ernst Hartert in 1910 from the village of Sueme in Palestine, is found in the Middle East from the Bosporus to the Sinai in the west and from Azerbaijan to Kuwait in the east. It is paler than domesticus, but it has a grey cheek, and the colours of the chestnut area are not deep.[26]
  • indicus group
  • P. d. hyrcanus, described by Sarudney and Kudaschëv in 1916 from Astrabad, is found along the southern coast of the Caspian from the Iranian-Azerbaijani border to Astrabad (now Gurgan). It integrades with persicus in the Elbruz mountains, and with bibilicus to the west. It is the subspecies with the smallest range.[27]
  • P. d. bactrianus, described by Sarudney and Kudaschëv in 1916 from Tashkent, is found in Turkestan and northern Afghanistan. It intergrades with persicus in Baluchistan and with indicus across central Afghanistan. Unlike most other House Sparrow subspecies, it is almost entirely migratory, wintering in the plains of the northern Indian subcontinent. It is found in open country rather than in settlements, which in its range are occupied by the Tree Sparrow.[27]
  • P. d. parkini, described by Hugh Whistler in 1920 from Srinagar, Kashmir, is found in the western Himalayas from the Pamirs to southeastern Nepal. It is migratory, like bactrianus and is larger and more chestnut than indicus.[22]
  • P. d. indicus, described by William Jardine and Prideaux John Selby in 1831 from Bangalore, is found in the Indian subcontinent south of the Himalayas, in Sri Lanka, eastern Iran, southwestern Arabia and western Southeast Asia.[27] This includes a subspecies enigmaticus that is no longer recognized.[22]
  • P. d. hufufae, described by Ticehurst and Cheeseman in 1924 from the town of Al-Hofuf in Saudi Arabia, is found in northeastern Arabia.[27]
  • P. d. rufidorsalis, described by Brehm in 1855 from Khartoum in Sudan, is found in the Nile valley from Wadi Halfa south to Renk in Sudan. Birds of this subspecies are among the smallest House Sparrows.[27] It has also been introduced to Moheli in the Comoros.[28]

In North America and Hawaii, birds are differentiated by latitude and climate, though it is not clear how much this is caused by evolution or by environment.[29][30][31][32][33][34] Similar observations have been made in New Zealand,[35] and in South Africa.[36] Some authors have considered introduced House Sparrow populations to be worthy of subspecies status, such as Harry Church Oberholser, who gave the subspecies name plecticus to the sparrows of western North America in his 1974 Bird Life of Texas.[37]

The willow sparrows

In parts of the Mediterranean basin, the taxonomy and distribution of the sparrows is complicated by the presence of the "willow sparrows." The common type of willow sparrow is the Spanish Sparrow, which resembles the House Sparrow in many respects.[38] It frequently prefers wetter habitats than the House Sparrow, and it is often colonial and nomadic.[39] In most of the Mediterranean, either the House or the Spanish sparrow occurs, or both, with some degree of hybridisation.[40] In North Africa, the two species hybridise extensively, forming highly variable mixed populations with a full range of characters from pure House Sparrows to pure Spanish Sparrows and everything between.[25][41] In much of Italy there is a type of sparrow apparently intermediate between the House and Spanish sparrows, known as the Italian Sparrow. It resembles a hybrid between the two species, and is in other respects intermediate. Its specific status and origin are the subject of much debate.[41][42] In the Alps of Italy, the Italian Sparrow integrades over a roughly 20 kilometres (12 mi) strip with the House Sparrow,[43] but to the south it integrades over the southern half of Italy and some Mediterranean islands with the Spanish Sparrow.[41] On the Mediterranean islands of Malta, Gozo, Crete, Rhodos, and Karpathos, there are other apparently intermediate birds of unknown status.[41][44][45]

Distribution and habitat

The House Sparrow originated in the Middle East, and it spread along with agriculture to most of Eurasia, and parts of North Africa.[46] In much of eastern Asia the Eurasian Tree Sparrow fills its role as an urban bird, and it is uncommon.[47] Since the middle of the nineteenth century, it has spread throughout much of the world, largely due to deliberate introductions.[48] Its introduced range encompasses most of North America, Central America, southern South America, southern Africa, part of West Africa, Australia, New Zealand, and islands throughout the world, making it the most widely distributed wild bird on the planet.[13] In southern Africa, spread rapidly after its introduction, but its native relatives successfully compete with it.[49] In the Cape Verde Islands, where it arrived in the 1920s, it has failed to spread beyond part of the island of São Vicente or outcompete the endemic Iago Sparrow, though it may have extirpated the local Spanish Sparrow population, through outcompetition in a drought and hybridisation.[50] House Sparrows have greatly extended their range in northern Eurasia since the 1850s,[51] and continue to do so, as is shown by the colonisations, both around 1990, of Iceland and Rishiri Island.[52]

The House Sparrow is closely associated with human habitations and cultivation. It is not the obligate commensal of humans some have suggested it is, as Central Asian birds breed away from humans in open country, leaving towns to the Eurasian Tree Sparrow,[53] and birds elsewhere are found away from humans.[54][55] The only habitats in which the House Sparrow is not found are dense forest and cold open country, such as tundra. It is, however, well adapted to living around humans. It frequently lives and even breeds indoors, especially in factories, warehouses, and zoos.[54] It has been recorded breeding in a coal mine 640 metres (2,100 ft) below ground,[56] and feeding on the Empire State Building's observation deck at night.[57] It reaches its greatest densities in urban centers, but its reproductive success is greater in suburbs, where insects are more abundant.[58] It tolerates a variety of climates, but prefers drier conditions, especially in moist tropical countries.[54] It has a number of adaptations to dry areas, including a high salt tolerance[59] and an ability to survive without water by ingesting berries.[60]

Behaviour

The House Sparrow is a very social bird. It is gregarious at all seasons when feeding, it roosts communally, and its nests are usually placed together in clumps. Other social activities include dust and water bathing, and "social singing", in which birds call together in bushes.[61] For the larger part it is sedentary, though two subspecies, bactrianus and parkini, are entirely migratory.[61] There also is limited migration in many mountain areas, and within sedentary populations a few birds migrate each year.[61][62] Non-breeding House Sparrow nest in large groups in trees, gathering some time before and engaging in "social singing."[61] In cold areas House Sparrows roost in streetlights or specially created nests to avoid losing heat during the winter.[63] At feeding stations and at the nest, the female House Sparrow is dominant over the male, despite her smaller size.[64][65]

Feeding

Female foraging

As an adult, the House Sparrow is largely a granivorous species, eating the seeds of grains and weeds, but it is opportunistic and adaptable, and eats whatever foods are available. Several studies of the House Sparrow in temperate agricultural areas have shown the proportion of seeds in its to be about 90 percent.[66][67][68] House Sparrows will eat almost any seeds, but where they have a choice of grains, they prefer oats and wheat.[69] In urban areas, the House Sparrow feeds largely on food provided directly or indirectly by humans, such as bread, though they prefer raw seeds.[68] The House Sparrow also eats berries and fruits, and in arid areas it can survive without water by ingesting moisture with berries.[60]

Another important part of the House Sparrow diet is animal food, chiefly insects, of which beetles, caterpillars, dipteran flies, and aphids are especially important. Other animal foods include various non-insect arthropods, molluscs and crustaceans where available, earthworms, and vertebrates such as lizards, frogs, and mice.[66] Nestlings are fed almost exclusively on insects.[70][71] The House Sparrow is known to have a habit of flycatching insects in the early spring and early autumn, and a habit of tearing flowers, especially yellow ones in the spring.[72]

More unusual foraging behaviours of the House Sparrow include taking insects from car radiators,[73] nectar robbing kowhai flowers,[74] catching periodical cicadas,[75] and opening automatic doors to enter supermarkets.[76]

Breeding

A pair of P. d. indicus birds mating

The House Sparrow is a monogamous species, typically mating for life—though pairs often engage in extra-pair copulations, and lost mates are quickly replaced during the breeding season.[77] The nesting site is varied; under eaves, in holes in masonry or rocks, in ivy or creepers on houses or banks, on the sea-cliffs, or in bushes in bays and inlets. When built in holes or ivy, the nest is an untidy litter of straw and rubbish, abundantly filled with feathers.[citation needed] Large, well-constructed domed nests are often built when the bird nests in trees or shrubs, especially in rural areas.[citation needed]

The House Sparrow is quite aggressive in usurping the nesting sites of other birds, often forcibly evicting the previous occupants, and sometimes even building a new nest directly on top of another active nest with live nestlings.[citation needed] House Martins, Bluebirds, and Sand Martins are especially susceptible to this behavior. However, though this tendency has occasionally been observed in its native habitats (particularly concerning House Martins), it appears to be far more common in habitats in which it has been introduced, such as North America.[citation needed]

The typical clutch size is 5–6 eggs, though clutches ranging from 1–8 eggs have been recorded. The eggs are white, bluish-white or greenish-white, spotted with brown or grey.[78] Subelliptical in shape,[79] they range from 20–22 millimetres (0.79–0.87 in) in length and 14–16 millimetres (0.55–0.63 in) in width,[78] and have an average mass of 2.9 grams (0.10 oz), 7% of which is shell.[80] Both parents incubate the eggs, which hatch synchronously after 9–16 days.[79]

Reproductive success increases with age, due principally to changes in the timing of breeding; older birds breed earlier in the season than younger birds do, and fledge more young.[81]

Survival

A wide array of predators feed on the House Sparrow, with cats and birds of prey being predominant. In Europe and North America, nearly every species of bird of prey has been recorded preying on the House Sparrow. Accipiters and the Merlin in particular are major predators, though house cats likely make a greater impact on House Sparrow populations. Other predators include corvids, smaller squirrels,[82] and even humans, as the House Sparrow has been consumed as food in many parts of the world, and still it is in parts of the Mediterranean.[83]

The House Sparrow is a common victim of roadkill; on European roads, it is the species most frequently found dead.[84]

The House Sparrow is host to a huge number of parasites and diseases. It is host to arboviruses such as West Nile virus and equine encephalitis for which it acts as a reservoir host.[85] It is home to avian pox and avian malaria, which it has spread to the native forest birds of Hawaii.[86] Common bacterial pathogens of the House Sparrow include Salmonella, Escherichia coli, anthrax, and avian tuberculosis.[87] There are a few records of disease having a serious effect on the House Sparrow's population, especially from the Scottish islands, but this seems to be rare.[88] The House Sparrow is infested by a number of external parasites, which usually cause little harm to adult sparrows. The most common mite found on sparrows in Proctophyllodes, the most common ticks are Argas reflexus and Ixodes passericola.[89] A number of chewing lice occupy different niches on the House Sparrow's body, with the generalist Menacanthus annulatus being found across the House Sparrows body, while the species of Bruelia are found on feathers and Philopterus fringillae is found on head feathers. The most common flea on the House Sparrow is Ceratophyllus gallinae.[89]

The oldest known wild House Sparrow lived for nearly two decades; it was found dead 19 years and 9 months after it was ringed (banded) in Denmark.[90]

Status

While House Sparrows are considered to be pests in much of their range, they have been declining in many parts of the world.[91] Even in North America and Australia, where the House Sparrow is considered an invasive species, declines have been noticed. In Eastern Europe, no serious declines have been noticed.[92] These declines were first noticed in the United States, where they were initially attributed to the spread of the House Finch, and have been most severe in Western Europe.[93][94] In the Netherlands, the House Sparrow is even considered an endangered species, and the population of House Sparrows has dropped in half since the 1980s.[95][58] In Britain populations peaked in the early 1970s,[96] and have declined by 68 percent overall,[97] and over 90 percent in urban areas.[98] In London, the House Sparrow almost disappeared from the central city.[98] These declines are not unprecedented, as such declines occurred when the internal combustion engine replaced the horse in the 1920s and the House Sparrow lost a major source of food in the form of spillage.[99]

Various causes for its dramatic decrease in population have been proposed. Predation by accipiters, housecats, or corvids has commonly been proposed.[100] Other proposed causes include electromagnetic radiation from mobile phones,[101] disease, and lack of nesting sites because of a reduction in the number of badly maintained buildings.[102][103] It seems, however, that the main cause of the House Sparrow's decline is a fall in insect numbers, as the House Sparrow requires insect food while in the nest.[102][104] The main reason for these declines of insects seems to be changes in agricultural and gardening practices.[105][106][107][108][109][110] Other causes for the fall in insect numbers may include the introduction of unleaded petrol, the combustion of which produces compounds such as methyl nitrite, a compound highly toxic for small insects;[111] and reducing areas of free growing weeds.[112]

As an invasive species

A female in Australia

The House Sparrow has become highly successful wherever it has been introduced. This is due to its early adaptation to living with humans, and its adaptability to a wide range of conditions.[113][114] Other factors may include its robust immune response.[115] In many parts of the world it has become a pest, and a threat to many native bird species. The House Sparrow has been known to evict native bird species from their nests.[113]

The first of many successful introductions to North America occurred when fifty pairs from England were released in New York, by the commissioners of Central Park around 1852, along with other birds which failed to become established.[116][117] Today its range is spread from northern British Columbia to Newfoundland and Labrador in Canada and down through most of the United States through Central America to Darién Province.[118] While declining somewhat in their adopted homeland, House Sparrows are one of the most abundant birds in North America, with a population estimated at approximately 150 million in the 1940s.[119] In the West Indies, it has reached most of the Greater Antilles, the Bahamas, the Virgin Islands, and the ABC Islands but has failed to become established on Jamaica or reach the Lesser Antilles.[120]

In the southern hemisphere, it has settled on all continents with the exception of parts of South America and Antarctica, although Western Australia has attempted to prevent it from settling there. House Sparrows were introduced to Australia between 1863 and 1870. They were released first in Victoria and then to other areas including Sydney, Brisbane, and Hobart. House Sparrows are major pest throughout eastern Australia, but have been prevented from establishing themselves in Western Australia where every House Sparrow found in the state is killed.[121] House Sparrows were introduced in New Zealand in 1859, and became established throughout New Zealand, even on uninhabited islands, where they have bred on cliffs.[122][123] From New Zealand they reached many of the Pacific islands, including New Caledonia, Hawaii, Norfolk Island, Vanuatu, and Auckland Island.[122]

Feeding a chick

In the United States and Canada, the House Sparrow is not protected by law.[124][125] House Sparrows take over the nesting sites of bluebirds and other native cavity nesters in North America, killing young and smashing eggs and probably killing adult bluebirds,[126] and as such are major factors in the decline of bluebirds and other native cavity nesters in North America.[127] However, such behaviors are also observed in native North American species, such as the House Wren and the American Crow.[119] Because the House Sparrow is smaller than the less aggressive native birds with which it competes, it is impossible to keep them out of nest boxes built for many native birds.[citation needed] Attempts to control House Sparrows include the trapping, poisoning, or shooting of adults; the destruction of their nests and eggs; or less directly, blocking nest holes and scaring off sparrows with noise, glue, or porcupine wire.[113]

References

  1. ^ Template:IUCN
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  4. ^ a b Clement, Harris & Davis 1993, p. 446
  5. ^ Summers-Smith 1988, p. 118
  6. ^ Clement, Harris & Davis 1993, p. 444
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  8. ^ a b Summers-Smith 1963, pp. 26–30
  9. ^ Yarrell, Newman & Saunders 1882, p. 89
  10. ^ a b Summers-Smith 1963, pp. 30–31
  11. ^ Summers-Smith 1963, pp. 31–32
  12. ^ Summers-Smith 1988, p. 254
  13. ^ a b Anderson 2006, p. 5
  14. ^ Clement, Harris & Davis 1993, pp. 442–467
  15. ^ Summers-Smith 1988, pp. 303–305
  16. ^ Allende, Luis M. (2001). "The Old World sparrows (genus Passer) phylogeography and their relative abundance of nuclear mtDNA pseudogenes" (PDF). Journal of Molecular Evolution. 53: 144–154. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
  17. ^ Lewis & Kingery 1918, p. 585
  18. ^ Summers-Smith 1988, p. 13
  19. ^ Lewis & Kingery 1918, p. 260
  20. ^ Linnaeus 1758, p. 183
  21. ^ Brisson 1760, p. 36
  22. ^ a b c d Vaurie, Charles. "Notes on some Ploceidae from western Asia". American Museum Novitates. 1406: 1–41. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
  23. ^ Summers-Smith 1988, pp. 114–115
  24. ^ Summers-Smith 1988, pp. 121–122
  25. ^ a b Summers-Smith 1988, pp. 126–127
  26. ^ a b c Summers-Smith 1988, p. 127
  27. ^ a b c d e Summers-Smith 1988, pp. 127–128
  28. ^ Summers-Smith 1988, p. 134
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  31. ^ Selander, Robert K.; Johnston, Richard F (May–June 1967). "Evolution in the House Sparrow. I. Intrapopulation Variation in North America". The Condor. 69 (3): 217–258.
  32. ^ Johnston, Richard F.; Selander, Robert K (March 1971). "Evolution in the House Sparrow. II. Adaptive Differentiation in North American Populations". Evolution. 25 (1): 1–28.
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Works cited

External links

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