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[[Image:Lesseur-Hetman Żółkiewski.jpg|left|upright|thumb|alt=Hetman Stanisław Żółkiewski|Koniecpolski's mentor, [[Hetman]] [[Stanisław Żółkiewski]]]]
[[Image:Lesseur-Hetman Żółkiewski.jpg|left|upright|thumb|alt=Hetman Stanisław Żółkiewski|Koniecpolski's mentor, [[Hetman]] [[Stanisław Żółkiewski]]]]


In 1615–16 Koniecpolski gained experience in [[Ukraine]], fighting the Tatar [[Orda (structure)|hordes]], but failed to break or capture any sizable enemy units.<ref name="Podhorodecki45"/> In 1616 his first wife, Katarzyna, died in labor with his first son, Andrzej.<ref name="Podhorodecki46-47"/> In 1617, alongside Żołkiewski, he took part in the [[Moldavian Magnate Wars]] and stood against the powerful Turkish army of [[Iskender Pasha]]. The conflict ended that year in a negotiated cease-fire.<ref name="Podhorodecki46-47"/> Koniecpolski also negotiated with the Cossacks near {{disambiguation needed|Olszanica|date=September 2011}}, where the [[Registered Cossacks|Cossack register]] (list of privileged Cossacks in the Commonwealth military) was limited to 1,000 and Cossack raids on the [[Black Sea]] were banned.<ref name="Podhorodecki48-49"/> Such raids, which pillaged wealthy [[Ottoman Empire|Ottoman]] cities, contributed to the Cossacks' income but provoked retaliatory raids into Commonwealth territory.<ref name="Podhorodecki40-41"/>
In 1615–16 Koniecpolski gained experience in [[Ukraine]], fighting the Tatar [[Orda (structure)|hordes]], but failed to break or capture any sizable enemy units.<ref name="Podhorodecki45"/> In 1616 his first wife, Katarzyna, died in labor with his first son, Andrzej.<ref name="Podhorodecki46-47"/> In 1617, alongside Żołkiewski, he took part in the [[Moldavian Magnate Wars]] and stood against the powerful Turkish army of [[Iskender Pasha]]. The conflict ended that year in a negotiated cease-fire.<ref name="Podhorodecki46-47"/> In negotiations with the Cossacks in [[Olszanica, Podkarpackie Voivodeship|Olszanica]],{{disambiguation needed|Olszanica|date=September 2011}} Koniecpolski banned raids on the Black Sea and limited positions that the Cossacks could hold in the Commonwealth military (the [[Cossack register]]) to 1,000.<ref name="Podhorodecki48-49"/> Such raids, which pillaged wealthy [[Ottoman Empire|Ottoman]] cities, contributed to the Cossacks' income but provoked retaliatory raids into Commonwealth territory.<ref name="Podhorodecki40-41"/>


In 1618, during the session of the Commonwealth [[parliament]] ([[Sejm]]), disregarding the opposition of magnate [[Krzysztof Zbaraski]] and his allies, King [[Sigismund III Vasa]] granted the ''[[buława]]'' ([[ceremonial mace]] or [[Baton (symbol)|baton]]) of [[Grand Crown Hetman|Crown Grand Hetman]] to Stanisław Żółkiewski and the baton of [[Field Crown Hetman|Crown Field Hetman]] to Koniecpolski.<ref name=dict/><ref name="Podhorodecki51"/> Soon afterward, Koniecpolski was defeated by the Tatars near [[Orynin]], where he committed the mistake of pursuing the enemy against overwhelming odds and barely made it out of the battle alive.<ref name="Podhorodecki53-66"/> Soon afterward, Koniecpolski married [[Krystyna Lubomirska (d. 1645)|Krystyna Lubomirska]], who in 1620 gave birth to [[Aleksander Koniecpolski (1620–1659)|Aleksander Koniecpolski]].<ref name="Podhorodecki58"/>
In 1618, during the session of the Commonwealth [[parliament]] ([[Sejm]]), disregarding the opposition of magnate [[Krzysztof Zbaraski]] and his allies, King [[Sigismund III Vasa]] granted the ''[[buława]]'' ([[ceremonial mace]] or [[Baton (symbol)|baton]]) of [[Grand Crown Hetman|Crown Grand Hetman]] to Stanisław Żółkiewski and the baton of [[Field Crown Hetman|Crown Field Hetman]] to Koniecpolski.<ref name=dict/><ref name="Podhorodecki51"/> Soon afterward, Koniecpolski was defeated by the Tatars near [[Orynin]], where he committed the mistake of pursuing the enemy against overwhelming odds and barely made it out of the battle alive.<ref name="Podhorodecki53-66"/> Soon afterward, Koniecpolski married [[Krystyna Lubomirska (d. 1645)|Krystyna Lubomirska]], who in 1620 gave birth to [[Aleksander Koniecpolski (1620–1659)|Aleksander Koniecpolski]].<ref name="Podhorodecki58"/>
Line 82: Line 82:
[[Image:Koniecpolski near halicz 19th century.jpg|thumb|alt=Hetman Koniecpolski Frees Persons Captured by Tatars|''Hetman Koniecpolski Frees Captives of the Tatars'', by [[Henryk Rodakowski]]. (The original was lost in [[World War II]].)]]
[[Image:Koniecpolski near halicz 19th century.jpg|thumb|alt=Hetman Koniecpolski Frees Persons Captured by Tatars|''Hetman Koniecpolski Frees Captives of the Tatars'', by [[Henryk Rodakowski]]. (The original was lost in [[World War II]].)]]
In 1630 [[Taras Fedorovych]] executed [[Hryhoriy Chorny]], who had opposed the uprising,<ref name="Plokhy"/> and captured the fortress of [[Korsun-Shevchenkivskyi|Korsun]].<ref name="Podhorodecki259"/> Koniecpolski laid siege to [[Pereyaslav]] but, lacking artillery and infantry support, could not breach its walls.<ref name="Podhorodecki263"/> The Cossacks, needing supplies and having suffered heavy casualties, agreed to negotiate.<ref name="Podhorodecki264"/> The [[Treaty of Pereyaslav (1630)|Treaty of Pereyaslav]], signed in August 1630, granted liberal terms, including amnesty for the rebels.<ref name="Ukraine: a History"/><ref name="Podhorodecki265-267"/>
In 1630 [[Taras Fedorovych]] executed [[Hryhoriy Chorny]], who had opposed the uprising,<ref name="Plokhy"/> and captured the fortress of [[Korsun-Shevchenkivskyi|Korsun]].<ref name="Podhorodecki259"/> Koniecpolski laid siege to [[Pereyaslav]] but, lacking artillery and infantry support, could not breach its walls.<ref name="Podhorodecki263"/> The Cossacks, needing supplies and having suffered heavy casualties, agreed to negotiate.<ref name="Podhorodecki264"/> The [[Treaty of Pereyaslav (1630)|Treaty of Pereyaslav]], signed in August 1630, granted liberal terms, including amnesty for the rebels.<ref name="Ukraine: a History"/><ref name="Podhorodecki265-267"/>
Koniecpolski, as usual,<ref name="Podhorodecki383-384"/> was for harsh punishment, but also argued that in the long run the Cossack situation was better remedied by fairer, more equitable treatment, e.g., through an increase in the number of Cossack soldiers (''rejestr''—the "register") and the regular payment of wages.<ref name="Podhorodecki267-268"/> Still, he supported policies aimed at turning the Cossacks into serfs, which was one of the main causes of unrest in Ukraine;<ref name="Podhorodecki387"/> this, along with his decision to settle his military personnel's living expenses on the local populace instead of paying them wages, led to his extreme unpopularity in Ukraine.<ref name=BrianLD/>
Koniecpolski, as usual,<ref name="Podhorodecki383-384"/> was for harsh punishment, but also argued that in the long run the Cossack situation was better remedied by fairer, more equitable treatment, e.g., through an increase in the Cossack register and the regular payment of wages.<ref name="Podhorodecki267-268"/> Still, he supported policies aimed at turning the Cossacks into serfs, which was one of the main causes of unrest in Ukraine;<ref name="Podhorodecki387"/> this, along with his decision to settle his military personnel's living expenses on the local populace instead of paying them wages, led to his extreme unpopularity in Ukraine.<ref name=BrianLD/>
[[Image:Painting 1635 Wladyslaw4 Zadzik Koniecpolski.jpg|left|thumb|alt=Treaty of Sztumska Wieś|''[[Treaty of Sztumska Wieś]]'' (1635), painted 1640. Pictured are [[Bishop]] [[Jakub Zadzik]], King [[Władysław IV]], Hetman Stanisław Koniecpolski.]]
[[Image:Painting 1635 Wladyslaw4 Zadzik Koniecpolski.jpg|left|thumb|alt=Treaty of Sztumska Wieś|''[[Treaty of Sztumska Wieś]]'' (1635), painted 1640. Pictured are [[Bishop]] [[Jakub Zadzik]], King [[Władysław IV]], Hetman Stanisław Koniecpolski.]]
In 1632, a few months before his death, King [[Zygmunt III Waza]] awarded Koniecpolski the post of [[Grand Crown Hetman|Crown Grand Hetman]].<ref name="dict"/><ref name="Podhorodecki270"/> It had stood vacant for 12 years, since the death of [[Stanisław Żółkiewski]]; presumably King Zygmunt had feared that Koniecpolski, if given the post earlier, would have become too powerful a [[magnate]].<ref name="Podhorodecki270"/> After the King's death, the Hetman played a major role in directing the political affairs of the Commonwealth and in 1632 supported the [[Royal elections in Poland|election]] of Zygmunt's son, [[Władysław IV Waza]], as king.<ref name=dict/><ref name="Podhorodecki271"/> In return, a year after his election, King Władysław rewarded Koniecpolski with the office of [[Castellan]] of [[Kraków]], the most prestigious of the Commonwealth's district offices.<ref name="Podhorodecki272"/> Koniecpolski became an influential adviser to the new king, often encouraging him to direct Polish foreign policy against the Tartars.<ref name=dict/> Koniecpolski also supported King Władysław's military reforms.<ref name=interia/><ref name="Podhorodecki315-323"/> Though generally seen as a supporter of the King, Koniecpolski opposed some of his plans aimed at increasing royal power in the Commonwealth and weakening the [[Golden Liberty]] of the nobility.<ref name="Podhorodecki378-380"/>
In 1632, a few months before his death, King [[Zygmunt III Waza]] awarded Koniecpolski the post of [[Grand Crown Hetman|Crown Grand Hetman]].<ref name="dict"/><ref name="Podhorodecki270"/> It had stood vacant for 12 years, since the death of [[Stanisław Żółkiewski]]; presumably King Zygmunt had feared that Koniecpolski, if given the post earlier, would have become too powerful a [[magnate]].<ref name="Podhorodecki270"/> After the King's death, the Hetman played a major role in directing the political affairs of the Commonwealth and in 1632 supported the [[Royal elections in Poland|election]] of Zygmunt's son, [[Władysław IV Waza]], as king.<ref name=dict/><ref name="Podhorodecki271"/> In return, a year after his election, King Władysław rewarded Koniecpolski with the office of [[Castellan]] of [[Kraków]], the most prestigious of the Commonwealth's district offices.<ref name="Podhorodecki272"/> Koniecpolski became an influential adviser to the new king, often encouraging him to direct Polish foreign policy against the Tartars.<ref name=dict/> Koniecpolski also supported King Władysław's military reforms.<ref name=interia/><ref name="Podhorodecki315-323"/> Though generally seen as a supporter of the King, Koniecpolski opposed some of his plans aimed at increasing royal power in the Commonwealth and weakening the [[Golden Liberty]] of the nobility.<ref name="Podhorodecki378-380"/>

Revision as of 23:34, 30 May 2012

Stanisław Koniecpolski
Stanisław Koniecpolski, anonymous painter, 17th century
Stanisław Koniecpolski, by anonymous painter, 17th century
Coat of armsPobóg
Born1590/1594[a]
Koniecpol, Poland
Died11 March 1646 (aged 52–56)
Brody, Ukraine
Noble familyKoniecpolski
Spouse(s)Katarzyna Żółkiewska (1615)
Krystyna Lubomirska (1619)
Zofia Opalińska (1646)
IssueAleksander Koniecpolski
FatherAleksander Koniecpolski
MotherAnna Sroczycka

Stanisław Koniecpolski (1590 or 1594[a] – 11 March 1646) was a Polish noble (szlachcic), magnate, official (starosta and castellan), governor of Sandomierz from 1625, and Crown Field Hetman and later Crown Grand Hetman (second-highest military commander, after the King) of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth.

Koniecpolski's life involved almost constant warfare. Before he had reached the age of 20, he had fought in the Dymitriads and the Moldavian Magnate Wars, and he was captured by Ottoman forces at the Battle of Cecora (Ţuţora) (1620). After release in 1623, he defeated the Ottomans' Tatar vassals several times in 1624–26.

With inferior numbers, he fought the Swedish forces of Gustavus Adolphus to a stalemate in Prussia. Koniecpolski engaged the Swedes again several times, but was repulsed during the second phase of the Polish-Swedish War (1626–29), which ended in the Truce of Altmark. Later he defeated a major Turkish invasion at Kamieniec Podolski (Kamianets-Podilskyi), Ukraine, in 1634. Over his military career, he led many successful campaigns against rebelling Cossacks and invading Tatars.

Koniecpolski is regarded as one of the most capable military commanders in the history of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth.[1][2][3]

Biography

Youth

Map of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth
Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth at its greatest extent, 1648

Stanisław Koniecpolski was born between 1590 and 1594[a] into the szlachta and magnate family of Koniecpolski, likely at their seat in Koniecpol. His father was Aleksander Koniecpolski, a wealthy magnate, voivode (palatine) of Sieradz, a staunch supporter of King Sigismund III of the Swedish House of Vasa.[2] His mother was Anna Sroczycka, daughter of Stanisław Sroczycki, voivode of Kamieniec Podolski, who brought into the Koniecpolski family large estates in Podole. Stanisław's brothers were Krzysztof Koniecpolski (chorąży koronny, voivode of Bełsk from 1641), Remigiusz Koniecpolski (bishop of Chełm, died 1640), Jan Koniecpolski (castellan and voivode of Sieradz) and Przedbor Koniecpolski (died 1611).[4]

Stanisław Koniecpolski had a speech impediment, and throughout life he stuttered on longer words.[5] When he was 15, his father's influence at the royal court got him the Commonwealth district office of starosta (mayor) of Wieluń. Around that time (1603) he studied at the Kraków Academy.[1][6] After several years of studies, he was sent by his father to the royal court to continue his education in a more practical fashion; he stayed there a year or two.[5] He may also have undertaken a several months' tour of Western Europe, mainly France.[5] Afterward Koniecpolski returned home to his family's estates.[5]

Early career: 1610–26

Hussars
Hussars — Polish heavy cavalry — at Kłuszyn

Koniecpolski chose to follow a military career. In 1610 he took part in the Dymitriads against Muscovy.[1] He participated in the Battle of Klushino (4 July 1610). During the Siege of Smolensk, on 8 July 1611, the collapsing fortress walls killed his brother Przedbor, and Stanislaw returned to Koniecpol with his body.[7] In autumn of the same year he rejoined the army and, under the command of Grand Lithuanian Hetman Jan Karol Chodkiewicz, took part in the effort to relieve and supply the besieged Polish forces in the Moscow Kremlin.[8] During that time, he was entrusted by the Hetman with command of the right flank of the Polish forces.[8]

In 1612 Koniecpolski joined the wojsko kwarciane (regular Commonwealth army) in Ukraine under the command of Hetman Stanisław Żółkiewski,[8] who greatly influenced his career.[9] In 1614 he was entrusted with destroying rebellious wojsko kwarciane units led by Jan Karwacki.[10][11] On 17 May, with Jan Żółkiewski, he won the Battle of Rohatyn and captured Karwacki.[11] In 1615 he married Żółkiewski's daughter Katarzyna (Catherine).[11] Soon after the wedding, he received the official rank of podstoli koronny.[12]

Hetman Stanisław Żółkiewski
Koniecpolski's mentor, Hetman Stanisław Żółkiewski

In 1615–16 Koniecpolski gained experience in Ukraine, fighting the Tatar hordes, but failed to break or capture any sizable enemy units.[13] In 1616 his first wife, Katarzyna, died in labor with his first son, Andrzej.[14] In 1617, alongside Żołkiewski, he took part in the Moldavian Magnate Wars and stood against the powerful Turkish army of Iskender Pasha. The conflict ended that year in a negotiated cease-fire.[14] In negotiations with the Cossacks in Olszanica,Olszanica [disambiguation needed] Koniecpolski banned raids on the Black Sea and limited positions that the Cossacks could hold in the Commonwealth military (the Cossack register) to 1,000.[15] Such raids, which pillaged wealthy Ottoman cities, contributed to the Cossacks' income but provoked retaliatory raids into Commonwealth territory.[16]

In 1618, during the session of the Commonwealth parliament (Sejm), disregarding the opposition of magnate Krzysztof Zbaraski and his allies, King Sigismund III Vasa granted the buława (ceremonial mace or baton) of Crown Grand Hetman to Stanisław Żółkiewski and the baton of Crown Field Hetman to Koniecpolski.[1][17] Soon afterward, Koniecpolski was defeated by the Tatars near Orynin, where he committed the mistake of pursuing the enemy against overwhelming odds and barely made it out of the battle alive.[18] Soon afterward, Koniecpolski married Krystyna Lubomirska, who in 1620 gave birth to Aleksander Koniecpolski.[19]

In 1620 Koniecpolski and Żólkiewski led an army to Cecora to fight the horde of Kantymir (Khan Temir). The army numbered over 10,000 and included private regiments of the Korecki, Zasławski, Kazanowski, Kalinowski and Potocki magnates. Koniecpolski commanded the right flank of the Commonwealth forces at the Battle of Cecora (Ţuţora).[2] On 19 September the Polish forces were defeated but were able to retreat in good order. The army's morale was low and, while Koniecpolski prevented the army's disintegration on 20–21 September, during the later retreat the army collapsed and ran for the river. In the ensuing battle, Żólkiewski was killed and Koniecpolski and many magnates (Samuel Korecki, Mikołaj Struś, Mikołaj Potocki, Jan Żółkiewski, son of Stanisław, and Łukasz Żółkiewski) were taken captive.[20] The prisoners were transported to Białograd (Bilhorod), to Iskender Pasha, then to the Castle of Seven Towers at Istanbul, where they were held in the Black Tower. They returned to Poland in spring 1623 following the Ottoman defeat at Khotyn and the stabilization of Polish-Ottoman relations, which was helped by Krzysztof Zbaraski's diplomatic mission, which purchased the captives' freedom for 30,000 thalers.[1][21]

Castle of the Seven Towers
Castle of the Seven Towers, Istanbul, where Koniecpolski was imprisoned

While Khan Canibek Giray sought to respect the Treaty of Khotyn, which aimed to prevent further border hostilities, Khan Temir (Kantymir), who aimed to usurp his position, continued raiding the borderlands.[22] He repeated the raids in June 1623; soon afterward Koniecpolski was given command of local Commonwealth forces and ordered to stop the incursions.[23] About February 1624 Khan Temir's forces (the Budjak horde) attacked southern Poland.[24] One of its armies was intercepted and destroyed on 6 February by Koniecpolski near Szmańkowice and Oryszkowce;[24] another, later that year, near Martynów (Battle of Martynów, about 20 June), compelling Khan Temir's forces to retreat in disarray.[25][26][27] Kantymir's forces crossed the border on 5 June, and Hetman Koniecpolski crushed them on 20 June.[27] Koniecpolski used a new strategy—light Cossack cavalry that was as fast as the Tatars', drove the enemy toward fortified positions called tabors, which were reinforced with firearms and artillery.[27] For his victory, soon celebrated throughout the Commonwealth, the Sejm awarded him 30,000 złotych and made him voivode of Sandomierz in 1625.[27]

In 1625 the Zaporozhian Cossacks, led by Marko Zhmailo (Marek Żmajło), rebelled, allied themselves with Szanhin Girej, and attempted to form an alliance with Moscow (the Zhmailo Uprising).[28] Koniecpolski reasoned that the Tatars had their share of trouble with the Porte and that Kantymir's Budjak horde would be unable to send major assistance.[29] He gathered a 12,000-strong army of wojsko kwarciane and private units. He pledged fair treatment to all Cossacks loyal to the Commonwealth, and death to rebels.[30] On 25 October 1625, near Kryłów, he attacked the Cossacks, who managed to stop the first cavalry assaults and retreated toward Lake Kurukove. They stopped a second attack, and Koniecpolski was, "at one point, in grave danger".[31] The conflict ended in cease-fire and in the Treaty of Kurukove; the Cossack register was set at 6,000; and the Cossacks again promised to stop raiding the Black Sea shores and provoking the Tatars.[32][33]

In late January 1626 the Tatars invaded again, with an army of 15,000–20,000, raiding and pillaging territories as far as Podole Voivodeship, passing Ternopil and Terebovlia, while some advance units reached the cities of Lutsk, Volodymyr-Volynskyi and Lviv.[34] Koniecpolski gathered some 13,000 troops and moved to intercept the Tatars, but they refused to engage.[35] Eventually Koniecpolski defeated the rear guard of the main Tatar army, which crossed the borders with much treasure and slaves.[35] Later that year, fearing a repeat invasion, Koniecpolski violated a Sejm resolution and recruited and fielded an army of 8,000 against an expected Tatar second wave.[36] In many battles at the time, Koniecpolski was aided by an able officer, Bohdan Khmelnytsky; Khmelnytsky would also score a major victory over the Tatars later that year, after Koniecpolski had departed north to a new battlefield near the Baltic Sea.[36]

Gustavus Adolphus: 1626–29

Gustavus Adolphus
Koniecpolski's great adversary, Gustavus Adolphus of Sweden

In 1626 the southern threat was overshadowed by a northern one, as the Swedes crossed the Commonwealth's borders, reigniting the Polish-Swedish War. In June 1626 Gustavus Adolphus, with a fleet of 125 ships and an army of over 14,000 men, approached the Polish coast and began collecting tariffs on trade going through Gdańsk (Danzig).[37] Having taken Piława[38] and Braniewo, Swedish forces spread through Pomerania, taking Frombork, Tolkmicko, Elbląg, Malbork, Gniew, Tczew and Starograd; other Swedish forces landed near Puck and took that city (the main port of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth fleet).[39] The major city of Gdańsk, however, refused to surrender even in the face of lightning Swedish advances.[39] In a battle near the village of Gniew (22–30 September 1626) Gustavus defeated a Polish army led by King Sigismund, who retreated and called for reinforcements from other parts of the country.[40] Koniecpolski was tasked with defending Royal Prussia against the Swedish incursion; delayed by the still unstable situation in the south, he finally arrived in Prussia on 1 October.[1][2][41]

Koniecpolski's force of 4,200 light cavalry, 1,000 dragoons, and 1,000 infantry quickly moved to Prussia.[42] Reinforced by other units, he had 9,000 men against the 20,000-strong Swedish force;[43] Podhorodecki gives slightly different estimates—just over 15,000 (including low-quality Gdańsk infantry) against 21,000.[42] Employing maneuver warfare, using small mobile units to strike at enemy communication lines and smaller units, he stopped the Swedish attack and forced Axel Oxenstierna into a defensive posture.[44][45] Meanwhile the Sejm agreed to raise money for the war.[46] The situation of the Commonwealth forces, short of money and food, was difficult.[47] Lithuanian forces were dealt a serious defeat in December 1626 near Koknese in Inflanty Voivodeship and retreated behind the Dvina River.[48] The Swedes planned to strike Koniecpolski from two directions – Oxenstierna, from the Vistula River; and Johann Streiff von Lawentstein and Maxymilian Teuffl, from Swedish-held Pomorze.[49] The Vistula's flooding disrupted their plans and allowed Koniecpolski to intercept the enemy units advancing from Pomorze (Pomerania).[50]

Stanisław Koniecpolski
Koniecpolski with hetman's baton

On 2 April 1627 Koniecpolski managed to recapture Puck.[1][26][51][52] On 18 April he took Czarne (Hamersztyn), forcing the Swedish forces to retreat into the city and a week later to surrender, abandoning their banners and insignia.[1][2][53] Many mercenaries and some Swedish soldiers changed sides.[53] As a result of the series of Swedish defeats in spring 1627, they lost all their strongholds on the west bank of the Vistula, and their hopes for a quick and decisive victory; the situation also convinced the Elector of Brandenburg to declare his support for the Commonwealth, and the Lithuanian forces resumed their offensive in Livonia.[54]

On 17 May Gustavus landed with 8,000 reinforcements.[55] On the night of 22–23 May, while crossing the Vistula near Kieżmark and Danzig, Gustavus encountered Polish forces and was wounded in the hip and forced to retreat.[56] Koniecpolski decided to take back Gniew and devised a diversionary plan.[56] Polish forces were sent to attempt to take back Braniewo, forcing Gustavus to relieve the siege; then Gustavus followed the retreating Polish army and laid siege to Orneta.[56] Koniecpolski, who had foreseen this, responded with a sudden attack on, and capture of, Gniew, his primary objective.[1][56] Gustavus was reported to be impressed with the speed of Koniecpolski's reaction.[57]

With about 7,800 men (including 2,500 cavalry and hussars, the Commonwealth's elite heavy cavalry), Koniecpolski tried near Tczew to stop the Swedish army from reaching Danzig.[58] On 7–8 August, a battle with the Swedish forces (10,000 men, including 5,000 infantry) took place near the swamps of Lake Mołtawa.[58] The Swedes wanted to provoke the Poles into attacking, then destroy them with infantry fire and artillery, but Koniecpolski decided against attacking.[58] The Swedes then went on the attack with cavalry, but did not manage to draw the Poles within range of their fire. The Swedish attacks dealt severe damage to the Polish cavalry but did not cripple the Polish army (whose morale was kept high by Koniecpolski).[58] The battle ended when Gustavus Adolphus was again wounded and the Swedes retreated.[51][58]

File:Bitwa pod Oliwą 1627 3.JPG
Battle of Oliwa

Koniecpolski now recognized the need to reform his army and strengthen the firepower of its infantry and artillery to match the Swedes'.[59][60] The Swedes, on the other hand, had learned the arts of cavalry charges and melée combat from the Poles.[59] Overall the 1627 campaign had been favorable to the Commonwealth; Puck and Gniew had been retaken, Swedish plans had been thwarted, and the Swedish army had been weakened.[61] The last major engagement of the year saw the surprising defeat of a Swedish flotilla by the small Polish Navy on 28 November 1627 at the Battle of Oliwa.[61]

In 1628 the Polish forces, short of funds, were forced to cease their offensive and go on the defensive.[60][62] Gustavus Adolphus captured Kwidzyń, Nowe and Brodnica.[63][64] Koniecpolski counterattacked, putting his small forces to most efficient use — quick cavalry melée attacks, combined with supporting infantry and artillery fire, guerilla warfare, the use of engineers to raise fortifications, and clever use of terrain advantage.[63][64] Despite his best efforts, he was hampered by insufficient funds.[65] The Sejm increased funding for the war after the Battle of Górzno, where Stanisław "Rewera" Potocki was defeated.[66] Austria sent the Commonwealth help in the form of forces under Field Marshal Johann Georg Arnheim.[67] Arnheim, however, refused to take orders from Koniecpolski.[68]

The final battle took place on 27 June 1629 near Trzciana (or Trzcianka).[1][2][69] The Swedes attacked toward Grudziądz, were halted, and retreated to Sztum and Malbork.[69] Koniecpolski attacked the rear guard, which was led by Jan Wilhelm Reingraff, Count of Ren, and destroyed it.[69][70] He also repelled a counterattack by Swedish raitars, who were pushed toward Pułkowice, where another counterattack was led by Gustavus Adolphus with 2,000 raitars.[69] This counterattack was also fended off, and the Swedish forces were saved from total defeat by the last Swedish reserves, led by Field Marshal Herman Wrangel, who blocked the Polish attack.[69] Gustavus Adolphus was wounded and barely escaped.[1][69] Of the Swedes, 1,200 were killed, and Reingraff and several hundred others were captured.[69] Polish losses were under 200 killed or injured.[69]

Poland did not follow up this victory politically or militarily. A cease-fire contracted at Stary Targ (the Truce of Altmark) on 26 October 1629 favored the Swedes,[71][72] who received the right to tax Polish trade moving over the Baltic (3.5% of the value of goods), retained control of many cities in Royal Prussia,[71][73] and were recognized as the dominant power on the southern Baltic coast.[71] Koniecpolski exerted little influence on the negotiations, as he had been called back to Ukraine to crush a Tartar incursion near Kodenica[26] and deal with another Cossack uprising, now led by Taras Fedorovych.[2]

Crown Grand Hetman: 1630–37

Hetman Koniecpolski Frees Persons Captured by Tatars
Hetman Koniecpolski Frees Captives of the Tatars, by Henryk Rodakowski. (The original was lost in World War II.)

In 1630 Taras Fedorovych executed Hryhoriy Chorny, who had opposed the uprising,[74] and captured the fortress of Korsun.[75] Koniecpolski laid siege to Pereyaslav but, lacking artillery and infantry support, could not breach its walls.[76] The Cossacks, needing supplies and having suffered heavy casualties, agreed to negotiate.[77] The Treaty of Pereyaslav, signed in August 1630, granted liberal terms, including amnesty for the rebels.[78][79] Koniecpolski, as usual,[80] was for harsh punishment, but also argued that in the long run the Cossack situation was better remedied by fairer, more equitable treatment, e.g., through an increase in the Cossack register and the regular payment of wages.[81] Still, he supported policies aimed at turning the Cossacks into serfs, which was one of the main causes of unrest in Ukraine;[82] this, along with his decision to settle his military personnel's living expenses on the local populace instead of paying them wages, led to his extreme unpopularity in Ukraine.[32]

Treaty of Sztumska Wieś
Treaty of Sztumska Wieś (1635), painted 1640. Pictured are Bishop Jakub Zadzik, King Władysław IV, Hetman Stanisław Koniecpolski.

In 1632, a few months before his death, King Zygmunt III Waza awarded Koniecpolski the post of Crown Grand Hetman.[1][83] It had stood vacant for 12 years, since the death of Stanisław Żółkiewski; presumably King Zygmunt had feared that Koniecpolski, if given the post earlier, would have become too powerful a magnate.[83] After the King's death, the Hetman played a major role in directing the political affairs of the Commonwealth and in 1632 supported the election of Zygmunt's son, Władysław IV Waza, as king.[1][84] In return, a year after his election, King Władysław rewarded Koniecpolski with the office of Castellan of Kraków, the most prestigious of the Commonwealth's district offices.[85] Koniecpolski became an influential adviser to the new king, often encouraging him to direct Polish foreign policy against the Tartars.[1] Koniecpolski also supported King Władysław's military reforms.[26][86] Though generally seen as a supporter of the King, Koniecpolski opposed some of his plans aimed at increasing royal power in the Commonwealth and weakening the Golden Liberty of the nobility.[87]

Fortress of Kamianets-Podilskyi

In 1633 Koniecpolski thwarted the Turks' attacks on the Commonwealth, defeating their forces on 4 July at Sasowy Róg.[2][26][88] On 22 October that year, he repulsed a superior invading Ottoman force of over 20,000 at Kamianets-Podilskyi,[89] his own forces numbering a mere 11,000.[70][90] The Ottoman defeats and Koniecpolski's attitude persuaded the Turks to sign a new treaty on 19 August 1634.[91] The treaty repeated the terms of the Treaty of Chocim of 1621 and ended the Ottoman–Commonwealth War (1633–34).[91]

In 1635, after Cossacks under Ivan Sulyma captured and destroyed the Polish Fort Kudak (near modern Dnepropetrovsk),[74] Koniecpolski led an expedition that retook the fort and punished the insurgents. Sulima was taken prisoner and executed.[43][92]

Later that year Koniecpolski returned to Pomerania to prepare for another war against Sweden, but it was rendered unnecessary by the Treaty of Sztumska Wieś.[93]

Koniecpolski grasped the need to modernize the Commonwealth's military and worked with King Władysław IV to that end, including the recruitment of mercenaries experienced in western warfare, and further development of artillery (he supervised the construction of arsenals at Kudak, Bar and Kamieniec Podolski, and built forges on his Ukrainian estates). He was patron to many gifted artillery and engineering officers.[86] He may also have sponsored cartographers such as William le Vasseur de Beauplan,[94] who mapped Ukraine, and Sebastian Aders, who mapped Crimea.[95] He also supported plans to create a Commonwealth Baltic Fleet.[94]

Last years: 1637–45

Mikołaj Potocki
Hetman Mikołaj Potocki

After 1637 Koniecpolski's declining health made him reliant on the younger Hetman Mikołaj Potocki, who successfully crushed Cossack uprisings in 1637 and 1638 and a Tartar uprising in 1639.[96] Koniecpolski's influence also protected the outlaw Samuel Łaszcz, whom he saw as another able commander.[97]

One of Koniecpolski's greatest victories occurred during a winter 1644 campaign against the Turks.[98] With a large army of some 19,000 soldiers (60% of them, magnates' private armies; Koniecpolski's own forces numbered 2,200)[99] he dealt a crushing defeat to Toğay bey's forces near Ochmatów on 30 January 1644.[43][98] Many Turks drowned near Sina Woda when the ice over the water gave way.[98] The Battle of Ochmatów, the Commonwealth's greatest victory over the Turks in the first half of the 17th century, brought international fame to Koniecpolski, who had not only predicted the time and place of the Turks' attack but had destroyed their forces before they could deploy their usual tactic of splitting their main forces into multiple highly-mobile units (czambuls).[98]

Koniecpolski's effigy
Koniecpolski's effigy, Trinity Church, Koniecpol

The victory led King Władysław IV to consider an offensive war against the Turks.[100] Koniecpolski supported a limited war against the Crimean Khanate but opposed the King's plan to wage war on the entire Ottoman Empire as an unrealistic folly.[43][101] He set out his strategic views in a plan titled "Dyskurs o zniesieniu Tatarow krymskich" (Discourse on Destruction of the Crimean Tartars). Koniecpolski also strongly urged a coalition with Moscow for such a campaign.[101][102] King Władysław continued to push for a crusade against Turkey, but it had little internal support and failed to achieve anything except to spread false hopes among the Cossacks, to whom he promised privileges and money in exchange for their participation in his crusade.[94]

Soon after his wife Krystyna died on 15 June 1645,[103] Koniecpolski on 16 January 1646 married 16-year-old Zofia Opalińska, daughter of future Crown Marshal Łukasz Opaliński.[104][105] Koniecpolski died on 11 March 1646 in Brody.[106] Sources suggest that his new marriage was the cause of his death; Joachim Jerlicz wrote in his diary that Koniecpolski had overdosed on an aphrodisiac.[105][106] His funeral was held in Brody on 30 April 1646.[107]

Wealth and influence

Pidhirtsi Castle, built by Wilhelm Beauplan for Koniecpolski, 1635–40

Over the course of his life, Koniecpolski accumulated much wealth. Most of his possessions were in Ukraine, and he became Ukraine's de facto unofficial ruler; some foreigners referred to him as "viceroy of Ukraine", though no such Commonwealth position ever existed.[108] King Władysław trusted him with most political decisions concerning this southeastern region of the Commonwealth.[108][109] With the knowledge and support of the King, Koniecpolski sent and received diplomatic missions from Constantinople, carried out negotiations and signed treaties, and as a hetman he directly controlled a substantial part of the Commonwealth's military.[108][109][110] He had his own private army and an espionage network that stretched from Moscow to the Ottoman Empire.[109]

Koniecpolski inherited some 7–8 villages from his father.[111] At his death, he owned 12 districts (starostwa),[112] with over 300 settlements, including dozens of towns, giving him yearly revenues of over 500,000 złotych.[113] His holdings of land and serfs in western Ukraine were considerable; he owned 18,548 households in Bratslav.[114][115] Koniecpolski invested much of his wealth in developing his Ukrainian estates, and supported settlement of underpopulated regions.[2][116] He founded and sponsored the development of many towns and cities.[117] He founded the town of Brody, which flourished with his investments, becoming an important local commercial center;[118] Koniecpolski fortified the town with a citadel and bastions in 1633 and set up workshops for producing Persian-type samite fabrics, carpets and rugs.[2][94][119] He also constructed a fortified palace in Pidhirtsi (Podhorce) with beautiful Italian gardens.[2][94] Like most magnates, Koniecpolski sponsored artists — painters, sculptors, writers.[120] He founded many churches and sought to upgrade Brody's school to an academy.[120] He sponsored the construction of the Koniecpolski Palace (now the Presidential Palace) in Warsaw.[121] He also sponsored military fortifications (Bar, Kudak).[120]

Koniecpolski, who was regarded as a courteous and educated man, participated in all the Sejms that he could, though he rarely spoke publicly due to his stutter.[109][122] He was widely respected and highly popular among his szlachta peers.[123]

See also

Notes

a. ^ The year of Koniecpolski's birth is not certain since there are several conflicting sources (1590 being the earliest, 1594 the latest). Leszek Podhorodecki, in his biography Stanisław Koniecpolski ok. 1592–1646, chose to mark his date of birth as circa 1592, after the diary of Karol Ogier, a French courtier, who in 1635 noted that Koniecpolski is 43 years old.[4] Podhorodecki states that 1591 is most commonly given by historians; Encyclopædia Britannica states his year of birth as ca. 1591.[4][114] The date 1593 or 1594 was proposed in Polski Słownik Biograficzny by historian Władysław Czapliński, whom Podhorodecki calls 'a great specialist of that era', noting however that Czapliński fails to justify this date.[4]

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Further reading

  • Czapliński, Antoni and Topolski Jerzy (1988). Historia Polski (History of Poland), Wrocław: Zakład Narodowy im. Ossolińskich. ISBN 83-04-01919-1
  • Davies, Norman, God's Playground. New York: Columbia University Press,. ISBN 0-231-05353-3 and ISBN 0-231-05351-7 (two volumes)
  • Hetmani Rzeczypospolitej Obojga Narodów (1994). Warsaw: Bellona. ISBN 83-11-08275-8.
  • Jasienica, Paweł. Rzeczpospolita Obojga Narodów. Warszawa : Państwowy Instytut Wydawniczy. 1982. ISBN 83-06-00788-3
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