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==Atomic and molecular physics==
==Atomic and molecular physics==
{{See also|Atomic physics|Atomic, molecular, and optical physics|Timeline of atomic and subatomic physics}}
{{See also|Atomic physics|Atomic, molecular, and optical physics|Timeline of atomic and subatomic physics}}
* {{citation|trans-title=On A New Kind Of Rays|title=Über eine neue Art von Strahlen|publisher=Sitzungsberichte der Würzburger Physik-medic. Gesellschaft| date=28 December 1895|url=http://www.mindfully.org/Nucs/Roetgen-X-Rays28dec1895.htm|accessdate=24 Aug 2013.|last=Röntgen|first=W.C.}} [http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.3322/canjclin.22.3.153/pdf Alternate link here.]

:Discovery of X-rays, leading to the very first Nobel Prize in Physics for the author.
* Thomson, J.J. (1897). [http://web.lemoyne.edu/~GIUNTA/thomson1897.html ''Cathode rays''], ''Philosophical Magazine'', '''44''', 293
* Thomson, J.J. (1897). [http://web.lemoyne.edu/~GIUNTA/thomson1897.html ''Cathode rays''], ''Philosophical Magazine'', '''44''', 293
: The classic experimental measurement of the mass and charge of cathode ray "corpuscles", later called electrons. Won the Nobel Physics Prize (in 1906) for this discovery.
: The classic experimental measurement of the mass and charge of cathode ray "corpuscles", later called electrons. Won the Nobel Physics Prize (in 1906) for this discovery.



Zeeman (1897) papers
Zeeman (1897) papers
Line 232: Line 234:
* Bohr, Niels (1913-4).
* Bohr, Niels (1913-4).
: See [[#quantum mechanics|quantum mechanics]] section.
: See [[#quantum mechanics|quantum mechanics]] section.
* {{citation|title=The High Frequency Spectra of the Elements|url=http://www.chemistry.co.nz/henry_moseley.htm|author=H. G. J. Moseley, M. A.|journal=Phil. Mag. (1913)}}, p. 1024
: This [[Moseley's law|announced a law]] that gave decisive evidence for [[atomic number]] from studies of X-ray spectra, could be explained by the Bohr model.
* J. Stark (1914), "Beobachtungen über den Effekt des elektrischen Feldes auf Spektrallinien I. Quereffekt [in German](Observations of the effect of the electric field on spectral lines I. Transverse effect)", Annalen der Physik, vol. '''43''', pp. 965–983. Published earlier (1913) in Sitzungsberichten der Kgl. Preuss. Akad. d. Wiss.
* J. Stark (1914), "Beobachtungen über den Effekt des elektrischen Feldes auf Spektrallinien I. Quereffekt [in German](Observations of the effect of the electric field on spectral lines I. Transverse effect)", Annalen der Physik, vol. '''43''', pp. 965–983. Published earlier (1913) in Sitzungsberichten der Kgl. Preuss. Akad. d. Wiss.
: Described the [[Stark effect|famous effect]] of splitting of spectral lines in electric fields (c.f. [[Zeeman effect]]) as predicted by Voigt.<ref>Waldemar Voigt, Ueber das Elektrische Analogon des Zeemaneffectes (On the electric analogue of the Zeeman effect), Annalen der Physik, vol. 4, pp. 197-208 (1901).</ref> Observed the same year (1913) as Lo Surdo;<ref>M. Leone, A. Paoletti, and N. Robotti, A Simultaneous Discovery: The Case of Johannes Stark and Antonino Lo Surdo, Physics in Perspective, vol. 6, pp. 271-294 (2004).</ref> the work won a Nobel Physics prize for Stark.
: Described the [[Stark effect|famous effect]] of splitting of spectral lines in electric fields (c.f. [[Zeeman effect]]) as predicted by Voigt.<ref>Waldemar Voigt, Ueber das Elektrische Analogon des Zeemaneffectes (On the electric analogue of the Zeeman effect), Annalen der Physik, vol. 4, pp. 197-208 (1901).</ref> Observed the same year (1913) as Lo Surdo;<ref>M. Leone, A. Paoletti, and N. Robotti, A Simultaneous Discovery: The Case of Johannes Stark and Antonino Lo Surdo, Physics in Perspective, vol. 6, pp. 271-294 (2004).</ref> the work won a Nobel Physics prize for Stark.
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* Arnold Sommerfeld (1919).
* Arnold Sommerfeld (1919).
: See [[#quantum mechanics|quantum mechanics]] section.
: See [[#quantum mechanics|quantum mechanics]] section.

* P. Auger: [http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k3130n.image.f187.langFR "Sur les rayons β secondaires produits dans un gaz par des rayons X [On the secondary β-rays produced in a gas by X-rays]"], C.R.A.S. 177 (1923) 169-171.
:Description on an [[Auger effect|atomic ionization effect]] first discovered by Meitner,<ref>{{cite journal|doi=10.1007/BF01326962|author=L. Meitner|title=Über die Entstehung der β-Strahl-Spektren radioaktiver Substanzen|journal=Z. Physik |volume=9|issue=1|year=1922|pages=131–144|bibcode = 1922ZPhy....9..131M }}</ref> but named for the later discoverer, Auger.
* de Broglie, Louis (1924).
* de Broglie, Louis (1924).
: See [[#quantum mechanics|quantum mechanics]] section.
: See [[#quantum mechanics|quantum mechanics]] section.

Revision as of 11:41, 24 August 2013

title page of book
Title page of the first, 1704, edition of Newton's Opticks.

This is a list of important publications in physics, organized by field.

Some reasons why a particular publication might be regarded as important:

  • Topic creator – A publication that created a new topic
  • Breakthrough – A publication that changed scientific knowledge significantly
  • Influence – A publication which has significantly influenced the world or has had a massive impact on the teaching of physics.

Applied physics

Accelerator physics

Main article: Accelerator physics
  • Ising, Gustav (1924/1928). "Prinzip Einer Methode Zur Herstellung Von Kanalstrahlen Hoher Voltzahl". Arkiv för matematik, astronomi och fysik (in German). 18 (30): 1–4. {{cite journal}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
The Swedish physicist Gustav Ising was the first one to publish the basic concept of a linear accelerator (in this case, as part of a cathode ray tube).
  • Widerøe, R. (17 December 1928). "Ueber Ein Neues Prinzip Zur Herstellung Hoher Spannungen". Archiv fuer Elektronik und Uebertragungstechnik (in German). 21 (4): 387.
The Norwegian physicist Rolf Widerøe took Isings idea and expanded it. Later, he built the first operational linear accelerator.
  • Attention: This template ({{cite doi}}) is deprecated. To cite the publication identified by doi:10.1103/PhysRev.60.47, please use {{cite journal}} (if it was published in a bona fide academic journal, otherwise {{cite report}} with |doi=10.1103/PhysRev.60.47 instead.
  • Attention: This template ({{cite doi}}) is deprecated. To cite the publication identified by doi:10.1103/PhysRev.60.53, please use {{cite journal}} (if it was published in a bona fide academic journal, otherwise {{cite report}} with |doi=10.1103/PhysRev.60.53 instead.
These two articles describe the betatron concept and the first experimental data of a working betatron, built by Donald Kerst.
  • Attention: This template ({{cite doi}}) is deprecated. To cite the publication identified by doi:10.1103/PhysRev.88.1190, please use {{cite journal}} (if it was published in a bona fide academic journal, otherwise {{cite report}} with |doi=10.1103/PhysRev.88.1190 instead.
  • Attention: This template ({{cite doi}}) is deprecated. To cite the publication identified by doi:10.1006/aphy.2000.6012, please use {{cite journal}} (if it was published in a bona fide academic journal, otherwise {{cite report}} with |doi=10.1006/aphy.2000.6012 instead.
These publications were the first to introduce the idea of strong focusing to particle beams, enabling the transition from compact circular accelerator concepts to separate-function magnet devices like synchrotrons, storage rings and particle colliders.

Biophysics

Cell

  • Phillips R, Kondev J, Theriot J (2008). Physical Biology of the Cell. Oxford: Garland Science. ISBN 0-8153-4163-6.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)

Mathematical

  • Rashevsky, Nicolas (1948). Mathematical biophysics (Rev. ed.). University of Chicago Press. p. 669. ISBN 0-486-60574-4.
  • Rashevsky N (1960). Mathematical Biophysics: Physico-Mathematical Foundations of Biology. Vol. 2 (Third Revised ed.). New York: Dover Publications. ISBN 0-486-60574-4. (or ISBN 0-486-60574-4)

Medical

  • Ruch TC and Fulton JF (1974). Medical Physiology and Biophysics. Saunders. p. 1232. ISBN 0-7216-7818-1. (also ISBN 978-0-7216-7818-4)
  • E. Mark Haacke, Robert W. Brown, Michael R. Thompson, Ramesh Venkatesan (1999). Magnetic Resonance Imaging: Physical Principles and Sequence Design (1st ed.). Wiley–Liss. ISBN 0-471-35128-8.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
An influential graduate textbook in MRI by some of the principal advancers of the field.

Molecular

Plant

Geophysics

See also: Geophysics and History of geophysics
Early description of magnetism from an Elizabethan scientist consisting of six books. Erroneously attributes magnetism as causing the motion of bodies in the Solar system.[citation needed]
A classic reference on the Earth's magnetic field and related topics in meteorology, solar and lunar physics, the aurora, techniques of spherical harmonic analysis and treatment of periodicities in geophysical data.[1] Its comprehensive summaries made it the standard reference on geomagnetism and the ionosphere for at least 2 decades.[2]
  • Yilmaz, Özdoğan (1999). Seismic data processing (9. print. ed.). Tulsa, Okla.: Soc. of Exploration Geophysicists. ISBN 0-931830-40-0.
Up to date account of seismic data processing in the petroleum geophysics industry.[citation needed]

Physics of computation

See also: Physics of computation
Develops theory of a digital computer as an efficient universal computing device.[citation needed]

Plasma physics

See also: Plasma physics
These two volumes from Nobel Prize winning scientist Irving Langmuir, include his early published papers resulting from his experiments with ionized gases (i.e. plasma). The books summarise many of the basic properties of plasmas. Langmuir coined the word plasma in about 1928.
Hannes Alfvén won the Nobel Prize for his development of magnetohydrodynamics (MHD) the science that models plasma as fluids. This book lays down the ground work, but also shows that MHD may be inadequate for low-density plasmas such as space plasmas.

Astrophysics

See also: Astrophysics

Astrophysics deals with the physics of the universe, including the physical properties of celestial objects, as well as their interactions and behavior.[3]

Favoured the heliocentric model (first advanced by Aristarchus) over the Ptolemaic model of the solar system; sometimes credited with starting the Scientific Revolution in the Western world.
Provided strong arguments for heliocentrism and contributed valuable insight into the movement of the planets, including the first mention of their elliptical path and the change of their movement to the movement of free floating bodies as opposed to objects on rotating spheres (two of Kepler's laws). One of the most important works of the Scientific Revolution.[4]
  • — (1997). The harmony of the world. Translated into English with an introduction and notes by E. J. Aiton, A. M. Duncan and J. V. Field. Philadelphia: American Philosophical Society. ISBN 0-87169-209-0.
Developed the third of Kepler's laws.[citation needed]
A landmark article of stellar physics, analysing several key processes that might be responsible for the synthesis of chemical elements in nature and their relative abundances; it is credited with originating what is now the theory of stellar nucleosynthesis.
Introduction of the Faber–Jackson law relating galaxy luminosity and velocity dispersion.[citation needed]
Introduction of the Tully–Fisher relation between galaxy luminosity and rotation-curve amplitude.[citation needed]
Introduction of the M-sigma relation between black hole mass and galaxy velocity dispersion.[citation needed]

Cosmology

See also: Physical cosmology
Introduced the conditions necessary for baryogenesis, by making use of recent results (discovery of CP violation, etc). Republished in 1991 in Soviet Physics Uspekhi, vol.34 (number 5), pages 392-393.
Reference textbook on cosmology, discussing both observational and theoretical issues.
Reported results from the COBE satellite, which was developed by NASA's Goddard Space Flight Center to measure the diffuse infrared and microwave radiation from the early universe to the limits set by our astrophysical environment. Measurements by a Far Infrared Absolute Spectrophotometer (FIRAS) confirmed that the cosmic microwave background (CMB) spectrum is that of a nearly perfect black body with a temperature of 2.725 ± 0.002 K. This observation matches the predictions of the hot Big Bang theory extraordinarily well, and indicates that nearly all of the radiant energy of the Universe was released within the first year after the Big Bang. The first paper presents initial results; the second, final results.
Presents results from the Differential Microwave Radiometer (DMR) on the COBE satellite. This maps the cosmic radiation and searches for variations in brightness. The CMB was found to have intrinsic "anisotropy" for the first time, at a level of a part in 100,000. These tiny variations in the intensity of the CMB over the sky show how matter and energy was distributed when the Universe was still very young. Later, through a process still poorly understood, the early structures seen by DMR developed into galaxies, galaxy clusters, and the large scale structure that we see in the Universe today. The first paper presents initial results; the second, final results.
Presents results from the Diffuse Infrared Background Experiment (DIRBE) on the COBE satellite. This searches for the cosmic infrared background radiation produced by the first galaxies. Infrared absolute sky brightness maps in the wavelength range 1.25 to 240 micrometres were obtained to carry out a search for the cosmic infrared background (CIB). The CIB was originally detected in the two longest DIRBE wavelength bands, 140 and 240 micrometres, and in the short-wavelength end of the FIRAS spectrum. Subsequent analyses have yielded detections of the CIB in the near-infrared DIRBE sky maps. The CIB represents a "core sample" of the Universe; it contains the cumulative emissions of stars and galaxies dating back to the epoch when these objects first began to form.

Atomic and molecular physics

See also: Atomic physics; Atomic, molecular, and optical physics; and Timeline of atomic and subatomic physics
Discovery of X-rays, leading to the very first Nobel Prize in Physics for the author.
  • Thomson, J.J. (1897). Cathode rays, Philosophical Magazine, 44, 293
The classic experimental measurement of the mass and charge of cathode ray "corpuscles", later called electrons. Won the Nobel Physics Prize (in 1906) for this discovery.


Zeeman (1897) papers

Described the famous effect of splitting of spectral lines in magnetic fields; earned author a Nobel Physics prize citation (1902).
  • Planck, Max (1901).
See quantum mechanics section.
  • Einstein, Albert (1905).
See quantum mechanics section.
  • Bohr, Niels (1913-4).
See quantum mechanics section.
This announced a law that gave decisive evidence for atomic number from studies of X-ray spectra, could be explained by the Bohr model.
  • J. Stark (1914), "Beobachtungen über den Effekt des elektrischen Feldes auf Spektrallinien I. Quereffekt [in German](Observations of the effect of the electric field on spectral lines I. Transverse effect)", Annalen der Physik, vol. 43, pp. 965–983. Published earlier (1913) in Sitzungsberichten der Kgl. Preuss. Akad. d. Wiss.
Described the famous effect of splitting of spectral lines in electric fields (c.f. Zeeman effect) as predicted by Voigt.[5] Observed the same year (1913) as Lo Surdo;[6] the work won a Nobel Physics prize for Stark.
Formulated the concepts of spontaneous and stimulated emission.
  • Arnold Sommerfeld (1919).
See quantum mechanics section.
Description on an atomic ionization effect first discovered by Meitner,[7] but named for the later discoverer, Auger.
  • de Broglie, Louis (1924).
See quantum mechanics section.
  • Matrix mechanics papers: W. Heisenberg (1925), M. Born and P. Jordan (1925), M. Born, W. Heisenberg, and P. Jordan (1926).
See quantum mechanics section.
  • Schroedinger, E (1926).
See quantum mechanics section.

Classical mechanics

See also: Classical mechanics and History of classical mechanics

Classical mechanics is the system of physics begun by Isaac Newton and his contemporaries. It is concerned with the motion of macroscopic objects at speeds well below the speed of light.[8]

  • Galilei, Galileo (1638). Discorsi e dimostrazioni matematiche, intorno à due nuove scienze attenenti alla mecanica & i movimenti locali (in Latin). Leiden: Louis Elsevier. {{cite book}}: Unknown parameter |trans_title= ignored (|trans-title= suggested) (help)
  • Classic (first and original[9]) English translation: — (1914). Mathematical discourses and demonstrations, relating to Two New Sciences. Translation by Henry Crew and Alfonso de Salvio.
  • Recent English translation: — (1974). Two New sciences, including Centers of gravity & Force of percussion. Translated and compiled by Stillman Drake. Madison: Wisconsin University Press. ISBN 978-0-299-06404-4.
  • Descartes, René (1983) [1644, with additional material from the French translation of 1647]. Principia philosophiae (in Latin). Translation with explanatory notes by Valentine Rodger Miller and Reese P. Miller (Reprint ed.). Dordrecht: Reidel. ISBN 90-277-1451-7. {{cite book}}: Unknown parameter |trans_title= ignored (|trans-title= suggested) (help)
A three-volume work, often called Principia or Principia Mathematica. One of the most influential scientific books ever published, it contains the statement of Newton's laws of motion forming the foundation of classical mechanics as well as his law of universal gravitation. He derives Kepler's laws for the motion of the planets (which were first obtained empirically).[citation needed]
Lagrange's masterpiece on mechanics and hydrodynamics. Based largely on the calculus of variations, this work introduced Lagrangian mechanics including the notion of virtual work, generalized coordinates, and the Lagrangian. Lagrange also further developed the principle of least action and introduced the Lagrangian reference frame for fluid flow.[citation needed]
These three papers used Hamilton's methods in optics to formulate mechanics anew; now called Hamiltonian mechanics.
  • Noether, Emmy (1918).
See mathematical physics section.
  • Kolmogorov-Arnol'd-Moser papers.
    • Kolmogorov, A. N. "On Conservation of Conditionally Periodic Motions for a Small Change in Hamilton's Function." Dokl. Akad. Nauk SSSR 98, 527-530, 1954.
    • Moser, J. "On Invariant Curves of Area-Preserving Mappings of an Annulus." Nachr. Akad. Wiss. Göttingen Math.-Phys. Kl. II, 1-20, 1962.
    • Arnol'd, V. I. "Proof of a Theorem of A. N. Kolmogorov on the Preservation of Conditionally Periodic Motions under a Small Perturbation of the Hamiltonian." Uspehi Mat. Nauk 18, 13-40, 1963.
Set of important results in dynamical systems theory of Hamiltonian systems, named the KAM theorem after the authors' initials. Regarded in retrospect as a sign of chaos theory.[citation needed]
A standard graduate textbook on classical mechanics, considered a good book on the subject.[citation needed]

Fluid dynamics

See also: Fluid dynamics and History of fluid mechanics
Two-book treatise regarded as the founding text of fluid mechanics and hydrostatics in particular. Contains an introduction of his famous principle.[10]
  • Daniel Bernoulli (1738). Hydrodynamica, sive de viribus et motibus fluidorum commentarii (in Latin). Strasbourg. English translation: Hydrodynamics and Hydraulics by Daniel Bernoulli and Johann Bernoulli (Dover Publications, 1968).
Established a unified approach to hydrostatics and hydraulics; study of efflux; Bernoulli's Principle.
Introduces D'Alembert's Paradox.
  • Euler, Leonhard (1757). "Principes généraux du mouvement des fluides". Mémoires de l'académie des sciences de Berlin. 11: 274–315. (Presented in 1755)
Formulates the theory of fluid dynamics in terms of a set of partial differential equations: Euler equations (fluid dynamics)
  • Navier, Claude Louis (1827). "Mémoire sur les lois du mouvement des fluides". Mémoires de l'académie des Sciences de l'Institut de France. 6: 389–440. (Presented in 1822)
First formulation of the Navier-Stokes equations, albeit based on an incorrect molecular theory.
  • Stokes, George Gabriel (1849). "On the theory of the internal friction of fluids in motion, and of the equilibrium and motion of elastic solids". Transactions of the Cambridge Philosophical Society. 8: 287. (Presented in 1845)
Correct formulation of the Navier-Stokes equations.
  • von Helmholtz, Hermann (1858). "Über integrale der hydrodynamischen gleichungen, welche den wirbelbewegungen entsprechen". Journal für die reine und angewandte Mathematik. 55: 25–55.
Introduced the study of vortex dynamics (see Vorticity).
  • Reynolds, Osbourne (1883). "An experimental investigation of the circumstances which determine whether the motion of water shall be direct or sinuous, and of the law of resistance in parallel channels". Philosophical Transactions. 174: 935–982.
Introduces the dimensionless Reynolds number, investigating the critical Reynolds number for transition from laminar to turbulent flow.
  • Prandtl, Ludwig (1905). "Über Flüssigkeitsbewegung bei sehr kleiner Reibung". Verhandlungen des dritten internationalen Mathematiker-Kongresses in Heidelberg 1904: 484–491. {{cite journal}}: line feed character in |journal= at position 42 (help) (Presented in 1904)
Introduces the Boundary layer.
Introduces a quantitative theory of turbulence.
  • Monin, A. S. (1971) [1965]. Lumley, John L (ed.). Statistical fluid mechanics; mechanics of turbulence. Translated by A. M. Yaglom (Updated, augmented and revised English ed.). Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press. ISBN 978-0-262-13062-2. (Now reprinted by Dover.)
Review text on turbulence.

Computational physics

This paper records the first use of the Monte Carlo method, created at Los Alamos.
  • Metropolis, N.; et al. (1953)
See statistical mechanics and thermodynamics section .
The Fermi-Ulam-Pasta simulation was an important early demonstration of the ability of computers to deal with nonlinear (physics) problems and its surprising result regarding thermal equipartition hinted towards chaos theory.
Independent formulations of the method of molecular dynamics.

Condensed matter physics

See also: Condensed matter physics

Condensed matter physics deals with the physical properties of condensed phases of matter. These properties appear when atoms interact strongly and adhere to each other or are otherwise concentrated.

These three papers develop the BCS theory of usual (not high TC) superconductivity, relating the interaction of electrons and the phonons of a lattice. The authors were awarded the Nobel prize for this work.[citation needed]
It is so old that it still calls condensed matter physics by the out of fashion name of solid state physics, but yet it is still a good introduction to the topic.[citation needed]

Polymer physics

See also: Polymer physics
Contains the foundation of the kinetic theory of rubber elasticity, including the first theoretical description of statistical mechanics of polymers with application to viscosity and rubber elasticity, and an expression for the entropy gain during the coiling of linear flexible molecules.
  • Guth, Eugene (1941). "Elastic and Thermoelastic Properties of Rubber like Materials". Industrial & Engineering Chemistry. 33 (5): 624–629. doi:10.1021/ie50377a017. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
Presented earlier by Guth at the American Chemical Society meeting of 1939, this article contains the first outline of the network theory of rubber elasticity. The resulting Guth-James equation of state is analogous to van der Waal's equation.
Presents a more detailed version of the network theory of rubber elasticity. The paper used average forces to some extent instead of thermodynamical functions. In statistical thermodynamics, these two procedures are equivalent. After some controversy within the literature, the James-Guth network theory is now generally accepted for larger extensions. See, e.g., Paul Flory's comments in Proc. Royal Soc. A. 351, 351 (1976).
  • Flory, Paul J. (1992). Principles of polymer chemistry (15. pr. ed.). Ithaca [u.a.]: Cornell Univ. Press. ISBN 0-8014-0134-8.
  • Flory, Paul J. (1969). Statistical mechanics of chain molecules. New York: Interscience Publishers. ISBN 0-470-26495-0.
  • Reissued: Flory, Paul J. (1989). Statistical mechanics of chain molecules (Repr. corr. ed.). Hanser Gardner. ISBN 1-56990-019-1. {{cite book}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
  • Gennes, Pierre-Gilles de (1996). Scaling concepts in polymer physics (5. print. ed.). Ithaca, NY [u.a.]: Cornell Univ. Press. ISBN 978-0-8014-1203-5.
  • Doi, M. (1988). The theory of polymer dynamics (Reprinted ed.). Oxford [Oxfordshire]: Clarendon Press. ISBN 978-0-19-852033-7. {{cite book}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
  • Pokrovskiĭ, Vladimir N. (2009). The mesoscopic theory of polymer dynamics (2nd ed.). Dordrecht [Netherlands]: Springer. ISBN 978-90-481-2230-1.
  • Vladimir N. Pokrovskii, (Springer Series in Chemical Physics, Vol. 95)
  • The second edition, Springer, 2009. ISBN 978-90-481-2230-1

Electromagnetism

See also: Electromagnetism and History of electromagnetism
See geophysics section.
  • Coulomb, C. A. (1785–89). Mémoires sur l’Électricité et le Magnétisme (In French; trans. Memoirs on Electricity and Magnetism), a series of seven memoirs.
Contains descriptions empirical investigations into electricity. Established an empirical inverse-square law that would be named for him,[11][12][13][14][15][16][17] by measuring the twist in a torsion balance.[18] Cavendish would use a similar method to estimate the value of Newton's constant G.[19]
  • Biot; Savart (1820). "Note sur le magnétisme de la pile de Volta". Annales de chimie et de physique (in French). {{cite journal}}: Cite has empty unknown parameters: |month= and |coauthors= (help); Unknown parameter |trans_title= ignored (|trans-title= suggested) (help)
Introduced the Biot-Savart law, the magnetostatic analogue of Coulomb's law.
Introduced the famous eponymous law for electric current, and first recorded use of the word "electrodynamics".[20][21]
Essay conceived several key ideas, among them a theorem similar to the modern Green's theorem, the idea of potential functions, and the concept of what are now called Green's functions. [citation needed] This (initially obscure) work directly influenced the work of James Clerk Maxwell and William Thomson, among others.
  • Faraday, Michael (1839–1855). Experimental researches in electricity (Reprinted 2000 from the 1st ed. 1839 (vol. 1), 1844 (vol. 2), 1855 (vol. 3) ed.). Santa Fe (N.M.): Green Lion Press. ISBN 1-888009-15-2.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: date format (link)
Faraday's law of induction and research in electromagnetism.[23]
The third of James Clerk Maxwell's papers concerned with electromagnetism. The concept of displacement current was introduced, so that it became possible to derive equations of electromagnetic wave. It was the first paper in which Maxwell's equations appeared.
The defining graduate-level introductory text. (First edition 1962)
  • Griffiths, David J. (1981). Introduction to electrodynamics (1st ed.). Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall. ISBN 0-13-481374-X.
A standard undergraduate introductory text.

General physics

Important ten-volume textbook in theoretical physics methods.
Bestselling three-volume textbook covering the span of physics. Reference for both (under)graduate student and professional researcher alike.

Mathematical physics

See also: Mathematical physics
Introduced the modern day notation of vector calculus, based on Gibbs' system.
  • Minkowski relativity papers (1907–15):
See special relativity section.
See special relativity section.
Contains a proof of Noether's Theorem (expressed as two theorems), showing that any symmetry of the Lagrangian corresponds to a conserved quantity. This result had a profound influence on 20th century theoretical physics.
See general relativity section.
  • Ising, Ernst (1924). "Beitrag zur Theorie des Ferro-und Paramagnetismus". Thesis, Hamburg (in German). {{cite journal}}: Cite has empty unknown parameters: |month= and |coauthors= (help); Unknown parameter |trans_title= ignored (|trans-title= suggested) (help)
Ising's 1924 thesis proving the non-existence of phase transitions in the 1-dimensional Ising model.
Influential textbook by two leading mathematicians of the early 20th century.
See quantum mechanics section.
Peierls' 1936 contour argument proving the existence of phase transitions in higher dimensional Ising models.
Introduced Dirac notation as a standard notation for describing denote abstract vector spaces and linear functionals in quantum mechanics and mathematics, though the notation has precursors in Grassmann nearly 100 years previously.[26]
Thorough introduction to the mathematical methods of classical mechanics, electromagnetic theory, quantum theory and general relativity. Possibly more accessible than Morse and Feshbach.
Proved the existence of phase transitions of continuous symmetry models in at least 3 dimensions.

Pre-Modern (Classical) mathematical physics

See also: Classical physics and Modern physics
See classical mechanics section.
See classical mechanics section.
See classical mechanics section.
See optics section.
See electromagnetism section.
See classical mechanics section.
See electromagnetism section.

Nonlinear dynamics and chaos

See also: Chaos theory
  • Kolmogorov-Arnol'd-Moser papers.
See classical mechanics section.
  • Fermi, E.; Pasta, J.; Ulam, S. (1955)
See computational physics section.
A finite system of deterministic nonlinear ordinary differential equations is introduced to represent forced dissipative hydrodynamic flow, simulating simple phenomena in the real atmosphere. All of the solutions are found to be unstable, and most of them nonperiodic, thus forcing to reevaluate the feasibility of long-term weather prediction. In this paper the Lorenz attractor is presented for the first time, and gave the first hint of what is now known as butterfly effect.

Optics

See also: Optics and History of optics
(Arabic: Kitab al-Manazir, Latin: De Aspectibus) – a seven volume treatise on optics and physics, written by the Muslim scientist Ibn al-Haytham (Latinized as Alhacen or Alhazen in Europe), and published in 1021.
The first major publication of the Royal Society. It generated a wide public interest in, and often is considered the creator of, the science of microscopy. Also notable for coining the term "biological cell".
Huygens attained a remarkably clear understanding of the principles of wave-propagation; and his exposition of the subject marks an epoch in the treatment of Optical problems. Not appreciated until much later due to the mistaken zeal with which formerly everything that conflicted with the cherished ideas of Newton was denounced by his followers.
A key publication in the history of physics, arguably Newton's second most influential physics publication after Principia. Within he describes his famous experiments regarding colour and light, and ends with a set of queries about the nature of light and matter.
  • Goethe, Johann Wolfgang von (1970) [1810]. Zur Farbenlehre (in German). Translated from the German, with notes, by Charles Lock Eastlake ; introduction by Deane B. Judd (Reprint London 1840 ed.). Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press. ISBN 978-0-262-57021-3. {{cite book}}: Unknown parameter |trans_title= ignored (|trans-title= suggested) (help)
Seminal text (regarded as polemical for its time) that influenced later research on human visual and colour perception,[27] from an author usually remembered for his literary work.
Work by Thomas Young and Fresnel provided a comprehensive picture of the propagation of light.
  • Hamiltonian geometrical optics. Theory of Systems of Rays and three supplements. Reissued in Hamilton, William Rowan (1931). The Mathematical Papers of Sir William Rowan Hamilton, Volume I: Geometrical Optics. Edited for the Royal Irish Academy by A. W. Conway and J. L. Synge. Cambridge University Press. Retrieved 2013-07-13.
    • W.R. Hamilton. Theory of Systems of Rays (Transactions of the Royal Irish Academy, volume 15 (1828), pp. 69–174.)
    • ___ . Supplement to an Essay on the Theory of Systems of Rays (Transactions of the Royal Irish Academy, volume 16, part 1 (1830), pp. 1–61.)
    • ___ . Second Supplement to an Essay on the Theory of Systems of Rays (Transactions of the Royal Irish Academy, volume 16, part 2 (1831), pp. 93–125.)
    • ___ . Third Supplement to an Essay on the Theory of Systems of Rays (Transactions of the Royal Irish Academy, volume 17 (1837), pp. 1–144.)
A series of papers recording Hamilton's work in geometric optics.[28] This would later become an inspiration for Hamiltonian mechanics.
  • Prof Lene Vestergaard Hau reported slow light,[29] and then the complete stopping of light,[30] and finally the process involving stopping and restarting light.[31] Each stage of the process has had enormous effects in the area of quantum computing in general, and forced a re-think of many classical concepts.
These three papers introduced the Frequency comb technique. The earlier presented the main idea but last is the one often cited.

Nuclear and Particle Physics

Nuclear physics

Main article: Nuclear physics
  • Neutron discovery.
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    • Attention: This template ({{cite doi}}) is deprecated. To cite the publication identified by doi:10.1098/rspa.1933.0152, please use {{cite journal}} (if it was published in a bona fide academic journal, otherwise {{cite report}} with |doi=10.1098/rspa.1933.0152 instead.
Chadwick's experiments confirmed the revealed the identity of the mysterious particle detected independently by Joliot-Curie & Joliot,[32] and Bothe & Becker[33][34] and predicted by Majorana and others[35] to be a neutral nucleon in 1932, for which Chadwick was awarded the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1935.[36]
A series of three articles by Hans Bethe summarizing the knowledge in the subject of Nuclear Physics at the time of publication. The set of three articles is colloquially referred to as "Bethe's bible".
This contains an account of an experiment first suggested by Wang,[37] confirming the existence of a particle (the neutrino, more precisely the electron neutrino) first predicted by Pauli in 1940;[38][39] a result that was rewarded almost forty years later with the 1995 Nobel Prize.[40]

Particle physics

Main article: Particle physics
Experimental detection of the positron verifying the prediction from the Dirac equation, for which Anderson won the Nobel Physics prize in 1936. See also: C.D. Anderson (1933). "The Positive Electron". Physical Review. 43 (6): 491. Bibcode:1933PhRv...43..491A. doi:10.1103/PhysRev.43.491.
  • Cowan et. al (1956)
See the nuclear physics section.
Combined the electromagnetic and weak interactions into an electro-weak theory, and won the trio the Nobel Physics Prize (1979). Also seen as a step towards the Standard Model of particle physics.
Collectively these three papers (called the 1964 PRL symmetry breaking papers) formulated the concept of the Higgs mechanism. Also important later work done by t'Hooft.
  • Sakharov,A. D. (1967).
See cosmology section.
Won the three researchers the Nobel Physics (2004) prize for the prediction of asymptotic freedom.
  • Griffiths, David (1987). Introduction to elementary particles (New ed.). New York: Wiley. ISBN 0-471-60386-4.
Standard undergraduate particle physics textbook.

Quantum mechanics

Main article: quantum mechanics
See also: Timeline of quantum mechanics and History of quantum mechanics
Introduced Planck's law of black body radiation in an attempt to interpolate between the Rayleigh–Jeans law (which worked at long wavelengths) and Wien's law (which worked at short wavelengths). He found that the above function fit the data for all wavelengths remarkably well. This paper is considered to be the beginning of quantum theory and discovery of photon.
English translations:
Introduced the concept of light quanta (called photons today) to explain the photoelectric effect. Cited for Nobel Physics Prize (1921). Part of the Annus Mirabilis papers.
Introduced the Bohr model of the (hydrogen) atom, which later formed the foundation for the more sophisticated atomic shell model of larger atoms.
  • J. Franck and G. Hertz (1914). "Über Zusammenstöße zwischen Elektronen und Molekülen des Quecksilberdampfes und die Ionisierungsspannung desselben". Verh. Dtsch. Phys. Ges. (in German). 16: 457–467.
An experiment on the electrical conductivity of gases that supported the conclusions of the Bohr model.
  • Arnold Sommerfeld (1919). Atombau und Spektrallinien. Friedrich Vieweg und Sohn, Braunschweig' ISBN 3-87144-484-7.
    • Arnold Sommerfeld, translated from the third German edition by Henry L. Brose Atomic Structure and Spectral Lines (Methuen, 1923)
Added a relativisitic correction to Bohr's model achieved in 1916, by Sommerfeld. Together with Planck (1901), Einstein (1905) and Bohr model (1913) considered stanchion of old quantum theory.
This important experiment on a beam of particles through a magnetic field described the experimental observation that their deflection takes only certain quantized values was important in leading to the concept of a new quantum number, spin.
  • de Broglie, Louis (1924). Recherches sur la théorie des quanta (in French) (Researches on the quantum theory), Thesis, Paris. Ann. de Physique (10) 3, 22 (1925)
Introduced formally the concept of the de Broglie wavelength to support hypothesis of wave particle duality.
  • Matrix mechanics papers:
    • W. Heisenberg (1925), Über quantentheoretische Umdeutung kinematischer und mechanischer Beziehungen (in German), Zeitschrift für Physik, 33, 879-893 (received July 29, 1925). [English translation in: B. L. van der Waerden, editor, Sources of Quantum Mechanics (Dover Publications, 1968) ISBN 0-486-61881-1 (English title: Quantum-Theoretical Re-interpretation of Kinematic and Mechanical Relations).]
    • M. Born and P. Jordan (1925), Zur Quantenmechanik (in German), Zeitschrift für Physik, 34, 858-888 (received September 27, 1925). [English translation in: B. L. van der Waerden, editor, Sources of Quantum Mechanics (Dover Publications, 1968) ISBN 0-486-61881-1 (English title: On Quantum Mechanics).]
    • M. Born, W. Heisenberg, and P. Jordan (1926), Zur Quantenmechanik II (in German), Zeitschrift für Physik, 35, 557-615, (received November 16, 1925). [English translation in: B. L. van der Waerden, editor, Sources of Quantum Mechanics (Dover Publications, 1968) ISBN 0-486-61881-1 (English title: On Quantum Mechanics II).]
These three papers formulated matrix mechanics, the first successful (non-relativistic) theory of quantum mechanics.[41]
These papers introduce the wave-mechanical description of the atom (Ger Wellenmechanik; not to be confused with classical wave mechanics), inspired by the wave-particle duality hypotheses of Einstein (1905) and de Broglie (1924), among others. This was only the second fully adequate formulation of (non-relativistic) quantum theory. Introduced the now famous equation named after the author.[41]
Formulates the uncertainty principle as a key concept in quantum mechanics.[41]
Performed an experiment (with Lester Germer) which observed Bragg X-ray diffraction patterns from slow electrons; later independently replicated by Thomson, for which Davisson and Thomson shared the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1937. This confirmed de Broglie's hypothesis that matter has wave-like behaviour; in combination with the Compton effect discovered by Arthur Compton (who won the Nobel Prize for Physics in 1927), established the wave–particle duality hypothesis as a fundamental concept in quantum theory.
Quantum mechanics as explained by one of the founders of the field, Paul Dirac. First edition published on 29 May 1930. The second to last chapter is particularly interesting because of its prediction of the positron.
Rigorous axiomatic formulation of quantum mechanics as explained by one of the one of the greatest pure and applied mathematicians in modern history, John von Neumann. In this book all the modern mathematical machinery to deal with quantum theories, as the general notion of Hilbert space, that of self-adjoint operator and a complete general version of the spectral theory for self-adjoint unbounded operators was introduced for the first time.
  • Feynman, R P (1942). "The Principle of Least Action in Quantum Mechanics". Ph.D. Dissertation, Princeton University. Reprinted as Laurie M. Brown ed., (with title Feynman's Thesis: a New Approach to Quantum Theory). World Scientific, 2005. ISBN 978–981–256–380–4.
The earliest record of the (complete) path integral formalism, a Lagrangian formulation of quantum mechanics, anticipated by ideas from Dirac,[42] via the Wiener integral.[43]
A how-to for Quantum Mechanics aimed at the physics undergraduate.

Quantum field theory

See also: Quantum field theory and History of quantum field theory
  • Klein and Gordon papers:
    • O. Klein, "Quantentheorie und fünfdimensionale Relativitätstheorie" Z. f. Phys., 37 (1926) pp. 895
    • O. Gordon, "Der Comptoneffekt nach der Schrödingerschen Theorie" Z. f. Phys., 40 (1926) pp. 117
The publications formulate what became known as the Klein-Gordon equation as the first relativistically invariant Schrödinger equation (however the equation was considered contemporaneously by Schrödinger - in his personal notes - and Fock, among others).[44]
In these papers, Dirac formulates and derives the Dirac equation, which won him a Nobel Prize (1933) in Physics.
Introduction of the Feynman diagrams approach to quantum electrodynamics.
Extended the concept of gauge theory for abelian groups, e.g. quantum electrodynamics, to nonabelian groups to provide an explanation for strong interactions by use of what are now known as the Yang-Mills equations.
Standard graduate textbook in quantum field theory.

Relativity

Special

See also: Special theory of relativity and History of special relativity

The primary sources section of the latter article in particular contains many additional (early) publications of importance in the field.

Introduced the special theory of relativity. Reconciled Maxwell's equations for electricity and magnetism with the laws of mechanics by introducing major changes to mechanics close to the speed of light. One of the Annus Mirabilis papers.
English translations:
Used the newly-formed special relativity to introduce the famous mass energy formula. One of the Annus Mirabilis papers.

Minkowski relativity papers:

Introduced the four-vector notation and the notion of Minkowski space, which was later adopted by Einstein and others.
Used concepts developed in the then-current textbooks (e.g., vector analysis and non-Euclidean geometry) to provide entry into mathematical physics with a vector-based introduction to quaternions and a primer on matrix notation for linear transformations of 4-vectors. The ten chapters are composed of 4 on kinematics, 3 on quaternion methods, and 3 on electromagnetism. Silberstein used biquaternions to develop Minkowski space and Lorentz transformations. The second edition published in 1924 extended relativity into gravitation theory with tensor methods, but was superseded by Eddington's text.
A modern introduction to special relativity, that explains well how the choice to divide spacetime into a time part and a space part is no different than two choices about how to assign coordinates to the surface of the earth.

General

See also: General theory of relativity and History of general relativity
This publication is the first complete account of a general relativistic theory.
A tour-de-force of tensor calculus, developed in Chapter II. By page 83 Eddington has deduced the Schwarzschild metric for the domain of events around an isolated massive particle. By page 92 he has explained the advance of the perihelion of the planets, the deflection of light, and displacement of Fraunhofer lines. Electromagnetism is relegated to Chapter VI (pp. 170–195), and later (p. 223) The bifurcation of geometry and electrodynamics. This text, with its ambitious development of pseudo-Riemannian geometry for gravitational theory, set an austere standard with relativity enthusiasts. Gone is any mention of quaternions or hyperbolic geometry since tensor calculus subsumes them. Thus for learning the mechanics of modern relativity this text still serves, but for motivation and context of the special theory, Silberstein is better.
A book on gravitation, often considered the "Bible" on gravitation by researchers. Published by W.H. Freeman and Company in 1973. A massive tome of over 1200 pages, the book covers all aspects of the General Theory of Relativity and also considers some extensions and experimental confirmation. The book is divided into two "tracks", the second of which covers more advanced topics. In graduate programs it is sometimes referred to informally as "the phone book".

Statistical mechanics and Thermodynamics

Main articles: Thermodynamics and Statistical mechanics
See also: History of thermodynamics and List of notable textbooks in statistical mechanics
Observations of the generation of heat during the boring of cannons led Rumford to reject the caloric theory and to contend that heat was a form of motion.
  • Carnot, Sadi (1824). Réflexions sur la puissance motrice du feu et sur les machines propres à développer cette puissance (in French). Paris: Bachelier. {{cite book}}: |website= ignored (help); Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help); External link in |website= (help); Unknown parameter |trans_title= ignored (|trans-title= suggested) (help)
  • — (1890). Reflections on the Motive Power of Heat and on Machines Fitted to Develop That Power. New York: J. Wiley & Sons. {{cite book}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help) (full text of 1897 ed.))
  • — (2005). Reflections on the Motive Power of Fire – and other Papers on the Second Law of Thermodynamics. Edited with an introduction by E. Mendoza. New York: Dover Publications. ISBN 0-486-44641-7. {{cite book}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
Between 1876 and 1878 Gibbs wrote a series of papers collectively entitled "On the Equilibrium of Heterogeneous Substances", considered one of the greatest achievements in physical science in the 19th century and the foundation of the science of physical chemistry. In these papers Gibbs applied thermodynamics to the interpretation of physicochemical phenomena and showed the explanation and interrelationship of what had been known only as isolated, inexplicable facts. Gibbs' papers on heterogeneous equilibria included: some chemical potential concepts; some free energy concepts; a Gibbsian ensemble ideal (basis of the statistical mechanics field); and a phase rule.
In this publication Einstein covered his study of Brownian motion, and provided empirical evidence for the existence of atoms. Part of the Annus Mirabilis papers.
  • Ising, Ernst (1924), (1925).
See mathematical physics section.
  • Peierls, R.; Born, M. (1936).
See mathematical physics section.
Introduces the Metropolis Monte Carlo method with periodic boundary conditions and applies it to the numerical simulation of a fluid.
  • Fermi, E.; Pasta, J.; Ulam, S. (1955)
See computational physics section.
  • Kadanoff, Leo P. (1966). "Scaling laws for Ising models near Tc". Physics. 2: 263.
Introduces the real space view on the renormalization group, and explains using this concept some relations between the scaling exponents of the Ising model.
Application of the renormalization group to the solution of the Kondo problem. The author was awarded the Nobel Prize in 1982 for this work.

See also

References

  1. ^ European Geosciences Union. "Awards & Medals: Julius Bartels". Retrieved September 2011. {{cite web}}: Check date values in: |accessdate= (help)
  2. ^ Akasofu, Syun-Ichi (2011). "The Scientific Legacy of Sydney Chapman". EOS. 92 (34): 281–282. Bibcode:2011EOSTr..92..281A. doi:10.1029/2011EO340001.
  3. ^ DeVorkin, David H. (1982). The history of modern astronomy and astrophysics : a selected, annotated bibliogr. New York: Garland. ISBN 0-8240-9283-X.
  4. ^ Voelkel, James R. (2001). The composition of Kepler's Astronomia nova. Princeton: Princeton University Press. p. 1. ISBN 0-691-00738-1.
  5. ^ Waldemar Voigt, Ueber das Elektrische Analogon des Zeemaneffectes (On the electric analogue of the Zeeman effect), Annalen der Physik, vol. 4, pp. 197-208 (1901).
  6. ^ M. Leone, A. Paoletti, and N. Robotti, A Simultaneous Discovery: The Case of Johannes Stark and Antonino Lo Surdo, Physics in Perspective, vol. 6, pp. 271-294 (2004).
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  14. ^ Coulomb (1786) "Quatrième mémoire sur l’électricité," Histoire de l’Académie Royale des Sciences, pages 67-77.
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  19. ^ * Cavendish, Henry (1798). "Experiments to Determine the Density of the Earth". In MacKenzie, A. S. (ed.). Scientific Memoirs Vol.9: The Laws of Gravitation. American Book Co. (published 1900). pp. 59–105. Online copy of Cavendish's 1798 paper, and other early measurements of gravitational constant.
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  22. ^ This essay can be found in Mathematical papers of the late George Green, edited by N. M. Ferrers. Accessed 7 Dec 2012.
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  25. ^ a b Online product page, accessed 7 Dec 2012.
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  28. ^ Hamilton's Papers on Geometrical Optics. Accessed 13 Jul 2013.
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  30. ^ "Observation of coherent optical information storage in an atomic medium using halted light pulses : Article". Nature. Retrieved 2013-02-01.
  31. ^ "Turning light into matter : Nature News". Nature.com. 2007-02-07. Retrieved 2013-02-01.
  32. ^ Joliot-Curie, Irène and Joliot, Frédéric (1932). "Émission de protons de grande vitesse par les substances hydrogénées sous l'influence des rayons γ très pénétrants". Comptes Rendus. 194: 273. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |trans_title= ignored (|trans-title= suggested) (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  33. ^ Bothe, W.; Becker, H. (1930). "Künstliche Erregung von Kern-γ-Strahlen". Zeitschrift für Physik. 66 (5–6): 289. Bibcode:1930ZPhy...66..289B. doi:10.1007/BF01390908. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |trans_title= ignored (|trans-title= suggested) (help)
  34. ^ Becker, H.; Bothe, W. (1932). "Die in Bor und Beryllium erregten γ-Strahlen". Zeitschrift für Physik. 76 (7–8): 421. Bibcode:1932ZPhy...76..421B. doi:10.1007/BF01336726. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |trans_title= ignored (|trans-title= suggested) (help)
  35. ^ Ambartsumian and Ivanenko (1930) "Об одном следствии теории дирака протонов и электронов" (On a Consequence of the Dirac Theory of Protons and Electrons), Доклады Академии Наук СССР (Doklady Akademii Nauk SSSR / Proceedings of the USSR Academy of Sciences) Ser. A, no. 6, pages 153-155. Available in Russian on-line.
  36. ^ James Chadwick - Biography
  37. ^ K.-C. Wang (1942). "A Suggestion on the Detection of the Neutrino". Physical Review. 61 (1–2): 97. Bibcode:1942PhRv...61...97W. doi:10.1103/PhysRev.61.97.
  38. ^ As written in his famous letter to the Physical Institute of the Federal Institute of Technology, Zürich, on 4 Dec 1940.
  39. ^ L.M. Brown (1978), "The idea of the neutrino", Physics Today, 31 (9): 23, doi:10.1063/1.2995181
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  43. ^ Masud Chaichian, Andrei Pavlovich Demichev (2001). "Introduction". Path Integrals in Physics Volume 1: Stochastic Process & Quantum Mechanics. Taylor & Francis. p. 1 ff. ISBN 0-7503-0801-X.
  44. ^ Helge Kragh: Equation with the many fathers. The Klein–Gordon equation in 1926. American Journal of Physics -- November 1984 -- Volume 52, Issue 11, pp. 1024. ISSN 0002-9505 (print)
  45. ^ Alberteinstein.info

Further reading

  • Hawking, Stephen, ed. (2002). On the shoulders of giants : the great works of physics and astronomy. With commentary by Stephen Hawking. Philadelphia: Running Press. ISBN 978-0-7624-1348-5.
  • Magie, William Francis (1963). A source book in physics. Harvard University Press. ISBN 978-0-674-82365-5.
  • Pickover, Clifford A. (2008). Archimedes to Hawking : laws of science and the great minds behind them. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-533611-5.
  • Shamos, Morris H., ed. (1987). Great experiments in physics : firsthand accounts from Galileo to Einstein (Republication ed.). New York: Dover Publications. ISBN 978-0-486-25346-6.

External links

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