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<onlyinclude>[[Image:Congas.JPG|thumb|right|200px|[[Conga]] drums are a common part of Caribbean music across much of the area]]
HOLA CARACANDAO!
This is a '''list of [[membranophone]]s''' used in the [[Caribbean music]] [[music area|area]], including the islands of the [[Caribbean Sea]], as well as the musics of [[Guyana]], [[Suriname]], [[French Guiana]], [[Bahamas]], and [[Bermuda]]. It only includes membranophones that are indigenous to the local music area or are a vital and long-standing part of local culture. It does not include membranophones that are, for example, a part of Western style orchestras, nor does it include [[trap set]]s and other common membranophones used in popular music recordings of many genres across the world. Almost all membranophones are [[drum]]s and [[percussion instrument]]s.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://cnx.org/content/m11896/latest/|work=Connexions|author=Catherine Schmidt-Jones|title=Classifying Musical Instruments: Membranophones|accessdate=January 22|accessyear=2007}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.sil.org/LinguaLinks/Anthropology/ExpnddEthnmsclgyCtgrCltrlMtrls/mMembranophones.htm|title=534m Membranophones|work=SIL|accessdate=January 4|accessyear=2007}}</ref>
JEY

The [[Hornbostel-Sachs]] number is given after each instrument.<ref>{{cite journal|title=Classification of Musical Instruments: Translated from the Original German by Anthony Baines and Klaus P. Wachsmann|first=Erich M.|last=von Hornbostel|coauthors=Curt Sachs|journal=The Galpin Society Journal|volume=14|month=March|year=1961|pages=3-29}}</ref>

{{ListsofCaribbeaninstruments}}

<br style="clear:both;">
{{List of musical instruments- start}}
{{List of musical instruments- see
| Drum = ''agbe''
| See = ''chekere''
}}
{{List of musical instruments
| Drum = ''agida''<ref name="Suriname">{{cite web|url=http://www.dbnl.org/tekst/hers005suri01_01/hers005suri01_01_0182.htm|accessdate=March 10|accessyear=2007|title=Suriname folk-lore|author=Melville J. Herskovits|coauthor=Frances S. Herskovits}}</ref><ref name="Agida"/>
| Number = 211.211.2
| Tradition = [[music of Suriname|Suriname]]
| Type = Afro-Surinamese [[bass drum]] that sets a steady beat for folk music, played with a stick, of the set with ''apinti'' and ''tumao'', pitch can be varied based on the location of the head struck, made from hollow logs with heads of skin, used in spiritual ceremonies, where it is associated with snake spirits
| Other names =
}}
{{List of musical instruments- see
| Drum = ''akete''
| See = ''kété''
}}
{{List of musical instruments- see
| Drum = ''alcag&uuml;ete''
| See = ''alcahuete''
}}
{{List of musical instruments
| Drum = ''alcahuete''<ref name="CaribbeanMusic"/> <ref name="LAMECA"/>
| Number = 211.211.2-7
| Tradition = [[Music of the Dominican Republic|Dominican Republic]]
| Type = One of the smaller drums used in the ensembles called ''palos'', of the Afro-Dominican religious ceremonies, played either in pairs or trios, with single skin heads either pegged or tacked
| Other names = ''alcag&uuml;ete''
}}
{{List of musical instruments- see
| Drum = ''amel&eacute;''
| See = ''okónkolo''
}}
{{List of musical instruments
| Drum = ''apinti''<ref name="Suriname"/><ref name="Agida"/>
| Number = 211.211.2
| Tradition = [[music of Suriname|Suriname]]
| Type = Principal Afro-Surinamese drum of the set with ''agida'' and ''tumao'', [[tenor]] drum, decorated with carvings, and used for communication by Surinamese slaves and for religious purposes in connection with sky and ancestor spirits, pitch can be varied based on the location of the head struck, made from hollow logs with heads of skin
| Other names =
}}
{{List of musical instruments
| Drum = ''arobapá''<ref name="Abakua">{{cite web|url=http://www.folkcuba.com/ir_abakdrums_enlrg.html|accessdate=March 10|accessyear=2007|title=Abakuá Drums in Havana|work=Folk Cuba}}</ref> <ref name="CubanDrums"/>
| Number = 211.21-814
| Tradition = [[Music of Cuba|Cuba]]
| Type = Drum used in Afro-Cuban ''[[Abakuá]]'' societies, small ''enkomo'' drum of the ''biankomeko'' ensemble, along with the ''kuchiyeremá'' and ''biapá'', and the taller ''bonkó enchemiyá''
| Other names = ''end&oacute;ga''
}}
{{List of musical instruments
| Drum = ''assotor''<ref name="HaitianInstruments"/>
| Number = 211.211.2
| Tradition = [[Music of Haiti|Haiti]]
| Type = Five to six foot tall cylindrical drum with three windows near the base so the drummer (or pair of drummers) can play it easily, decorated with brightly-colored kerchiefs (''foulas'')
| Other names =
}}
{{List of musical instruments- see
| Drum = ''atabales''
| See = ''palos''
}}
{{List of musical instruments
| Drum = ''baboula''<ref name="GarlandGrenada">{{cite book|chapter=Grenada|last==McDaniel|first=Lorna|title=Garland Encyclopedia of World Music|pages=pp 865-872}}</ref><ref name="Grenada">{{cite web|work=Paradise Inn|title=Tombstone - Big Drum - Saraca|accessdate=September 10|accessyear=2005|url=http://www.paradise-inn-carriacou.com/tombstone.php}}</ref>
| Number = 211.221.1
| Tradition = [[Music of Grenada|Grenada]]
| Type = Open-bottomed, goatskin-headed, made from barrels or tree trunks, smaller partner of the ''tambou'', used in the ''[[belair (dance)|belair]]'' dance
| Other names =
}}<includeonly>
|}</includeonly></onlyinclude>
{{List of musical instruments
| Drum = ''balaban''<ref name="Montserrat"/><ref name="AfricanMontserrat">{{cite journal|title=African Retentions in Montserrat|first=John C.|last=Messenger|journal=African Arts|volume=6|issue=4|month=Summer|year=1973|pages=54-57, 95-96|url=http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0001-9933%28197322%296%3A4%3C54%3AARIM%3E2.0.CO%3B2-V|accessdate=March 12|accessyear=2008}}</ref>
| Number = 211.311
| Tradition = [[Music of Montserrat|Montserrat]]
| Type = Small goatskin frame drum, played with the back of the hand, front of the fingers and the palm, used to attract spirits for the [[jumbie dance]]
| Other names = ''jumbie drum''
}}
{{List of musical instruments
| Drum = ''balsié''<ref name="DMO">{{cite web|url=http://www.merengue-ripiao.com/survey.htm|title=Dominican Music Overview|work=Merengue-Ripiao.com|author=Sydney Hutchinson|year=2006|accessdate=March 6|accessyear=2007}}</ref>
| Number = 2
| Tradition = [[Music of the Dominican Republic|Dominican Republic]]
| Type = Small double-headed drum, used in [[merengue]] only in the south of the country
| Other names =
}}
{{List of musical instruments
| Drum = ''bamboula''<ref name="GarlandVirginIslands">{{cite book
|title=Garland Encyclopedia of World Music, Volume Two: South America, Mexico, Central America, and the Caribbean|chapter=Virgin Islands}}</ref>
| Number = 211.211.2
| Tradition = [[Music of the Virgin Islands|Virgin Islands]]
| Type = Played by two drummers, one using two sticks and the other hands and feet, used in dance genre of the same name (''[[bamboula]]'')
| Other names =
}}
{{List of musical instruments- see
| Drum = ''bandu''
| See = ''kbandu''
}}
{{List of musical instruments
| Drum = ''bari''<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.geographia.com/bonaire/boncul01.htm|work=Bonaire|title=Culture: A Rich and Diverse Heritage|accessdate=November 11|accessyear=2006}}</ref><ref name="NewGroveAatDA">{{cite book|title=New Grove Encyclopedia of Music|chapter=Netherlands Antilles and Aruba|last=Bilby|first=Kenneth}}</ref><ref name="GarlandAruba">{{cite book
|title=Garland Encyclopedia of World Music, Volume Two: South America, Mexico, Central America, and the Caribbean|last=Sheehy|first=Daniel E.|chapter=Aruba and the Netherlands Antilles|pages=927-931}}</ref>
| Number = 211.22
| Tradition = [[Music of Aruba and the Netherlands Antilles|Bonaire and Curaçao]]
| Type = Single-headed, made from a wooden barrel, often from the [[herring]] industry, with a skin frame, played two-handed
| Other names =
}}
{{List of musical instruments
| Drum = barrel drum<ref name="CubanDrums"/>
| Number = 211.222.2-7
| Tradition = [[Music of Cuba|Cuba]]
| Type = Barrel drum variant of a ''[[bat&aacute;]]'' drum, often with the system of lacing replaced by nailing the heads to the drum, most common in [[Matanzas Province]]
| Other names =
}}
{{List of musical instruments
| Drum = ''barriles''<ref name="NationalGeo">{{cite web|url=http://worldmusic.nationalgeographic.com/worldmusic/view/page.basic/genre/content.genre/bomba_696|author=Nili Belkind|title=Bomba|work=National Geographic World Music|accessdate=March 10|accessyear=2007}}</ref>
| Number = 211.221.2
| Tradition = [[Music of Puerto Rico|Puerto Rico]]
| Type = [[Barrel drum]]s, covered with lightly-stretched skins, consists of large ''buleador'' drums and smaller ''subidor'' drums, used in ''[[bomba]]''
| Other names = ''buleador'', ''primo'', ''repicador'', ''subidor''
}}
{{List of musical instruments
| Drum = ''bas a dé fas, tambou''<ref name="GarlandGuadeloupe"/>
| Number = 211.212.2
| Tradition = [[Music of Guadeloupe|Guadeloupe]]
| Type = Bass drum, double-headed, played with sticks, used in Carnival, specifically ''mizik a mas Byé Fò''
| Other names =
}}
{{List of musical instruments
| Drum = ''bas a yon fas, tambou''<ref name="NGFrenchWestIndies"/><ref name="GarlandGuadeloupe"/>
| Number = 211.221-7
| Tradition = [[Music of Guadeloupe|Guadeloupe]]
| Type = Bass barrel drum, one-headed, laced, and played with sticks, used in Carnival, specifically ''mizik a mas a Sen Jan''
| Other names =
}}
{{List of musical instruments
| Drum = ''bas, tambou di''<ref name="NGFrenchWestIndies"/><ref name="Berrian"/><ref name="MartinicanCreole"/><ref name="Guilbault"/>
| Number = 211.311
| Tradition = [[Music of Martinique|Martinique]] and [[Music of Guadeloupe|Guadeloupe]]
| Type = Small frame drum played with both striking and rubbing, used in indoor music, and [[quadrille]]s, ''ladja'' and ''[[gwo ka]]'', and in the [[Tamil music]] of [[Indo-Caribbean]] Martinique
| Other names = ''boula'', ''tambou dibass'', ''tambou dibas'', ''tambou bas''
}}
{{List of musical instruments- see
| Drum = ''bas, tambou''
| See = ''foulé, tambou''
}}
{{List of musical instruments- see
| Drum = ''bas, tambou''
| See = ''bas, tambou di''
}}
{{List of musical instruments- see
| Drum = ''bas, tambou''
| See = ''bas a yon fas, tambou''
}}
{{List of musical instruments- see
| Drum = ''base, tambou di''
| See = ''bas, tambou di''
}}
{{List of musical instruments
| Drum = [[bass drum]]<ref name="GarlandAntigua">{{cite book|chapter=Antigua and Barbuda|last=McDaniel|first=Lorna|title=Garland Encyclopedia of World Music, Volume Two: South America, Mexico, Central America, and the Caribbean|pages=pp 798 - 800}}</ref>
| Number = 211.211.2
| Tradition = [[Music of Antigua and Barbuda|Antigua and Barbuda]]
| Type = Bass drum, accompaniment to stilt dancers and [[Christmas music]]
| Other names =
}}
{{List of musical instruments
| Drum = bass drum<ref name="GarlandBarbados">{{cite book
|title=Garland Encyclopedia of World Music, Volume Two: South America, Mexico, Central America, and the Caribbean|last=Millington|first=Janice|chapter=Barbados|pages=813-821}}</ref>
| Number = 211.212.1
| Tradition = [[Music of Barbados|Barbados]]
| Type = Double-headed drum that keeps the ground rhythm and is slung across the drummers' shoulder, used in [[tuk]] bands
| Other names =
}}
{{List of musical instruments
| Drum = bass drum<ref name="GarlandGrenada"/>
| Number = 211.212.1
| Tradition = [[Music of Grenada|Grenada]]
| Type = Double-headed bass drum, played with a hard stick in one hand for the lower head, and a soft mallet in the other hand for the upper head, used to accompany [[quadrille]]s
| Other names =
}}
{{List of musical instruments
| Drum = bass drum<ref name="Gleaner">{{cite web|title=Drums Keep the Beat!|url=http://www.jamaica-gleaner.com/gleaner/20051113/ent/ent1.html|work=Jamaica Gleaner News|accessdate=March 4|accessyear=2007|date=November 13|year=2005}}</ref><ref name="CaribbeanReligion">{{cite web|work=Caribbean Religion|url=http://caribbean-guide.info/past.and.present/religion/rastafarian/index.html|title=Princes and Dreadlocks|accessdate=March 4|accessyear=2007}}</ref><ref name="Thesis">{{cite web|url=http://etd.lsu.edu/docs/available/etd-07292004-154529/unrestricted/Dickerson_thesis.pdf|accessdate=March 4|accessyear=2007|title=Musical Play Across Ethnic Boundaries in Western Jamaica|format=pdf|last=Dickerson|first=Ronald Eric|year=1999}}</ref><ref name="Backbone">{{cite web|url=http://www.uvm.edu/~debate/dreadlibrary/kahn.html|title=Drumming, the Backbone of African and Reggae Music|work=The Dread Library|first=Jason|last=Kahn|accessdate=March 4|accessyear=2007}}</ref><ref name="JamaicanMusic">{{cite journal|title=Remembering Kojo: History, Music, and Gender in the January Sixth Celebration of the Jamaican Accompong Maroons|first=Jacqueline Cogdell|last=DjeDje|journal=Black Music Research Journal|volume=18|issue=1/2|month=Spring - Autumn|year=1998|pages=67-120}}</ref>
| Number = 211.212.1
| Tradition = [[Music of Jamaica|Jamaica]]
| Type = Double-headed [[bass drum]], carried with a strap and leader of marching bands, played with a covered stick in ''[[Nyabinghi]]'' ceremonies, used in [[marching band]]s, and [[Rastafarian music|Rastafarian]] and [[Maroon (people)|Maroon]] music
| Other names = ''repeater'' (Maroon only)
}}
{{List of musical instruments
| Drum = bass ''tumbadora''<ref name="MusicofPR">{{cite web|accessdate=March 10|accessyear=2007|work=Music of Puerto Rico|title=Instruments|url=http://www.musicofpuertorico.com/index.php/instruments/bongos/}}</ref>
| Number = 211.22.2
| Tradition = [[Music of Cuba|Cuba]]
| Type = Largest barrel-shaped hand drum of the ''tumbadora'' family
| Other names = true conga
}}
{{List of musical instruments
| Drum = ''basse''<ref name="HaitianInstruments"/>
| Number = 211.311
| Tradition = [[Music of Haiti|Haiti]]
| Type = Goatskin-headed [[tambourine]], used in secular music
| Other names =
}}
{{List of musical instruments
| Drum = ''[[batá drums]]''<ref name="Bata">{{cite web|url=http://www.lafi.org/magazine/articles/batadrums.html|title=The Bata Drums|work=Latin American Folk Institute|author=Mark Corrales|accessdate=March 10|accessyear=2007}}</ref><ref name="CubanDrums">{{cite journal|first=Harold|last=Courlander|journal=The Musical Quarterly|volume=28|title=Musical Instruments of Cuba|issue=2|month=April|year=1942|pages=227-240}}</ref>
| Number = 211.26-813
| Tradition = [[Music of Cuba|Cuba]]
| Type = Family of three drums: ''iyá'', ''itótele'' and ''okónkolo'', used in ''[[Lucumi]]'' religious rites, all goblet-shaped and with two goatskin heads called ''tcha-tch&aacute;s'', sometimes with a nut inside (''coco-Africano''), both for aural and spiritual reasons
| Other names =
| Image = [[Image:Bata drums.jpg|130px]]
}}
{{List of musical instruments
| Drum = ''batta''<ref name="AfroGuyana">{{cite web|title=African Heritage in Guyana|accessdate=March 10|accessyear=2007|author=Al Craighton|url=http://www.guyanaundersiege.com/Cultural/African%20heritage%20GT.htm|year=2001}}</ref>
| Number = 2
| Tradition = [[Music of Guyana|Guyana]]
| Type = Afro-Guyanese [[bass drum]], used in folk music traditions
| Other names =
}}
{{List of musical instruments
| Drum = ''baydum'' <ref name="GarlandTrinidad">{{cite book
|title=Garland Encyclopedia of World Music, Volume Two: South America, Mexico, Central America, and the Caribbean|last=McDaniel|first=Lorna|chapter=Trinidad and Tobago|pages=952-967}}</ref>
| Number = 211.212.1
| Tradition = [[Indo-Caribbean music|Indo-Trinidadian]]
| Type = Double-headed bass drum, used in [[Muslim music|Muslim]] ''[[Hosay]]'' (''Hosein'') rituals, now widespread among Afro-Trinidadians and others
| Other names =
}}
{{List of musical instruments
| Drum = ''[[bélé]]''<ref name="NGFrenchWestIndies">{{cite web|url=http://www.colorquilts.com/julian/NewGrove.html|title=French West Indies|work=New Grove Dictionary of Music|accessdate=September 27|accessyear=2005}}</ref><ref name="RGAntilles">{{cite book|title=Rough Guide to World Music, Vol. 2|id=ISBN 1-85828-636-0|editor=Broughton, Simon and Mark Ellingham with James McConnachie and Orla Duane (Eds.)|publisher=Rough Guides Ltd.|year=2000|chapter=Dance Funk Creole Style|author=Charles de Ledesma and Gene Scaramuzzo|page=pp 289-303}}</ref><ref name="Berrian">{{cite book|title=Awakening Spaces: French Caribbean Popular Songs, Music, and Culture|first=Brenda F.|last=Berrian|id=ISBN 0226044564|year=2000|publisher=University of Chicago Press|location=Chicago and London}}</ref><ref name="MartinicanCreole">{{cite journal|first=Dominique|last=Cyrille|title=Popular Music and Martinican-Creole Identityjournal=Black Music Research Journal|volume=22|issue=1|month=Spring|year=2002|pages=65-83}}</ref>
| Number = 211.251.2-91(+22)
| Tradition = [[Music of Martinique|Martinique]]
| Type = Single-headed, open-bottomed conical drum with a hole in the barrel and a goatskin head, stretched by a rope hoop, wrapped in more rope, used in all African-derived Martinican dances and as a symbol of Afro-Martinican identity, including ''[[bélé]]'', ''[[kalenda]]'', and ''[[danmyé]]'', also used to synchronize collective labor in northern Martinique, and is a part of most Martinican rural [[work song]]s, uses a plucking string in the northern region
| Other names =
}}
{{List of musical instruments
| Drum = ''bélé, tambou''<ref name="GarlandDominica"/>
| Number = 211.221.2-86+22
| Tradition = [[Music of Dominica|Dominica]]
| Type = Single-headed barrel drum, covered at one end by goatskin, stretched with rope and pegs, and played barehanded, accompanies ''[[bélé]]'', features a plucked strings across the head
| Other names =
}}
{{List of musical instruments- see
| Drum = ''bélé, tambou''
| See = ''ka''
}}
{{List of musical instruments
| Drum = ''bemba''<ref name="GarlandTrinidad"/>
| Number = 211.212.2
| Tradition = [[Music of Trinidad and Tobago|Trinidad and Tobago]]
| Type = Cylindrical drums with double skins, smallest of the set with ''congo'' and ''oumalay'' drums
| Other names = ''bembe''
}}
{{List of musical instruments- see
| Drum = ''bembe''
| See = ''bemba''
}}
{{List of musical instruments- see
| Drum = bench drum
| See = ''gumbe''
}}
{{List of musical instruments
| Drum = ''biankomeko''<ref name="Abakua"/> <ref name="CubanDrums"/>
| Tradition = [[Music of Cuba|Cuba]]
| Type = Afro-Cuban ''[[Abakuá]]'' drum ensemble, consisting of four drums: ''bonkó enchemiyá'' and ''enkomo'': ''biapá'', ''arobapá'', and ''kuchiyeremá''
| Other names =
}}
{{List of musical instruments
| Drum = ''biapá''<ref name="Abakua"/> <ref name="CubanDrums"/>
| Number = 211.21-814
| Tradition = [[Music of Cuba|Cuba]]
| Type = Small ''enkomo'' drum of the ''biankomeko'' ensemble, along with the ''biapá'', ''arobapá'', and ''kuchiyeremá'', and the taller ''bonkó enchemiyá''
| Other names = ''t&eacute;tend&oacute;ga''
}}
{{List of musical instruments
| Drum = [[Big Drum]]<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.cp-pc.ca/english/stvincent/arts.html|title=The Arts and Literature|work=Cultural Profiles Project|accessdate=September 27|accessyear=2005}}</ref> <ref>{{cite journal|first=Lorna|last=McDaniel|journal=Black Music Research Journal|volume=22|issue=1|title=Musical Thoughts on Unresolved Questions and Recent Findings in Big Drum Research|month=Spring|year=2002|pages=127-139}}</ref>
| Tradition = [[Music of Saint Vincent and the Grenadines|Saint Vincent and the Grenadines]], [[Music of Grenada|Carriacou (Grenada)]] and [[Music of Saint Kitts and Nevis|Saint Kitts and Nevis]]
| Type = Music and dance ritual, which includes drums traditionally made of tree trunks, now often of rum kegs
| Other names =
}}
{{List of musical instruments- see
| Drum = ''bigi doon''
| See = ''gaan doon''
}}
{{List of musical instruments
| Drum = ''biola''<ref name="CubanDrums"/>
| Number = 211.321
| Tradition = [[Music of Cuba|Cuba]]
| Type = Unstrung [[banjo]] with a drumhead attached
| Other names =
}}
{{List of musical instruments
| Drum = ''[[bomba]]''<ref name="ManuelPuertoRico">Manuel, pgs. 39-42</ref>
| Number = 211.221.2
| Tradition = [[Music of Puerto Rico|Puerto Rico]]
| Type = Barrel-shaped [[bass drum]], used in genre of the same name (''[[bomba]]'')
| Other names =
}}
{{List of musical instruments
| Drum = ''bombos''<ref name="CubanDrums"/>
| Number = 211.212.1
| Tradition = [[Music of Cuba|Cuba]]
| Type = European-style bass drum, used in ''[[comparsa]]'', a pre-Easter procession
| Other names =
}}
{{List of musical instruments- see
| Drum = ''bonc&oacute;''
| See = ''bonkó enchemiyá''
}}
{{List of musical instruments
| Drum = [[bongo drum|bongo]]<ref name="ManuelCuba">Manuel, pgs. 24-36</ref><ref name="ManuelPuertoRico"/><ref name="MusicofPR"/><ref name="AfroGuyana"/> <ref name="CubanDrums"/><ref name="CubaMusic"/>
| Number = 211.211.1
| Tradition = [[music of Cuba|Cuba]], [[Music of Puerto Rico|Puerto Rico]] and across the area, especially [[Music of Guyana|Guyana]]
| Type = Drums of unequal size played in a pair, of [[Afro-Cuban]] origin, held between the knees, originally used in Cuban folk music of various kinds
| Other names =
| Image = [[Image:Bongo.jpg|150px]]
}}
{{List of musical instruments
| Drum = ''bonkó enchemiyá''<ref name="Abakua"/>
| Number = 211.21-814
| Tradition = [[Music of Cuba|Cuba]]
| Type = Largest drum of the ''biankomeko'' ensemble, along with the ''enkomo'': ''biapá'', ''arobapá'', and ''kuchiyeremá''
| Other names = ''bonko enchemi'', ''bonko'', ''bonc&oacute;''
}}
{{List of musical instruments- see
| Drum = ''bonko''
| See = ''bonkó enchemiyá''
}}
{{List of musical instruments- see
| Drum = ''bonko enchemi''
| See = ''bonkó enchemiyá''
}}
{{List of musical instruments- see
| Drum = boom
| See = kettle
}}
{{List of musical instruments- see
| Drum = boom
| See = ''kittle''
}}
{{List of musical instruments- see
| Drum = boom boom
| See = keg
}}
{{List of musical instruments
| Drum = ''[[boula (music)|boula]]''<ref name="RGAntilles"/><ref name="NGFrenchWestIndies"/><ref name="GarlandGuadeloupe">{{cite book|chapter=Guadeloupe|author=Guilbault, Jocelyne|title=Garland Encyclopedia of World Music, Volume Two: South America, Mexico, Central America, and the Caribbean|pages=pp 873-880}}</ref><ref name="Berrian"/><ref name="Guilbault"/>
| Number = 211.221.2
| Tradition = [[Music of Guadeloupe|Guadeloupe]]
| Type = Single-headed hand drum, similar to ''tambou bèlè'' and played transversally and single-handed, produces lower sounds and the basic rhythms of the music, used in ''[[gwo ka]]'', Carnival, wrestling matches and wakes
| Other names =
}}
{{List of musical instruments
| Drum = ''boula''<ref name="Grenada"/><ref name="GarlandGrenada"/><ref name="CreoleDrums"/>
| Number = 211.221.2
| Tradition = [[Music of Grenada|Carriacou]]
| Type = Hand drum, formerly made of barrels, now more often rum casks; narrower and lower-tuned cousin of the ''kata'', used in the [[Big Drum]] tradition, barrel contains a hole on the side, skin is stretched by a hoop wrapped in cloth
| Other names = ''tambou dibas'', ''bulla'', ''bula''
}}
{{List of musical instruments
| Drum = ''boula''<ref name="HaitianDrums">{{cite web|title=Tanbou|work=Haitian Drums|accessdate=March 10|accessyear=2007|author=Gaston Jean-Baptiste|url=http://www.bongamusic.com/drums.html}}</ref><ref name="HaitianInstruments">{{cite journal|title=Musical Instruments of Haiti|first=Harold|last=Courlander|journal=The Musical Quarterly|volume=27|issue=3|month=July|year=1941|pages=371-383}}</ref>
| Number = 211.221.2-7
| Tradition = [[Music of Haiti|Haiti]]
| Type = Cowskin hand drum, with the head pegged in place around a decorative collar, used in ''[[rada]]'' along with ''segon'' and ''manman'' drums
| Other names = ''bula''
}}
{{List of musical instruments
| Drum = ''boula''<ref name="GarlandTrinidad"/>
| Number = 211.222-92
| Tradition = [[Music of Trinidad and Tobago|Trinidad and Tobago]]
| Type = Double-headed barrel drum, played open handed, drum heads attached with hoops, accompanies ''[[kalenda]]'' stick fighting
| Other names =
}}
{{List of musical instruments- see
| Drum = ''bula''
| See = ''boula'' (Carriacou, Haiti)
}}
{{List of musical instruments- see
| Drum = ''bulla''
| See = ''boula'' (Carriacou)
}}
{{List of musical instruments
| Drum = ''buleador''<ref name="NationalGeo"/>
| Number = 211.221.2
| Tradition = [[Music of Puerto Rico|Puerto Rico]]
| Type = Larger, barrel-shaped hand drums, covered with tight animal skin stretched using pegs, used in ''[[bomba]]''
| Other names = ''primo'', ''repicador'', ''burlador''
}}
{{List of musical instruments- see
| Drum = ''burlador''
| See = ''buleador''
}}
{{List of musical instruments
| Drum = ''cachimbo''<ref name="Yuka">{{cite web|url=http://www.folkcuba.com/ir_tamboryuka_drums1.html|title=Tambor de Yuka|work=Folk Cuba|accessdate=March 10|accessyear=2007}}</ref><ref name="CreoleDrums"/>
| Number = 211.211.2
| Tradition = [[Music of Cuba|Cuba]]
| Type = Smallest ''yuka'' tubular drum, along with ''caja'' and ''mula''
| Other names =
}}
{{List of musical instruments
| Drum = ''caja''<ref name="Yuka"/><ref name="CreoleDrums">{{cite journal|first=Donald R.|last=Hill|journal=Black Music Research Journal|volume=18|issue=1/2|month=Spring - Autumn|title=West African and Haitian Influences on the Ritual and Popular Music of Carriacou, Trinidad, and Cuba|year=1998|pages=183-201}}</ref>
| Number = 211.211.2
| Tradition = [[Music of Cuba|Cuba]]
| Type = Largest ''yuka'' tubular drum, along with ''cachimbo'' and ''mula'', played by two people, one striking the bass and the other hitting the body with a pair of sticks
| Other names =
}}
{{List of musical instruments- see
| Drum = ''cast''
| See = ''playing cast''
}}
{{List of musical instruments
| Drum = ''chan, tambou''<ref name="NGFrenchWestIndies"/>
| Number = 2
| Tradition = [[Music of Guadeloupe|Guadeloupe]]
| Type = Small and high pitched drums, played with sticks, used in Carnival, specifically ''mizik a mas a Sen Jan''
| Other names =
}}
{{List of musical instruments- see
| Drum = circular
| See = snare drum (Jamaica)
}}
{{List of musical instruments
| Drum = [[conga drum|conga]]<ref name="RGAntilles"/><ref name="ManuelCuba"/><ref name="ManuelCuba">{{cite book|first=Peter|last=Manuel|pages=24-36|title=Popular Musics of the Non-Western World: An Introductory Survey|publisher=Oxford University Press|location=New York and Oxford|year=1988|id=ISBN 0195053427}}</ref><ref name="Ripsaw">{{cite journal|url=http://www.timespub.tc/index.php?id=83|accessdate=March 10|accessyear=2007|title=That Sweet Sound: Ripsaw Music and Our Musical Heritage|month=Summer|journal=Times of the Islands|first=David|last=Bowen|year=2007}}</ref><ref name="CubanDrums"/><ref name="CubaMusic"/>
| Number = 211.221.1-7
| Tradition = Originally [[music of Cuba|Cuban]], now found throughout the Caribbean, especially [[music of Puerto Rico|Puerto Rico]], the [[music of the Dominican Republic|Dominican Republic]] and [[music of Haiti|Haiti]]
| Type = Tall, narrow and single-headed barrel drum, open at the bottom, played by ''congueros'', traditionally wood, now often [[fiberglass]], animal-skin heads can be tuned; also used in popular genres from [[salsa music|salsa]] to [[ripsaw]]
| Other names = ''tumbadora'', ''tumba'', ''requinto'', ''quinto'', ''ricardo'', ''niño'', ''supertumba'', ''super quinto'', ''tres golpes'', ''salidor'', ''true conga''
| Image = [[Image:Conga.jpg|130px]]
}}
{{List of musical instruments- see
| Drum = ''congo''
| See = ''petwo''
}}
{{List of musical instruments
| Drum = congo<ref name="GarlandTrinidad"/><ref name="AfroGuyana"/>
| Number = 211.212.2
| Tradition = [[Music of Trinidad and Tobago|Trinidad and Tobago]]
| Type = Cylindrical drums with double skins, middle-sized drum of the set with ''bembe'' and ''oumalay'' drums; since introduced to [[Music of Guyana|Guyana]]
| Other names =
}}
{{List of musical instruments
| Drum = ''congo''<ref name="DMO"/>
| Number = 211.212.2
| Tradition = [[Music of the Dominican Republic|Dominican Republic]]
| Type = Cylindrical folk drums
| Other names =
}}
{{List of musical instruments
| Drum = ''conguito''<ref name="DMO"/>
| Number = 211.212.2
| Tradition = [[Music of the Dominican Republic|Dominican Republic]]
| Type = Cylindrical folk drums with a low bass tone, smaller version of the ''congo''
| Other names =
}}
{{List of musical instruments- see
| Drum = ''cot''
| See = ''kata''
}}
{{List of musical instruments- see
| Drum = ''cotch&iacute;erima''
| See = ''kuchiyeremá''
}}
{{List of musical instruments- see
| Drum = cut drum
| See = ''kata''
}}
{{List of musical instruments
| Drum = ''cutter''<ref name="GarlandTrinidad"/>
| Number = 211.221-92
| Tradition = [[Music of Trinidad and Tobago|Trinidad and Tobago]]
| Type = Single-headed barrel drum, played open handed, drum heads attached with hoops, accompanies ''[[kalenda]]'' stick fighting
| Other names =
}}
{{List of musical instruments- see
| Drum = ''cutter''
| See = ''kata''
}}
{{List of musical instruments
| Drum = ''débonda, tambou''<ref name="NGFrenchWestIndies"/><ref name="MartinicanCreole"/>
| Number = 211.222.1
| Tradition = [[Music of Guadeloupe|Guadeloupe]] and [[Music of Martinique|Martinique]]
| Type = Double-headed barrel drum, used in ''[[chouval bwa]]'' and Carnival music
| Other names = ''doumbedoum''
}}
{{List of musical instruments
| Drum = ''[[dholak]]''<ref name="GarlandTrinidad"/><ref>{{cite journal|title=Brotherhood of the Boat: Musical Dialogues in a Caribbean Context|first=Tina K.|last=Ramnarine|journal=British Journal of Ethnomusicology|volume=7|year=1998|pages=1-22}}</ref>
| Number = 211.212.1
| Tradition = [[Indo-Caribbean music|Indo-Caribbean]]
| Type = Double-headed drum, used in ''[[chutney (music)|chutney]]''
| Other names =
}}
{{List of musical instruments- see
| Drum = ''dibas, tambou''
| See = ''bas, tambou di''
}}
{{List of musical instruments- see
| Drum = ''dibass, tambou''
| See = ''bas, tambou di''
}}
{{List of musical instruments
| Drum = ''[[djembe]]''<ref name="RGAntilles"/>
| Number = 211.261.2
| Tradition = [[Music of Guadeloupe|Guadeloupe]]
| Type = Skin-covered hand drum, goblet-shaped and played bare-handed, used in ''[[gwo ka moderne]]''
| Other names =
}}
{{List of musical instruments- see
| Drum = ''doumbedoum''
| See = ''dèbonda, tambou''
}}
{{List of musical instruments
| Drum = ''dup''<ref name="GarlandGrenada"/>
| Number = 211.221.2
| Tradition = [[Music of Grenada|Grenada]]
| Type = Bass drum made from a cardboard barrel, used in ''[[parang]]''
| Other names =
}}
{{List of musical instruments
| Drum = ''ekué''<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.mayavase.com/frictiondrum.html|accessdate=March 10|accessyear=2007|title=
Applying Experimental Archaeology to Ethnomusicology: Recreating an Ancient Maya Friction Drum through Various Lines of Evidence|author=John A. Donahue}}</ref> <ref>{{cite book|title=Drumming for the Gods: The Life and Times of Felips Garcia Villamil|first=Maria Teresa|last=Velez|year=2000|publisher=Temple University Press|id=ISBN 1566397316|pages=20}}</ref>
| Number = 231.13-814
| Tradition = [[Music of Cuba|Cuba]]
| Type = Single-headed three-legged [[friction drum]] used in ''[[Abakuá]]'' ceremonies, played by rubbing a stick over the membrane, which is attached using wedges whose tightness can be modified
| Other names = ''ecue''
}}
{{List of musical instruments- see
| Drum = ''en&oacute;mo''
| See = ''enkomo''
}}
{{List of musical instruments- see
| Drum = ''end&oacute;ga''
| See = arobapá
}}
{{List of musical instruments- see
| Drum = ''enko''
| See = ''enkomo''
}}
{{List of musical instruments
| Drum = ''enkomo''<ref name="Abakua"/> <ref name="CubanDrums"/>
| Number = 211.21-814
| Tradition = [[Music of Cuba|Cuba]]
| Type = Small cylindrical, or slightly tapered, goatskin-headed drums of the ''biankomeko'' ensemble, consisting of three types: ''biapá'', ''arobapá'', and ''kuchiyeremá''
| Other names = ''enko'', ''en&oacute;mo''
}}
{{List of musical instruments
| Drum = ''foulé, tambou''<ref name="NGFrenchWestIndies"/>
| Number = 211.221.2-92
| Tradition = [[Music of French Guiana|French Guiana]]
| Type = Large barrel drum, used in Creole instrumental ensembles and ''[[kaseko]]'', plays a basic rhythm accompanied by the ''tambou koup&eacute;'', head typically made of goatskin, attached with a vine or iron hoop
| Other names =
}}
{{List of musical instruments- see
| Drum = French drum
| See = ''hun''
}}
{{List of musical instruments
| Drum = French reel<ref name="Montserrat">{{cite book
|title=Garland Encyclopedia of World Music, Volume Two: South America, Mexico, Central America, and the Caribbean|last=Mesener|firstJohn|chapter=Montserrat|pages=922-926}}</ref><ref name="AfricanMontserrat"/>
| Number = 211.311
| Tradition = [[Music of Montserrat|Montserrat]]
| Type = Goatskin frame drum, played with the back of the hand, front of the fingers and the palm, used to attract spirits for the [[jumbie dance]]
| Other names = ''jumbie drum'', ''woowoo''
}}
{{List of musical instruments
| Drum = ''funde''<ref name="CaribbeanReligion"/><ref name="Thesis"/><ref name="Backbone"/><ref name="JamaicanCults"/>
| Number = 211.211.1
| Tradition = [[Music of Jamaica|Jamaica]]
| Type = Cylindrical drum, one-headed, held between players' legs and performed by tapping with the hand or fingers, originally used in ''[[Burru]]'' cult rituals, now also common in ''[[Nyabinghi]]'' ceremonies
| Other names = ''fundeh''
}}
{{List of musical instruments
| Drum = ''funde''<ref name="AfroGuyana"/>
| Number = 211.21
| Tradition = [[Music of Guyana|Guyana]]
| Type = Afro-Guyanese [[cylindrical drum]]
| Other names =
}}
{{List of musical instruments- see
| Drum = ''fundeh''
| See = ''funde''
}}
{{List of musical instruments
| Drum = ''gaan doon''<ref name="NGFrenchWestIndies"/>
| Number = 2
| Tradition = [[Music of French Guiana|French Guiana]]
| Type = Large [[bass drum]] that leads dances, used by the Alukuó [[Maroon (people)|Maroon]]s
| Other names =
}}
{{List of musical instruments
| Drum = ''ganbo''<ref name="HaitianInstruments"/>
| Number = 211.211.1
| Tradition = [[Music of Haiti|Haiti]]
| Type = Bamboo stomping tubes, sometimes played in groups
| Other names =
}}
{{List of musical instruments- see
| Drum = ''gombay''
| See = ''gumbe''
}}
{{List of musical instruments
| Drum = ''gombey''<ref name="Frommers">{{cite web|url=http://www.frommers.com/destinations/bermuda/0091020358.html|work=Frommers|title=Bermuda: In Depth|accessdate=March 10|accessyear=2007}}</ref><ref name="Roots">{{cite web|accessdate=March 10|accessyear=2007|url=http://www.melanet.com/johnkankus/roots.html Roots of an African American Christmas|title=Roots of an African-American Christmas|author=Irene Smalls}}</ref>
| Number = 211.211.2
| Tradition = [[Music of Bermuda|Bermuda]]
| Type = Afro-Bermudan drum, related to the Bahamian ''[[goombay]]'', used in the genre of the same name (''gombey'')
| Other names =
}}
{{List of musical instruments
| Drum = ''gonde''<ref name="HaitianDrums"/>
| Number = 211.251.2-7
| Tradition = [[Music of Haiti|Haiti]]
| Type = Cowskin hand drum, played with a hand and a bow, in a set with ''katabo'' and ''tambou manman''
| Other names =
}}
{{List of musical instruments- see
| Drum = ''goombah''
| See = ''gumbe''
}}
{{List of musical instruments
| Drum = ''[[goombay]]''<ref>{{cite web|work=Bahamas.com|accessdate=March 10|accessyear=2007|title=Art/Music/Dance|url=http://www.bahamas.com/bahamas/about/general.aspx?sectionid=23148&level=2}}</ref><ref name="Ripsaw"/>
| Number = 211.211.2-7
| Tradition = [[Music of the Bahamas|Bahamas]] and [[music of Turks and Caicos Islands|Turks and Caicos]]
| Type = Goatskin-headed drum traditionally made from improvised materials (especially discarded barrels), goatskin is tuned by heating it with a candle and attached with nails, used in the Bahamian genre of the same name (''goombay'')
| Other names =
}}
{{List of musical instruments- see
| Drum = ''goombay''
| See = ''gumbe''
}}
{{List of musical instruments- see
| Drum = ''goombey''
| See = ''gumbe''
}}
{{List of musical instruments
| Drum = ''gragé, tambou''<ref name="NGFrenchWestIndies"/>
| Number = 211.3
| Tradition = [[Music of French Guiana|French Guiana]]
| Type = Frame drum, used in Creole dance accompaniment for a dance of the same name (''gragé'')
| Other names =
}}
{{List of musical instruments- see
| Drum = ''groska''
| See = ''gwo ka''
}}
{{List of musical instruments- see
| Drum = ''gumbay''
| See = ''gumbe''
}}
{{List of musical instruments
| Drum = ''[[gumbe]]''<ref name="Glossary">{{cite web|url=http://www.folklife.si.edu/resources/maroon/educational_guide/86.htm|title=Glossary|accessdate=March 10|accessyear=2007|work=Creativity and Resistance: Maroon Cultures in the Americas}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last=Bilby|first=Kenneth|coauthor=Fu-Kiau kia Bunseki|year=1983|title=Kumina: A Congo Based Tradition in the New World|location=Brussels|publisher=Les Cahiers du CEDAF 4: Linguistique}} cited in {{cite web|url=http://etd.lsu.edu/docs/available/etd-07292004-154529/unrestricted/Dickerson_thesis.pdf|accessdate=March 4|accessyear=2007|title=Musical Play Across Ethnic Boundaries in Western Jamaica|format=pdf|last=Dickerson|first=Ronald Eric|year=1999}}</ref><ref name="JamaicanMusic"/>
| Number = 211.31
| Tradition = [[Music of French Guiana|French Guiana]] and [[music of Jamaica|Jamaica]]
| Type = Small [[Maroon (people)|Maroon]]-derived goatskin square-framed drum, introduced to [[Music of Sierra Leone|Sierra Leone]]
| Other names = ''gumbay'', ''goombeh'', ''goombah'', ''goombay'', ''gombay'', bench drum
}}
{{List of musical instruments- see
| Drum = ''gumbay''
| See = ''gumbe''
}}
{{List of musical instruments
| Drum = ''[[gwo ka]]''<ref name="RGAntilles"/><ref name="GarlandGuadeloupe"/><ref name="Berrian"/>
| Tradition = [[Music of Guadeloupe|Guadeloupe]]
| Type = Family of hand drums, used in ''[[lewoz]]'' and other traditions, as well as ''[[zouk]]''
| Other names = also used synonymously with ''ka''
}}
{{List of musical instruments
| Drum = harp<ref name="CaribbeanReligion"/>
| Tradition = [[Music of Jamaica|Jamaica]]
| Type = Generic term for drums used in ceremonies called ''[[grounation]]s''; these include the bass drum, ''funde'' and ''kété''
| Other names =
}}
{{List of musical instruments
| Drum = ''hun''<ref name="CubanDrums"/>
| Tradition = [[Music of Cuba|Cuba]]
| Type = Family of four drums used in the Haitian-Cuban ''[[Arada]]'' ceremonies, consisting of ''hug&aacute;n'', ''xump&eacute;'', ''hun-hog&uacute;lo'' and ''hun&iacute;''
| Other names = ''French drums''
}}
{{List of musical instruments
| Drum = ''hug&aacute;n''<ref name="CubanDrums"/>
| Number = 211.22-861
| Tradition = [[Music of Cuba|Cuba]]
| Type = Largest of the four drums used in the Haitian-Cuban ''[[Arada]]'' ceremonies, along with ''xump&eacute;'', ''hun-hog&uacute;lo'' and ''hun&iacute;''
| Other names = ''French drum''
}}
{{List of musical instruments
| Drum = ''hun-hog&uacute;lo''<ref name="CubanDrums"/>
| Number = 211.22-861
| Tradition = [[Music of Cuba|Cuba]]
| Type = Second-smallest of the four drums used in the Haitian-Cuban ''[[Arada]]'' ceremonies, along with ''hug&aacute;n'', ''xump&eacute;'' and ''hun&iacute;''
| Other names = ''French drum''
}}
{{List of musical instruments
| Drum = ''hun&iacute;''<ref name="CubanDrums"/>
| Number = 211.22-861
| Tradition = [[Music of Cuba|Cuba]]
| Type = Smallest of the four drums used in the Haitian-Cuban ''[[Arada]]'' ceremonies, along with ''hug&aacute;n'', ''xump&eacute;'' and ''hun-hog&uacute;lo''
| Other names = ''French drum''
}}
{{List of musical instruments
| Drum = ''ich, tambou''<ref name="Lucia"/>
| Number = 2
| Tradition = [[Music of Saint Lucia|Saint Lucia]]
| Type = Smaller drum used in ''Kélé'' rituals, literally ''child drum''
| Other names =
}}
{{List of musical instruments- see
| Drum = ''ik&oacute;nkolo''
| See = ''okónkolo''
}}
{{List of musical instruments
| Drum = ''itótele''<ref name="Bata"/> <ref name="CubanDrums"/>
| Number = 211.26-813
| Tradition = [[Music of Cuba|Cuba]]
| Type = Intermediate-sized ''[[batá]]'' goblet-shaped drum, made of wood and covered with skin, along with the ''iyá'' and ''okónkolo''; wax-like substance called ''ida'' or ''fardela'' sometimes used to produce a duller sound
| Other names =
| Image = [[Image:Bata drums.jpg|130px]]
}}
{{List of musical instruments
| Drum = ''iyá''<ref name="Bata"/> <ref name="CubanDrums"/>
| Number = 211.26-813
| Tradition = [[Music of Cuba|Cuba]]
| Type = Largest ''[[batá]]'' goblet-shaped drum, made of wood and covered with goatskin, along with the ''itótele'' and ''okónkolo''; red wax-like substance called ''ida'' or ''fardela'' is used to produce a duller sound, wrapped with bells and belts (''chaguoro'' or ''tchaworo'')
| Other names =
| Image = [[Image:Bata drums.jpg|130px]]
}}
{{List of musical instruments
| Drum = ''juba''<ref name="HaitianInstruments"/>
| Number = 211.21-92
| Tradition = [[Music of Haiti|Haiti]]
| Type = Shorter and squatter variety of ''petwo''
| Other names = ''martinique''
}}
{{List of musical instruments- see
| Drum = jumbie drum
| See = French reel, ''balaban''
}}
{{List of musical instruments
| Drum = ''ka''<ref name="GarlandGuadeloupe"/><ref name="Berrian"/> <ref name="MartinicanCreole"/><ref name="Guilbault"/>
| Number = 211.221
| Tradition = [[Music of Guadeloupe|Guadeloupe]] and [[Music of Martinique|Martinique]]
| Type = Single-headed drums, used in Carnival, specifically ''mizik a mas a Kongo'', made from a barrel with goatskin heads tighted by cord
| Other names = also used synonymously with ''gwo ka''
}}
{{List of musical instruments
| Drum = ''ka''<ref name="Lucia">{{cite book|chapter=Saint Lucia|last=Guilbault|first=Jocelyne|title=Garland Encyclopedia of World Music, Volume Two: South America, Mexico, Central America, and the Caribbean}}</ref>
| Number = 211.221
| Tradition = [[Music of Saint Lucia|Saint Lucia]]
| Type = Barrel drum with a goatskin head, used in various folk forms, including ''chanté siay'', ''jwé dansé'' and ''jwé gém''
| Other names =
}}
{{List of musical instruments- see
| Drum = ''ka''
| See = ''tambou''
}}
{{List of musical instruments
| Drum = ''kanmougé, tambou''<ref name="NGFrenchWestIndies"/>
| Number = 211.211.1
| Tradition = [[Music of French Guiana|French Guiana]]
| Type = Open-bottomed and single-headed drum, played transversally and carved from a single fragment of wood, used in Creole dance accompaniment for ''kanmougé'' and ''mayouri'' dances, played in pairs with the lead called the "female" type and the support the "male"
| Other names =
}}
{{List of musical instruments
| Drum = ''kata''<ref name="Grenada"/><ref name="GarlandGrenada"/><ref name="CreoleDrums"/>
| Number = 211.211.2
| Tradition = [[Music of Grenada|Carriacou]]
| Type = Hand drum, formerly made of barrels, now more often rum casks; wider and higher-tuned cousin of the ''boula'', used in the [[Big Drum]] tradition, barrel contains a hole on the side, skin is stretched by a hoop wrapped in cloth
| Other names = cut drum, cutter, cot
}}
{{List of musical instruments
| Drum = ''katabo''<ref name="HaitianDrums"/>
| Number = 211.251.2-7
| Tradition = [[Music of Haiti|Haiti]]
| Type = Cowskin hand drum, played with two sticks, in a set with ''gonde'' and ''tambou manman''
| Other names =
}}
{{List of musical instruments
| Drum = ''kbandu''<ref name="NLJ">{{cite web|title=Kumina|work=History Notes|author=National Library of Jamaica|accessdate=March 4|accessyear=2007|url=http://www.nlj.org.jm/docs/history.htm}}</ref><ref name="JamaicanCults">{{cite journal|title=Some Aspects of Religious Cult Music in Jamaica|first=Wendell|last=Logan|coauthor=Marjorie Whylie|journal=The Black Perspective in Music|volume=10|number=1|month=Spring|year=1982|pages=85-94}}</ref><ref name="kuminadrums"/>
| Number = 211.211.1+111.231
| Tradition = [[Music of Jamaica|Jamaica]]
| Type = Large, low-pitched, plays a 4/4 rhythm, covered with a goat skin, used in ''[[Kumina]]'' ceremonies, where it plays a steady rhythm, and is often used several at a time, open end sometimes banged with sticks
| Other names = ''bandu''
}}
{{List of musical instruments
| Drum = keg<ref name="GarlandVirginIslands"/>
| Number = 211.212.1
| Tradition = [[Music of the Virgin Islands|Virgin Islands]]
| Type = Double-headed bass drum, used in [[masquerade]]s and fife and drum ensembles
| Other names = ''boom boom''
}}
{{List of musical instruments
| Drum = ''kété''<ref name="Gleaner"/><ref name="CaribbeanReligion"/><ref name="Thesis"/><ref name="Backbone"/>
| Number = 211.21
| Tradition = [[Music of Jamaica|Jamaica]]
| Type = Small skinny cylindrical drum, improvised, used in [[Nyabinghi]] celebrations, played with bare hands, also used in [[dub poetry]]
| Other names = ''akete''
}}
{{List of musical instruments
| Drum = kettle<ref name="Montserrat"/>
| Number = 211.221
| Tradition = [[Music of Montserrat|Montserrat]]
| Type = Goatskin deep-barreled drum, used in Carnival and other celebrations
| Other names = ''boom''
}}
{{List of musical instruments
| Drum = [[kettle drum]]<ref name="GarlandAntigua"/>
| Number = 211.11
| Tradition = [[Music of Antigua and Barbuda|Antigua and Barbuda]]
| Type = Kettle drum, accompaniment to stilt dancers and [[Christmas music]]
| Other names =
}}
{{List of musical instruments
| Drum = kettle drum<ref name="Frommers"/><ref name="Roots"/>
| Number = 211.11
| Tradition = [[Music of Bermuda|Bermuda]]
| Type = Central use in Bermudan traditions, derived from British [[kettle drum]], especially common in ''gombey''
| Other names =
}}
{{List of musical instruments
| Drum = kettle drum<ref name="GarlandVirginIslands"/>
| Number = 211.11
| Tradition = [[Music of the Virgin Islands|Virgin Islands]]
| Type = Snare drum, used in fife and drum ensembles
| Other names =
}}
{{List of musical instruments
| Drum = ''[[Kimb&iacute;sa]]'' drum<ref name="CubanDrums"/>
| Number = 211-864
| Tradition = [[Music of Cuba|Cuba]]
| Type = Tall drum with goatskin head, held in place by cords, wedges and hoops, used in the ''[[Kimb&iacute;sa]]'' culture
| Other names =
}}
{{List of musical instruments
| Drum = ''kinfuiti''<ref name="CubaMusic">{{cite book|title=Cuba and Its Music: From the First Drums to the Mambo|first=Ned|last=Sublette|year=2004|publisher=Chicago Review Press|id=ISBN 1556526326}}</ref>
| Number = 231.12
| Tradition = [[Music of Cuba|Cuba]]
| Type = [[Friction drum]], single-headed, with a stick inserted and rubbed to produce the sound, used in the ''[[Kimbisa]]'' tradition
| Other names =
}}
{{List of musical instruments
| Drum = ''kittle''<ref name="AfroGuyana"/>
| Number = 211.11
| Tradition = [[Music of Guyana|Guyana]]
| Type = [[Kettle drum]], used in [[masquerade]]s
| Other names = ''boom''
}}
{{List of musical instruments
| Drum = ''koupé, tambou''<ref name="NGFrenchWestIndies"/>
| Number = 211.221.2-92
| Tradition = [[Music of French Guiana|French Guiana]]
| Type = Small barrel drum, used in Creole instrumental ensembles and ''[[kaseko]]'', used to improvise for dancing while the ''tambou foul&eacute;'' plays a basic rhythm, head typically made of goatskin, attached with a vine or iron hoop
| Other names =
}}
{{List of musical instruments
| Drum = ''kromanti''<ref name="Thesis"/>
| Number = 211.21
| Tradition = [[Music of Jamaica|Jamaica]]
| Type = Cylindrical drum, used by the [[Maroon (people)|Maroon]]s of [[Moore Town]]
| Other names =
}}
{{List of musical instruments
| Drum = ''kuchiyeremá''<ref name="Abakua"/> <ref name="CubanDrums"/>
| Number = 211.21-814
| Tradition = [[Music of Cuba|Cuba]]
| Type = Small ''enkomo'' drum of the ''biankomeko'' ensemble, along with the ''arobapá'' and ''biapá'', and the taller ''bonkó enchemiyá''
| Other names = ''cotch&iacute;erima''
}}
{{List of musical instruments
| Drum = ''lapo kabwit''<ref name="GarlandDominica">{{cite book|chapter=Dominica|last=Guilbault|first=Jocelyne|title=Garland Encyclopedia of World Music, Volume Two: South America, Mexico, Central America, and the Caribbean|pages=pp 840-844}}</ref>
| Tradition = [[Music of Dominica|Dominica]]
| Type = Any kind of Dominican or Grenadan folk drum
| Other names =
}}
{{List of musical instruments
| Drum = ''lélé, tambou''<ref name="GarlandDominica"/>
| Number = 211.211.2
| Tradition = [[Music of Dominica|Dominica]]
| Type = Cylindrical drum, small and wooden with goatskin at one end, strapped across the shoulder and played with two sticks, used in ''[[chanté mas]]''
| Other names =
}}
{{List of musical instruments
| Drum = ''loango''<ref name="HaitianInstruments"/>
| Number = 211.21-92
| Tradition = [[Music of Haiti|Haiti]]
| Type = Taller and narrower variety of ''petwo''
| Other names = ''loangue''
}}
{{List of musical instruments- see
| Drum = ''loangue''
| See = ''loango''
}}
{{List of musical instruments- see
| Drum = ''maké''
| See = ''markeur''
}}
{{List of musical instruments- see
| Drum = ''makuta''
| See = ''yuka''
}}
{{List of musical instruments- see
| Drum = ''makyé''
| See = ''markeur''
}}
{{List of musical instruments
| Drum = ''manman, tambou''<ref name="Lucia"/>
| Number = 2
| Tradition = [[Music of Saint Lucia|Saint Lucia]]
| Type = Larger drum used in ''Kélé'' rituals, literally ''mother drum''
| Other names =
}}
{{List of musical instruments
| Drum = ''mamnan, tambou''<ref name="HaitianDrums"/><ref name="HaitianInstruments"/>
| Number = 211.251.2-7
| Tradition = [[Music of Haiti|Haiti]]
| Type = Hand drum with a cowhide head, pegged in place and with a decorated collar, used in many Afro-Haitian musics, used in ''[[rada]]'', ''[[petwo]]'' and other folk traditions
| Other names =
}}
{{List of musical instruments
| Drum = ''marassas''<ref name="HaitianInstruments"/>
| Number = 211.212.2
| Tradition = [[Music of Haiti|Haiti]]
| Type = Cylindrical drum that comes in pairs, traditionally made from wood or a two-gallon container with both top and bottom removed and replaced with heads, played with fingers
| Other names =
}}
{{List of musical instruments
| Drum = ''markeur''<ref name="RGAntilles"/><ref name="NGFrenchWestIndies"/><ref name="GarlandGuadeloupe"/><ref name="Berrian"/><ref name="Guilbault"/>
| Number = 211.221.2
| Tradition = [[Music of Guadeloupe|Guadeloupe]]
| Type = Single-headed hand drum, small, high-pitched, played upright and one-handed, and held between the legs, interacts with dancers by responding to movement and improvises with the ''boula'' drum, used in ''[[gwo ka]]'', Carnival, wrestling matches and wakes
| Other names = ''makyé'', ''marqueur'', ''maké''
}}
{{List of musical instruments- see
| Drum = ''marqueur''
| See = ''markeur''
}}
{{List of musical instruments- see
| Drum = ''martinique''
| See = ''juba''
}}
{{List of musical instruments- see
| Drum = ''matrimonial''
| See = ''wacharaca''
}}
{{List of musical instruments
| Drum = ''mong&oacute;''<ref name="LAMECA"/>
| Number = 211.3
| Tradition = [[Music of the Dominican Republic|Dominican Republic]]
| Type = Small rural folk handheld frame drum
| Other names =
}}
{{List of musical instruments- see
| Drum = ''moyen''
| See = ''segon''
}}
{{List of musical instruments
| Drum = ''mula''<ref name="Yuka"/><ref name="CreoleDrums"/>
| Number = 211.211.2
| Tradition = [[Music of Cuba|Cuba]]
| Type = Intermediate-sized ''yuka'' tubular drum, along with ''caja'' and ''cachimbo''
| Other names =
}}
{{List of musical instruments- see
| Drum = ''ngoma''
| See = ''yuka''
}}
{{List of musical instruments
| Drum = ''niño''<ref name="MusicofPR"/>
| Number = 2
| Tradition = [[Music of Cuba|Cuba]]
| Type = Smallest drum of the [[conga]] family
| Other names =
}}
{{List of musical instruments- see
| Drum = ''[[Nyabinghi]]''
| See = ''kété''
}}
{{List of musical instruments
| Drum = ''okónkolo''<ref name="Bata"/><ref name="CubanDrums"/>
| Number = 211.26-813
| Tradition = [[Music of Cuba|Cuba]]
| Type = Smallest ''[[batá]]'' goblet-shaped drum, made of wood and covered with skin, along with the ''itótele'' and ''iyá''
| Other names = ''ik&oacute;nkolo'', ''amel&eacute;''
| Image = [[Image:Bata drums.jpg|130px]]
}}
{{List of musical instruments
| Drum = ''oumalay''<ref name="GarlandTrinidad"/>
| Number = 211.212.2
| Tradition = [[Music of Trinidad and Tobago|Trinidad and Tobago]]
| Type = Cylindrical drums with double skins, middle-sized drum of the set with ''bembe'' and ''congo'' drums
| Other names =
}}
{{List of musical instruments- see
| Drum = ''omele''
| See = ''oumalay''
}}
{{List of musical instruments
| Drum = ''pailas''<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.encyclopedia.com/doc/1G1-94768406.html|accessdate=March 13|accessyear=2008|date=November 1, 2002|publisher=Latin Beat|first=Frank|last=Figueroa|title=Frank Figueroa on Afro-Caribbean percussion instruments.}}</ref>
| Number = 211.12
| Tradition = [[Music of the Dominican Republic|Dominican Republic]]
| Type = Kettledrum, played in pairs, made from containers used to boil sugarcane juice, with tension lugs to adjust the tightness of the single-head, closed bottom
| Other names =
}}
{{List of musical instruments
| Drum = ''palo auxiliar''<ref name="CaribbeanMusic"/><ref name="LAMECA"/>
| Number = 211.211.2-7
| Tradition = [[Music of the Dominican Republic|Dominican Republic]]
| Type = One of the smaller drums used in the ensembles called ''palos'', of the Afro-Dominican religious ceremonies, played either in pairs or trios, with single skin heads either pegged or tacked
| Other names =
}}
{{List of musical instruments
| Drum = ''palo major''<ref name="DMO"/><ref name="LAMECA"/>
| Number = 211.211.2-7
| Tradition = [[Music of the Dominican Republic|Dominican Republic]]
| Type = Larger folk [[long drum]] made from a tree trunk, used singly in ensembles called ''palos'', of the Afro-Dominican religious ceremonies, played either in pairs or trios, with single skin heads either pegged or tacked
| Other names =
}}
{{List of musical instruments
| Drum = ''palo menor''<ref name="DMO"/><ref name="LAMECA"/>
| Number = 211.211.2-7
| Tradition = [[Music of the Dominican Republic|Dominican Republic]]
| Type = Smaller folk [[long drum]] made from a tree trunk, used singly in ensembles called ''palos'', of the Afro-Dominican religious ceremonies, played either in pairs or trios, with single skin heads either pegged or tacked
| Other names =
}}
{{List of musical instruments
| Drum = ''palos''<ref name="CaribbeanMusic"/><ref name="LAMECA"/>
| Number = 211.211.2-7
| Tradition = [[Music of the Dominican Republic|Dominican Republic]]
| Type = Ensembles that include a number of drums, include the types of ''palo'' and ''alcahuete'', used in the Afro-Dominican religious ceremonies, played either in pairs or trios, with skin heads either pegged or tacked
| Other names = ''atabale''
}}
{{List of musical instruments
| Drum = ''pandereta''<ref name="MusicofPR"/>
| Number = 211.3
| Tradition = [[Music of Puerto Rico|Puerto Rico]]
| Type = Handheld frame drum, used in ''[[plena]]''
| Other names = ''pandero''
}}
{{List of musical instruments- see
| Drum = ''pandero''
| See = ''pandereta''
}}
{{List of musical instruments
| Drum = ''panderos''<ref name="DMO"/> <ref name="LAMECA">{{cite web|accessdate=March 9|accessyear=2008|last=Davis|first=Martha Ellen|url=http://pagesperso-orange.fr/lameca/dossiers/ethnomusicologie/davis1_eng.html|title=A Survey of Afro-Dominican Palos Sacred Drum Music|publisher=University of Florida|work=Séminaire d'ethnomusicologie caribéenne|date=July 7-11|year=2003|location=Sainte-Anne, Guadeloupe}}</ref>
| Number = 211.3
| Tradition = [[Music of the Dominican Republic|Dominican Republic]]
| Type = Small rural folk handheld frame drum
| Other names =
}}
{{List of musical instruments- see
| Drum = ''P&eacute;tro''
| See = ''petwo''
}}
{{List of musical instruments
| Drum = ''petwo''<ref name="RGHaiti">{{cite book|last=Steward|first=Sue|coauthor=Sean Harvey|chapter=Compass Points|year=2000||editor=Simon Broughton, Mark Ellingham, JamesMcConnachie and Orla Duane (Eds.)|title=World Music, Vol. 2: Latin & North America, Caribbean, India, Asia and Pacific|pages=pp 421-429|publisher=Rough Guides|id=ISBN 1858286360}}</ref><ref name="HaitianInstruments"/>
| Number = 211.21-92
| Tradition = [[Music of Haiti|Haiti]]
| Type = Cylindrical drum headed with cowskin, attached with cords, comes in two varieties: ''loango'' and ''juba''
| Other names = ''congo'', ''P&eacute;tro''
}}
{{List of musical instruments
| Drum = ''pikin doon''<ref name="NGFrenchWestIndies"/>
| Number = 2
| Tradition = [[Music of French Guiana|French Guiana]]
| Type = Medium-sized drum that supports dancers, played in pairs, with one played solo, and both played bare-handed, used among the Alukuó [[Maroon (people)|Maroon]]s
| Other names =
}}
{{List of musical instruments
| Drum = ''playing cast''<ref name="NLJ"/><ref name="JamaicanCults"/><ref name="kuminadrums">{{cite book|title=This Is Reggae Music: The Story of Jamaica's Music|first=Lloyd|last=Bradley|coauthors=Prince Buster|year=2001|publisher=Grove Press|id=ISBN 0802138284}}</ref>
| Number = 211.211.1+111.231
| Tradition = [[Music of Jamaica|Jamaica]]
| Type = Small, high-pitched, plays complex, syncopated rhythms, covered with a goat skin, used in [[Kumina]], open end sometimes struck with sticks
| Other names = ''playin kya'', ''cast''
}}
{{List of musical instruments- see
| Drum = ''playin kya''
| See = ''playing cast''
}}
{{List of musical instruments
| Drum = ''podya''<ref name="Suriname"/>
| Number = 2
| Tradition = [[music of Suriname|Suriname]]
| Type = Small, skin-covered bass drum, common among the rural Afro-Surinamese
| Other names =
}}
{{List of musical instruments- see
| Drum = ''prenting''
| See = ''kromanti''
}}
{{List of musical instruments- see
| Drum = ''primo''
| See = ''subidor''
}}
{{List of musical instruments
| Drum = pump<ref name="GarlandBarbados"/>
| Number = 2
| Tradition = [[Music of Barbados|Barbados]]
| Type = Long drum, made from a hollow tree trunk with goat or sheep skin on either end
| Other names =
}}
{{List of musical instruments
| Drum = ''pump''<ref name="NewGroveAatDA"/>
| Number = 211.31
| Tradition = [[Music of Aruba and the Netherlands Antilles|St Maarten]]
| Type = Goatskin frame drum, sometimes played in pairs or larger groups, usually using both hands
| Other names =
}}
{{List of musical instruments
| Drum = ''quinto''<ref name="MusicofPR"/> <ref name="CubanDrums"/>
| Number = 211.221
| Tradition = [[Music of Cuba|Cuba]]
| Type = Smallest barrel-shaped hand drum, made out of a box with two sloping sides, of the ''tumbadora'' family, plays the most intricate rhythms of the group, not always characterized as a ''tumbadora'' or [[conga]] drum
| Other names =
}}
{{List of musical instruments
| Drum = ''rada''<ref name="RGHaiti"/>
| Number = 2
| Tradition = [[Music of Haiti|Haiti]]
| Type = Drum headed with cowskin, attached with wooden pegs
| Other names =
}}
{{List of musical instruments
| Drum = ''ralé''<ref name="HaitianDrums"/>
| Number = 2
| Tradition = [[Music of Haiti|Haiti]]
| Type = Goatskin drum, used alongside ''tambou manman'', used in ''[[petwo]]'' and ''YaYa TiKongo'' rhythms
| Other names =
}}
{{List of musical instruments- see
| Drum = rattle
| See = snare drum (Jamaica)
}}
{{List of musical instruments- see
| Drum = ''repeater''
| See = bass drum (Jamaica), snare drum (Jamaica)
}}
{{List of musical instruments- see
| Drum = ''repeater''
| See = ''kété''
}}
{{List of musical instruments
| Drum = ''repeater''<ref name="JamaicanCults"/>
| Number = 2
| Tradition = [[Music of Jamaica|Jamaica]]
| Type = Used in the ''[[Burru]]'' rituals, now imported to Rastafarian music
| Other names =
}}
{{List of musical instruments- see
| Drum = ''repicador''
| See = ''subidor''
}}
{{List of musical instruments
| Drum = ''requinto'' drum<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.smithsonianglobalsound.org/archives_03.aspx|accessdate=March 10|accessyear=2007|title=Puerto Rican Bomba and Plena|work=Smithsonian Global Sound}}</ref>
| Number = 211.25
| Tradition = [[Music of Puerto Rico|Puerto Rico]]
| Type = Small conical hand drum, improvises over the other drum rhythms, used in ''[[plena]]''
| Other names =
}}
{{List of musical instruments- see
| Drum = ''ricardo''
| See = conga
}}
{{List of musical instruments
| Drum = [[ripsaw music|ripsaw]] drum<ref name="Ripsaw"/>
| Number = 2
| Tradition = [[Music of Turks and Caicos Islands|Turks and Caicos]] and [[Music of the Bahamas|Bahamas]] ([[Cat Island (Bahamas)|Cat Island]] only)
| Type = Goat- or cow-skin drum, heated to produce a pitch
| Other names =
}}
{{List of musical instruments- see
| Drum = round
| See = snare drum (Jamaica)
}}
{{List of musical instruments
| Drum = ''[[Saba]] drum''<ref name="NewGroveAatDA"/>
| Number = 211.22
| Tradition = [[Music of Aruba and the Netherlands Antilles|Saba]]
| Type = Made from kegs or barrels, and attached to a skin frame secured by wood, rope and pegs
| Other names =
}}
{{List of musical instruments- see
| Drum = ''salidor''
| See = conga
}}
{{List of musical instruments
| Drum = scratch band barrel drum<ref name="GarlandVirginIslands"/>
| Number = 211.222
| Tradition = [[Music of the Virgin Islands|Virgin Islands]]
| Type = Double-headed barrel drum, used in [[scratch band]]s
| Other names =
}}
{{List of musical instruments- see
| Drum = ''second''
| See = ''segon''
}}
{{List of musical instruments
| Drum = ''segon''<ref name="HaitianDrums"/><ref name="HaitianInstruments"/>
| Number = 211-7
| Tradition = [[Music of Haiti|Haiti]]
| Type = Cowskin hand drum with artistic collars, used in ''[[rada]]'' along with ''boula'' and ''manman'' drums
| Other names =
}}
{{List of musical instruments- see
| Drum = ''segundo''
| See = conga
}}
{{List of musical instruments- see
| Drum = side drum
| See = snare drum
}}
{{List of musical instruments
| Drum = ''skratji''<ref name="ManuelSuriname">{{cite book|author=Manuel, Peter|title=Caribbean Currents: Caribbean Music from Rumba to Reggae|publisher=Temple University Press|location=Philadelphia|year=1995|id=ISBN 1-56639-338-8}}</ref><ref name="WMCKaseko">{{cite web|work=World Music Central|title=Kaseko|author=Rein Spoorman|accessdate=March 10|accessyear=2007|url=http://www.worldmusiccentral.org/article.php?story=20030414202502213}}</ref>
| Number = 2
| Tradition = [[Music of Suriname|Suriname]]
| Type = Large Afro-Surinamese bass drum with a [[cymbal]] on top, used in ''[[kaseko]]''
| Other names =
}}
{{List of musical instruments
| Drum = [[snare drum]]<ref name="Frommers"/><ref name="Roots"/>
| Number = 211.212.1
| Tradition = [[Music of Bermuda|Bermuda]]
| Type = Central use in Bermudan traditions, generally played in pairs, used in ''gombey''
| Other names =
}}
{{List of musical instruments
| Drum = snare drum<ref name="GarlandBarbados"/>
| Number = 211.212.1
| Tradition = [[Music of Barbados|Barbados]]
| Type = Doubled headed side snare drum, used in [[tuk]] bands
| Other names = kettle
}}
{{List of musical instruments
| Drum = snare drum<ref name="CubanDrums"/>
| Number = 211.212.1
| Tradition = [[Music of Cuba|Cuba]]
| Type = [[Snare drum]] used in ''[[comparsa]]'' pre-Easter celebrations
| Other names =
}}
{{List of musical instruments
| Drum = snare drum<ref name="Gleaner"/><ref name="Thesis"/><ref name="JamaicanMusic"/>
| Number = 211.212.1
| Tradition = [[Music of Jamaica|Jamaica]]
| Type = [[Snare drum]] played with wooden sticks, carried with a strap, used in [[marching band]]s and [[Maroon (people)|Maroon]] music
| Other names = side drum, ''Maroon only:'' repeater, rattle, round, circular
}}
{{List of musical instruments
| Drum = snare drum<ref name="WMCKaseko"/>
| Number = 211.212.1
| Tradition = [[Music of Suriname|Suriname]]
| Type = [[Snare drum]], used in ''[[kaseko]]''
| Other names =
}}
{{List of musical instruments
| Drum = stave drum<ref name="CubanDrums"/>
| Number = 211.261.2-813
| Tradition = [[Music of Cuba|Cuba]]
| Type = Drum with straight but sloping sides, closest to being a classic [[goblet drum]], variation on a ''[[bat&aacute;]]'' drum
| Other names =
}}
{{List of musical instruments
| Drum = ''subidor''<ref name="Welcome">{{cite web|title=Music|work=Puerto Rico's Culture|url=http://welcome.topuertorico.org/culture/music.shtml|accessdate=March 10|accessyear=2007}}</ref><ref name="NationalGeo"/>
| Number = 211.22
| Tradition = [[Music of Puerto Rico|Puerto Rico]]
| Type = Smaller, barrel-shaped hand drums, covered with tight animal skin, used in ''[[bomba]]''
| Other names = ''primo'', ''repicador''
}}
{{List of musical instruments- see
| Drum = ''super quinto''
| See = conga
}}
{{List of musical instruments- see
| Drum = ''supertumba''
| See = conga
}}
{{List of musical instruments
| Drum = ''[[tambora (drum)|tambora]]''<ref name="NewGroveAatDA"/><ref>Manuel, pgs. 42-46</ref><ref name="DMO"/><ref name="CaribbeanMusic">{{cite journal|title=Review of ''Caribbean Island Music: Songs and Dances of Haiti, the Dominican Republic and Jamaica'' by John Storm Roberts|first=Krister|last=Malm|journal=Ethnomusicology|volume=17|issue=3|month=September|year=1973|pages=587-589}}</ref>
| Number = 211.222
| Tradition = [[Music of the Dominican Republic|Dominican Republic]] originally, now also common on [[Music of Aruba and the Netherlands Antilles|St Maarten]]
| Type = Double-headed barrel drum of African origin, played with a stick on one head and a bare hand on the other
| Other names =
}}
{{List of musical instruments
| Drum = ''tambou''<ref name="GarlandGrenada"/>
| Number = 211.221.1
| Tradition = [[Music of Grenada|Grenada]]
| Type = Open-bottomed, goatskin-headed, made from barrels or tree trunks, larger partner of the ''baboula'', accompanies the ''[[belair]]'' dance
| Other names =
}}
{{List of musical instruments
| Drum = ''tambou''<ref name="Berrian"/><ref name="HaitianDrums"/>
| Tradition = [[Music of Haiti|Haiti]], [[Music of Martinique|Martinique]] and [[Music of Guadeloupe|Guadeloupe]]
| Type = Generic term for drums
| Other names = ''tanbou''
}}
{{List of musical instruments
| Drum = ''tambour''<ref>{{cite web|url=http://puertorico-guide.info/arts.and.entertainment/instruments/|accessdate=March 10|accessyear=2007|title=Puerto Rican Instruments|work=Puerto Rico Guide}}</ref>
| Number = 211.211.2
| Tradition = [[Music of Puerto Rico|Puerto Rico]]
| Type = [[Long drum]], made from a hollowed-out tree trunk and topped with animal skin
| Other names =
}}
{{List of musical instruments
| Drum = ''tambourine''<ref name="HaitianInstruments"/>
| Number = 212.211
| Tradition = [[Music of Haiti|Haiti]]
| Type = Miniature version of the tymbale, beaten with two sticks
| Other names =
}}
{{List of musical instruments
| Drum = ''tambú''<ref>{{cite web|accessdate=December 3|accessyear=2005|url=http://www.curacao-travelguide.com/culture/index.shtml|title=Curacao's Culture|work=Curacao Culture and Folklore}}</ref><ref name="NewGroveAatDA"/>
| Number = 211.211.2
| Tradition = [[Music of Aruba and the Netherlands Antilles|Curaçao]]
| Type = Long drum, made from a hollow log, used in ''[[tambú]]''
| Other names = ''tambu''
}}
{{List of musical instruments- see
| Drum = ''tanbou''
| See = ''tambou''
}}
{{List of musical instruments
| Drum = ''[[tassa]]''<ref name="GarlandTrinidad"/>
| Number = 211.11
| Tradition = [[Indo-Caribbean music|Indo-Trinidadian]], now commonplace
| Type = [[Kettle drum]] with a goatskin head, used in the [[Muslim music|Muslim]] ''[[Hosay]]'' (''Hosein'') ritual
| Other names =
}}
{{List of musical instruments
| Drum = ''tenbal, tambou''<ref name="Lucia"/>
| Number = 211.212.1
| Tradition = [[Music of Saint Lucia|Saint Lucia]]
| Type = Snare drum, used in cockfights, ''séwinal'', merry-go-rounds, other celebrations
| Other names =
}}
{{List of musical instruments
| Drum = [[tenor]] drum<ref name="Gleaner"/>
| Number = 2
| Tradition = [[Music of Jamaica|Jamaica]]
| Type = Carried with a strap, used in [[marching band]]s
| Other names =
}}
{{List of musical instruments- see
| Drum = ''t&eacute;tend&oacute;ga''
| See = ''biapá''
}}
{{List of musical instruments- see
| Drum = ''timbales''
| See = ''tymbales''
}}
{{List of musical instruments
| Drum = ''tom''<ref name="Guilbault">{{cite book|title=Zouk: World Music in the West Indies|first=Jocelyne|last=Guilbault|year=1993|publisher=University of Chicago Press|id=ISBN 0226310418}}</ref>
| Number = 211.212.1
| Tradition = [[Music of Guadeloupe|Guadeloupe]]
| Type = Cylindrical drum like the [[tom-tom drum]], [played with sticks
| Other names =
}}
{{List of musical instruments
| Drum = ''tombas''<ref name="Guilbault"/>
| Number = 211.212.1
| Tradition = [[Music of Guadeloupe|Guadeloupe]]
| Type = Bass drum, played with sticks
| Other names =
}}
{{List of musical instruments
| Drum = ''toombah''<ref name="GarlandAntigua"/>
| Number = 2
| Tradition = [[Music of Antigua and Barbuda|Antigua and Barbuda]]
| Type = Small drum, decorated with shells and tin
| Other names = ''tumtum''
}}
{{List of musical instruments- see
| Drum = ''tres golpes''
| See = conga
}}
{{List of musical instruments
| Drum = ''tres por dos''<ref name="MusicofPR"/>
| Number = 211.22
| Tradition = [[Music of Cuba|Cuba]]
| Type = Medium-sized barrel-shaped hand drum of the ''tumbadora'' family
| Other names =
}}
{{List of musical instruments- see
| Drum = true conga
| See = ''bass tumbadora''
}}
{{List of musical instruments
| Drum = ''tumba''<ref name="MusicofPR"/> <ref name="CubanDrums"/>
| Number = 211.221-7
| Tradition = [[Music of Cuba|Cuba]]
| Type = Largest variety of the [[conga]] family, stave drum with a cowskin head
| Other names =
}}
{{List of musical instruments
| Drum = ''tumbadora''<ref name="MusicofPR"/>
| Number = 211.22.2
| Tradition = [[Music of Cuba|Cuba]]
| Type = Cuban [[conga]] drum, barrel-shaped hand drum
| Other names = bass tumbadora, true conga, ''tres por dos'', ''quinto''
}}
{{List of musical instruments
| Drum = ''tumao''<ref name="Suriname"/> <ref name="Agida">{{citejournal|title=Africanisms among the Bush Negroes of Surinam|first=Leonard|last=Goines|title=The Black Perspective in Music|volume=3|issue=1|month=Spring|year=1975|pages=40-44}}</ref>
| Number = 211.211.2
| Tradition = [[music of Suriname|Suriname]]
| Type = Intermediate drum of the set, with ''agida'' and ''apinti'', played with one hand, pitch can be varied based on the location of the head struck, made from hollow logs with heads of skin
| Other names =
}}
{{List of musical instruments- see
| Drum = ''tumtum''
| See = ''toombah''
}}
{{List of musical instruments
| Drum = ''tumtum''<ref name="GarlandBarbados"/>
| Number = 211.212.1
| Tradition = [[Music of Barbados|Barbados]]
| Type = Hollowed-out tree trunk with skins at either end
| Other names =
}}
{{List of musical instruments
| Drum = ''tun''<ref name="NGFrenchWestIndies"/>
| Number = 2
| Tradition = [[Music of French Guiana|French Guiana]]
| Type = Small drum, used among the Alukuó [[Maroon (people)|Maroon]]s
| Other names =
}}
{{List of musical instruments
| Drum = ''twavay, tambou''<ref name="GarlandDominica"/>
| Number = 22
| Tradition = [[Music of Dominica|Dominica]]
| Type = Small barrel frame drum, headed with goatskin; a cord with an attached bead is placed on the drumskin to add a buzzing quality to the sound, used to accompany [[work song]]s
| Other names =
}}
{{List of musical instruments
| Drum = ''tymbale''<ref name="HaitianInstruments"/>
| Number = 212.212.1
| Tradition = [[Music of Haiti|Haiti]]
| Type = Large two-headed hooped drum, carried with a strap and sometimes with an attached board called an ''assot''
| Other names =
}}
{{List of musical instruments
| Drum = ''tymbales''<ref name="CubanDrums"/>
| Number = 211.211.1
| Tradition = [[Music of Cuba|Cuba]]
| Type = European-derived open-bottomed twin drum, played using sticks
| Other names = ''timbales''
| Image = [[Image:Pearl timbales-1-.jpg|130px]]
}}
{{List of musical instruments
| Drum = ''uy&oacute;''<ref name="CubanDrums"/>
| Number = 23
| Tradition = [[Music of Cuba|Cuba]]
| Type = [[Abakua]] [[friction drum]], details of construction are kept secret
| Other names =
}}
{{List of musical instruments- see
| Drum = ''woowoo''
| See = French reel
}}
{{List of musical instruments
| Drum = ''xump&eacute;''<ref name="CubanDrums"/>
| Number = 211.22-861
| Tradition = [[Music of Cuba|Cuba]]
| Type = Second-largest of the four drums used in the Haitian-Cuban ''[[Arada]]'' ceremonies, along with ''hug&aacute;n'', ''hun-hog&uacute;lo'' and ''hun&iacute;''
| Other names = ''French drum''
}}
{{List of musical instruments
| Drum = ''[[yuka (music)|yuka]]''<ref name="Yuka"/><ref name="CreoleDrums"/>
| Number = 211.211.2
| Tradition = [[Music of Cuba|Cuba]]
| Type = Class of three folk tubular drums: ''caja'', ''mula'', and ''cachimbo''
| Other names = ''makuta'', ''ngoma'', ''tambor de yuka''
}}
{{List of musical instruments
| Drum = ''zesse''<ref name="HaitianInstruments"/>
| Number = 22
| Tradition = [[Music of Haiti|Haiti]]
| Type = Cylindrical drum used in the dance of the same name, has a wire stretched across the single goatskin head
| Other names =
}}
{{List of musical instruments- end}}

== References ==

*{{cite book|first=Peter|last=Manuel|title=Popular Musics of the Non-Western World: An Introductory Survey|publisher=Oxford University Press|location=New York|year=1988|id=ISBN 0195063341}}
*{{cite book|title=The Garland Encyclopedia of World Music, Volume 3: The United States and Canada|publisher=Garland Publishing|location=New York and London|year=2001|last=Koskoff|first=Ellen|id=ISBN 0824060407}}

== Notes ==

{{reflist|3}}

{{Featured list}}

[[Category:Caribbean music|Membranophones]]
[[Category:Lists of musical instruments|Caribbean membranophones]]
[[Category:Drums]]

Revision as of 12:46, 27 March 2008

Conga drums are a common part of Caribbean music across much of the area

This is a list of membranophones used in the Caribbean music area, including the islands of the Caribbean Sea, as well as the musics of Guyana, Suriname, French Guiana, Bahamas, and Bermuda. It only includes membranophones that are indigenous to the local music area or are a vital and long-standing part of local culture. It does not include membranophones that are, for example, a part of Western style orchestras, nor does it include trap sets and other common membranophones used in popular music recordings of many genres across the world. Almost all membranophones are drums and percussion instruments.[1][2]

The Hornbostel-Sachs number is given after each instrument.[3]


Instrument Tradition Hornbostel–Sachs classification Description
agbe See chekere -
agida[4][5]
 Suriname 211.211.2 Afro-Surinamese bass drum that sets a steady beat for folk music, played with a stick, of the set with apinti and tumao, pitch can be varied based on the location of the head struck, made from hollow logs with heads of skin, used in spiritual ceremonies, where it is associated with snake spirits
akete See kété -
alcagüete See alcahuete -
alcahuete[6] [7]
alcagüete 		Dominican Republic 211.211.2-7 One of the smaller drums used in the ensembles called palos, of the Afro-Dominican religious ceremonies, played either in pairs or trios, with single skin heads either pegged or tacked
amelé See okónkolo -
apinti[4][5]
 Suriname 211.211.2 Principal Afro-Surinamese drum of the set with agida and tumao, tenor drum, decorated with carvings, and used for communication by Surinamese slaves and for religious purposes in connection with sky and ancestor spirits, pitch can be varied based on the location of the head struck, made from hollow logs with heads of skin
arobapá[8] [9]
endóga 		Cuba 211.21-814 Drum used in Afro-Cuban Abakuá societies, small enkomo drum of the biankomeko ensemble, along with the kuchiyeremá and biapá, and the taller bonkó enchemiyá
assotor[10]
 Haiti 211.211.2 Five to six foot tall cylindrical drum with three windows near the base so the drummer (or pair of drummers) can play it easily, decorated with brightly-colored kerchiefs (foulas)
atabales See palos -
baboula[11][12]
 Grenada 211.221.1 Open-bottomed, goatskin-headed, made from barrels or tree trunks, smaller partner of the tambou, used in the belair dance
balaban[13][14]
jumbie drum 		Montserrat 211.311 Small goatskin frame drum, played with the back of the hand, front of the fingers and the palm, used to attract spirits for the jumbie dance
balsié[15]
 Dominican Republic 2 Small double-headed drum, used in merengue only in the south of the country
bamboula[16]
 Virgin Islands 211.211.2 Played by two drummers, one using two sticks and the other hands and feet, used in dance genre of the same name (bamboula)
bandu See kbandu -
bari[17][18][19]
 Bonaire and Curaçao 211.22 Single-headed, made from a wooden barrel, often from the herring industry, with a skin frame, played two-handed
barrel drum[9]
 Cuba 211.222.2-7 Barrel drum variant of a batá drum, often with the system of lacing replaced by nailing the heads to the drum, most common in Matanzas Province
barriles[20]
buleador, primo, repicador, subidor 		Puerto Rico 211.221.2 Barrel drums, covered with lightly-stretched skins, consists of large buleador drums and smaller subidor drums, used in bomba
bas a dé fas, tambou[21]
 Guadeloupe 211.212.2 Bass drum, double-headed, played with sticks, used in Carnival, specifically mizik a mas Byé Fò
bas a yon fas, tambou[22][21]
 Guadeloupe 211.221-7 Bass barrel drum, one-headed, laced, and played with sticks, used in Carnival, specifically mizik a mas a Sen Jan
bas, tambou di[22][23][24][25]
boula, tambou dibass, tambou dibas, tambou bas 		Martinique and Guadeloupe 211.311 Small frame drum played with both striking and rubbing, used in indoor music, and quadrilles, ladja and gwo ka, and in the Tamil music of Indo-Caribbean Martinique
bas, tambou See foulé, tambou -
bas, tambou See bas, tambou di -
bas, tambou See bas a yon fas, tambou -
base, tambou di See bas, tambou di -
bass drum[26]
 Antigua and Barbuda 211.211.2 Bass drum, accompaniment to stilt dancers and Christmas music
bass drum[27]
 Barbados 211.212.1 Double-headed drum that keeps the ground rhythm and is slung across the drummers' shoulder, used in tuk bands
bass drum[11]
 Grenada 211.212.1 Double-headed bass drum, played with a hard stick in one hand for the lower head, and a soft mallet in the other hand for the upper head, used to accompany quadrilles
bass drum[28][29][30][31][32]
repeater (Maroon only) 		Jamaica 211.212.1 Double-headed bass drum, carried with a strap and leader of marching bands, played with a covered stick in Nyabinghi ceremonies, used in marching bands, and Rastafarian and Maroon music
bass tumbadora[33]
true conga 		Cuba 211.22.2 Largest barrel-shaped hand drum of the tumbadora family
basse[10]
 Haiti 211.311 Goatskin-headed tambourine, used in secular music
batá drums[34][9]
 Cuba 211.26-813 Family of three drums: iyá, itótele and okónkolo, used in Lucumi religious rites, all goblet-shaped and with two goatskin heads called tcha-tchás, sometimes with a nut inside (coco-Africano), both for aural and spiritual reasons
batta[35]
 Guyana 2 Afro-Guyanese bass drum, used in folk music traditions
baydum [36]
 Indo-Trinidadian 211.212.1 Double-headed bass drum, used in Muslim Hosay (Hosein) rituals, now widespread among Afro-Trinidadians and others
bélé[22][37][23][24]
 Martinique 211.251.2-91(+22) Single-headed, open-bottomed conical drum with a hole in the barrel and a goatskin head, stretched by a rope hoop, wrapped in more rope, used in all African-derived Martinican dances and as a symbol of Afro-Martinican identity, including bélé, kalenda, and danmyé, also used to synchronize collective labor in northern Martinique, and is a part of most Martinican rural work songs, uses a plucking string in the northern region
bélé, tambou[38]
 Dominica 211.221.2-86+22 Single-headed barrel drum, covered at one end by goatskin, stretched with rope and pegs, and played barehanded, accompanies bélé, features a plucked strings across the head
bélé, tambou See ka -
bemba[36]
bembe 		Trinidad and Tobago 211.212.2 Cylindrical drums with double skins, smallest of the set with congo and oumalay drums
bembe See bemba -
bench drum See gumbe -
biankomeko[8] [9]
 Cuba {{{Number}}} Afro-Cuban Abakuá drum ensemble, consisting of four drums: bonkó enchemiyá and enkomo: biapá, arobapá, and kuchiyeremá
biapá[8] [9]
tétendóga 		Cuba 211.21-814 Small enkomo drum of the biankomeko ensemble, along with the biapá, arobapá, and kuchiyeremá, and the taller bonkó enchemiyá
Big Drum[39] [40]
 Saint Vincent and the Grenadines, Carriacou (Grenada) and Saint Kitts and Nevis {{{Number}}} Music and dance ritual, which includes drums traditionally made of tree trunks, now often of rum kegs
bigi doon See gaan doon -
biola[9]
 Cuba 211.321 Unstrung banjo with a drumhead attached
bomba[41]
 Puerto Rico 211.221.2 Barrel-shaped bass drum, used in genre of the same name (bomba)
bombos[9]
 Cuba 211.212.1 European-style bass drum, used in comparsa, a pre-Easter procession
boncó See bonkó enchemiyá -
bongo[42][41][33][35] [9][43]
 Cuba, Puerto Rico and across the area, especially Guyana 211.211.1 Drums of unequal size played in a pair, of Afro-Cuban origin, held between the knees, originally used in Cuban folk music of various kinds
bonkó enchemiyá[8]
bonko enchemi, bonko, boncó 		Cuba 211.21-814 Largest drum of the biankomeko ensemble, along with the enkomo: biapá, arobapá, and kuchiyeremá
bonko See bonkó enchemiyá -
bonko enchemi See bonkó enchemiyá -
boom See kettle -
boom See kittle -
boom boom See keg -
boula[37][22][21][23][25]
 Guadeloupe 211.221.2 Single-headed hand drum, similar to tambou bèlè and played transversally and single-handed, produces lower sounds and the basic rhythms of the music, used in gwo ka, Carnival, wrestling matches and wakes
boula[12][11][44]
tambou dibas, bulla, bula 		Carriacou 211.221.2 Hand drum, formerly made of barrels, now more often rum casks; narrower and lower-tuned cousin of the kata, used in the Big Drum tradition, barrel contains a hole on the side, skin is stretched by a hoop wrapped in cloth
boula[45][10]
bula 		Haiti 211.221.2-7 Cowskin hand drum, with the head pegged in place around a decorative collar, used in rada along with segon and manman drums
boula[36]
 Trinidad and Tobago 211.222-92 Double-headed barrel drum, played open handed, drum heads attached with hoops, accompanies kalenda stick fighting
bula See boula (Carriacou, Haiti) -
bulla See boula (Carriacou) -
buleador[20]
primo, repicador, burlador 		Puerto Rico 211.221.2 Larger, barrel-shaped hand drums, covered with tight animal skin stretched using pegs, used in bomba
burlador See buleador -
cachimbo[46][44]
 Cuba 211.211.2 Smallest yuka tubular drum, along with caja and mula
caja[46][44]
 Cuba 211.211.2 Largest yuka tubular drum, along with cachimbo and mula, played by two people, one striking the bass and the other hitting the body with a pair of sticks
cast See playing cast -
chan, tambou[22]
 Guadeloupe 2 Small and high pitched drums, played with sticks, used in Carnival, specifically mizik a mas a Sen Jan
circular See snare drum (Jamaica) -
conga[37][42][42][47][9][43]
tumbadora, tumba, requinto, quinto, ricardo, niño, supertumba, super quinto, tres golpes, salidor, true conga 		Originally Cuban, now found throughout the Caribbean, especially Puerto Rico, the Dominican Republic and Haiti 211.221.1-7 Tall, narrow and single-headed barrel drum, open at the bottom, played by congueros, traditionally wood, now often fiberglass, animal-skin heads can be tuned; also used in popular genres from salsa to ripsaw
congo See petwo -
congo[36][35]
 Trinidad and Tobago 211.212.2 Cylindrical drums with double skins, middle-sized drum of the set with bembe and oumalay drums; since introduced to Guyana
congo[15]
 Dominican Republic 211.212.2 Cylindrical folk drums
conguito[15]
 Dominican Republic 211.212.2 Cylindrical folk drums with a low bass tone, smaller version of the congo
cot See kata -
cotchíerima See kuchiyeremá -
cut drum See kata -
cutter[36]
 Trinidad and Tobago 211.221-92 Single-headed barrel drum, played open handed, drum heads attached with hoops, accompanies kalenda stick fighting
cutter See kata -
débonda, tambou[22][24]
doumbedoum 		Guadeloupe and Martinique 211.222.1 Double-headed barrel drum, used in chouval bwa and Carnival music
dholak[36][48]
 Indo-Caribbean 211.212.1 Double-headed drum, used in chutney
dibas, tambou See bas, tambou di -
dibass, tambou See bas, tambou di -
djembe[37]
 Guadeloupe 211.261.2 Skin-covered hand drum, goblet-shaped and played bare-handed, used in gwo ka moderne
doumbedoum See dèbonda, tambou -
dup[11]
 Grenada 211.221.2 Bass drum made from a cardboard barrel, used in parang
ekué[49] [50]
ecue 		Cuba 231.13-814 Single-headed three-legged friction drum used in Abakuá ceremonies, played by rubbing a stick over the membrane, which is attached using wedges whose tightness can be modified
enómo See enkomo -
endóga See arobapá -
enko See enkomo -
enkomo[8] [9]
enko, enómo 		Cuba 211.21-814 Small cylindrical, or slightly tapered, goatskin-headed drums of the biankomeko ensemble, consisting of three types: biapá, arobapá, and kuchiyeremá
foulé, tambou[22]
 French Guiana 211.221.2-92 Large barrel drum, used in Creole instrumental ensembles and kaseko, plays a basic rhythm accompanied by the tambou koupé, head typically made of goatskin, attached with a vine or iron hoop
French drum See hun -
French reel[13][14]
jumbie drum, woowoo 		Montserrat 211.311 Goatskin frame drum, played with the back of the hand, front of the fingers and the palm, used to attract spirits for the jumbie dance
funde[29][30][31][51]
fundeh 		Jamaica 211.211.1 Cylindrical drum, one-headed, held between players' legs and performed by tapping with the hand or fingers, originally used in Burru cult rituals, now also common in Nyabinghi ceremonies
funde[35]
 Guyana 211.21 Afro-Guyanese cylindrical drum
fundeh See funde -
gaan doon[22]
 French Guiana 2 Large bass drum that leads dances, used by the Alukuó Maroons
ganbo[10]
 Haiti 211.211.1 Bamboo stomping tubes, sometimes played in groups
gombay See gumbe -
gombey[52][53]
 Bermuda 211.211.2 Afro-Bermudan drum, related to the Bahamian goombay, used in the genre of the same name (gombey)
gonde[45]
 Haiti 211.251.2-7 Cowskin hand drum, played with a hand and a bow, in a set with katabo and tambou manman
goombah See gumbe -
goombay[54][47]
 Bahamas and Turks and Caicos 211.211.2-7 Goatskin-headed drum traditionally made from improvised materials (especially discarded barrels), goatskin is tuned by heating it with a candle and attached with nails, used in the Bahamian genre of the same name (goombay)
goombay See gumbe -
goombey See gumbe -
gragé, tambou[22]
 French Guiana 211.3 Frame drum, used in Creole dance accompaniment for a dance of the same name (gragé)
groska See gwo ka -
gumbay See gumbe -
gumbe[55][56][32]
gumbay, goombeh, goombah, goombay, gombay, bench drum 		French Guiana and Jamaica 211.31 Small Maroon-derived goatskin square-framed drum, introduced to Sierra Leone
gumbay See gumbe -
gwo ka[37][21][23]
also used synonymously with ka 		Guadeloupe {{{Number}}} Family of hand drums, used in lewoz and other traditions, as well as zouk
harp[29]
 Jamaica {{{Number}}} Generic term for drums used in ceremonies called grounations; these include the bass drum, funde and kété
hun[9]
French drums 		Cuba {{{Number}}} Family of four drums used in the Haitian-Cuban Arada ceremonies, consisting of hugán, xumpé, hun-hogúlo and huní
hugán[9]
French drum 		Cuba 211.22-861 Largest of the four drums used in the Haitian-Cuban Arada ceremonies, along with xumpé, hun-hogúlo and huní
hun-hogúlo[9]
French drum 		Cuba 211.22-861 Second-smallest of the four drums used in the Haitian-Cuban Arada ceremonies, along with hugán, xumpé and huní
huní[9]
French drum 		Cuba 211.22-861 Smallest of the four drums used in the Haitian-Cuban Arada ceremonies, along with hugán, xumpé and hun-hogúlo
ich, tambou[57]
 Saint Lucia 2 Smaller drum used in Kélé rituals, literally child drum
ikónkolo See okónkolo -
itótele[34] [9]
 Cuba 211.26-813 Intermediate-sized batá goblet-shaped drum, made of wood and covered with skin, along with the iyá and okónkolo; wax-like substance called ida or fardela sometimes used to produce a duller sound
iyá[34] [9]
 Cuba 211.26-813 Largest batá goblet-shaped drum, made of wood and covered with goatskin, along with the itótele and okónkolo; red wax-like substance called ida or fardela is used to produce a duller sound, wrapped with bells and belts (chaguoro or tchaworo)
juba[10]
martinique 		Haiti 211.21-92 Shorter and squatter variety of petwo
jumbie drum See French reel, balaban -
ka[21][23] [24][25]
also used synonymously with gwo ka 		Guadeloupe and Martinique 211.221 Single-headed drums, used in Carnival, specifically mizik a mas a Kongo, made from a barrel with goatskin heads tighted by cord
ka[57]
 Saint Lucia 211.221 Barrel drum with a goatskin head, used in various folk forms, including chanté siay, jwé dansé and jwé gém
ka See tambou -
kanmougé, tambou[22]
 French Guiana 211.211.1 Open-bottomed and single-headed drum, played transversally and carved from a single fragment of wood, used in Creole dance accompaniment for kanmougé and mayouri dances, played in pairs with the lead called the "female" type and the support the "male"
kata[12][11][44]
cut drum, cutter, cot 		Carriacou 211.211.2 Hand drum, formerly made of barrels, now more often rum casks; wider and higher-tuned cousin of the boula, used in the Big Drum tradition, barrel contains a hole on the side, skin is stretched by a hoop wrapped in cloth
katabo[45]
 Haiti 211.251.2-7 Cowskin hand drum, played with two sticks, in a set with gonde and tambou manman
kbandu[58][51][59]
bandu 		Jamaica 211.211.1+111.231 Large, low-pitched, plays a 4/4 rhythm, covered with a goat skin, used in Kumina ceremonies, where it plays a steady rhythm, and is often used several at a time, open end sometimes banged with sticks
keg[16]
boom boom 		Virgin Islands 211.212.1 Double-headed bass drum, used in masquerades and fife and drum ensembles
kété[28][29][30][31]
akete 		Jamaica 211.21 Small skinny cylindrical drum, improvised, used in Nyabinghi celebrations, played with bare hands, also used in dub poetry
kettle[13]
boom 		Montserrat 211.221 Goatskin deep-barreled drum, used in Carnival and other celebrations
kettle drum[26]
 Antigua and Barbuda 211.11 Kettle drum, accompaniment to stilt dancers and Christmas music
kettle drum[52][53]
 Bermuda 211.11 Central use in Bermudan traditions, derived from British kettle drum, especially common in gombey
kettle drum[16]
 Virgin Islands 211.11 Snare drum, used in fife and drum ensembles
Kimbísa drum[9]
 Cuba 211-864 Tall drum with goatskin head, held in place by cords, wedges and hoops, used in the Kimbísa culture
kinfuiti[43]
 Cuba 231.12 Friction drum, single-headed, with a stick inserted and rubbed to produce the sound, used in the Kimbisa tradition
kittle[35]
boom 		Guyana 211.11 Kettle drum, used in masquerades
koupé, tambou[22]
 French Guiana 211.221.2-92 Small barrel drum, used in Creole instrumental ensembles and kaseko, used to improvise for dancing while the tambou foulé plays a basic rhythm, head typically made of goatskin, attached with a vine or iron hoop
kromanti[30]
 Jamaica 211.21 Cylindrical drum, used by the Maroons of Moore Town
kuchiyeremá[8] [9]
cotchíerima 		Cuba 211.21-814 Small enkomo drum of the biankomeko ensemble, along with the arobapá and biapá, and the taller bonkó enchemiyá
lapo kabwit[38]
 Dominica {{{Number}}} Any kind of Dominican or Grenadan folk drum
lélé, tambou[38]
 Dominica 211.211.2 Cylindrical drum, small and wooden with goatskin at one end, strapped across the shoulder and played with two sticks, used in chanté mas
loango[10]
loangue 		Haiti 211.21-92 Taller and narrower variety of petwo
loangue See loango -
maké See markeur -
makuta See yuka -
makyé See markeur -
manman, tambou[57]
 Saint Lucia 2 Larger drum used in Kélé rituals, literally mother drum
mamnan, tambou[45][10]
 Haiti 211.251.2-7 Hand drum with a cowhide head, pegged in place and with a decorated collar, used in many Afro-Haitian musics, used in rada, petwo and other folk traditions
marassas[10]
 Haiti 211.212.2 Cylindrical drum that comes in pairs, traditionally made from wood or a two-gallon container with both top and bottom removed and replaced with heads, played with fingers
markeur[37][22][21][23][25]
makyé, marqueur, maké 		Guadeloupe 211.221.2 Single-headed hand drum, small, high-pitched, played upright and one-handed, and held between the legs, interacts with dancers by responding to movement and improvises with the boula drum, used in gwo ka, Carnival, wrestling matches and wakes
marqueur See markeur -
martinique See juba -
matrimonial See wacharaca -
mongó[7]
 Dominican Republic 211.3 Small rural folk handheld frame drum
moyen See segon -
mula[46][44]
 Cuba 211.211.2 Intermediate-sized yuka tubular drum, along with caja and cachimbo
ngoma See yuka -
niño[33]
 Cuba 2 Smallest drum of the conga family
Nyabinghi See kété -
okónkolo[34][9]
ikónkolo, amelé 		Cuba 211.26-813 Smallest batá goblet-shaped drum, made of wood and covered with skin, along with the itótele and iyá
oumalay[36]
 Trinidad and Tobago 211.212.2 Cylindrical drums with double skins, middle-sized drum of the set with bembe and congo drums
omele See oumalay -
pailas[60]
 Dominican Republic 211.12 Kettledrum, played in pairs, made from containers used to boil sugarcane juice, with tension lugs to adjust the tightness of the single-head, closed bottom
palo auxiliar[6][7]
 Dominican Republic 211.211.2-7 One of the smaller drums used in the ensembles called palos, of the Afro-Dominican religious ceremonies, played either in pairs or trios, with single skin heads either pegged or tacked
palo major[15][7]
 Dominican Republic 211.211.2-7 Larger folk long drum made from a tree trunk, used singly in ensembles called palos, of the Afro-Dominican religious ceremonies, played either in pairs or trios, with single skin heads either pegged or tacked
palo menor[15][7]
 Dominican Republic 211.211.2-7 Smaller folk long drum made from a tree trunk, used singly in ensembles called palos, of the Afro-Dominican religious ceremonies, played either in pairs or trios, with single skin heads either pegged or tacked
palos[6][7]
atabale 		Dominican Republic 211.211.2-7 Ensembles that include a number of drums, include the types of palo and alcahuete, used in the Afro-Dominican religious ceremonies, played either in pairs or trios, with skin heads either pegged or tacked
pandereta[33]
pandero 		Puerto Rico 211.3 Handheld frame drum, used in plena
pandero See pandereta -
panderos[15] [7]
 Dominican Republic 211.3 Small rural folk handheld frame drum
Pétro See petwo -
petwo[61][10]
congo, Pétro 		Haiti 211.21-92 Cylindrical drum headed with cowskin, attached with cords, comes in two varieties: loango and juba
pikin doon[22]
 French Guiana 2 Medium-sized drum that supports dancers, played in pairs, with one played solo, and both played bare-handed, used among the Alukuó Maroons
playing cast[58][51][59]
playin kya, cast 		Jamaica 211.211.1+111.231 Small, high-pitched, plays complex, syncopated rhythms, covered with a goat skin, used in Kumina, open end sometimes struck with sticks
playin kya See playing cast -
podya[4]
 Suriname 2 Small, skin-covered bass drum, common among the rural Afro-Surinamese
prenting See kromanti -
primo See subidor -
pump[27]
 Barbados 2 Long drum, made from a hollow tree trunk with goat or sheep skin on either end
pump[18]
 St Maarten 211.31 Goatskin frame drum, sometimes played in pairs or larger groups, usually using both hands
quinto[33] [9]
 Cuba 211.221 Smallest barrel-shaped hand drum, made out of a box with two sloping sides, of the tumbadora family, plays the most intricate rhythms of the group, not always characterized as a tumbadora or conga drum
rada[61]
 Haiti 2 Drum headed with cowskin, attached with wooden pegs
ralé[45]
 Haiti 2 Goatskin drum, used alongside tambou manman, used in petwo and YaYa TiKongo rhythms
rattle See snare drum (Jamaica) -
repeater See bass drum (Jamaica), snare drum (Jamaica) -
repeater See kété -
repeater[51]
 Jamaica 2 Used in the Burru rituals, now imported to Rastafarian music
repicador See subidor -
requinto drum[62]
 Puerto Rico 211.25 Small conical hand drum, improvises over the other drum rhythms, used in plena
ricardo See conga -
ripsaw drum[47]
 Turks and Caicos and Bahamas (Cat Island only) 2 Goat- or cow-skin drum, heated to produce a pitch
round See snare drum (Jamaica) -
Saba drum[18]
 Saba 211.22 Made from kegs or barrels, and attached to a skin frame secured by wood, rope and pegs
salidor See conga -
scratch band barrel drum[16]
 Virgin Islands 211.222 Double-headed barrel drum, used in scratch bands
second See segon -
segon[45][10]
 Haiti 211-7 Cowskin hand drum with artistic collars, used in rada along with boula and manman drums
segundo See conga -
side drum See snare drum -
skratji[63][64]
 Suriname 2 Large Afro-Surinamese bass drum with a cymbal on top, used in kaseko
snare drum[52][53]
 Bermuda 211.212.1 Central use in Bermudan traditions, generally played in pairs, used in gombey
snare drum[27]
kettle 		Barbados 211.212.1 Doubled headed side snare drum, used in tuk bands
snare drum[9]
 Cuba 211.212.1 Snare drum used in comparsa pre-Easter celebrations
snare drum[28][30][32]
side drum, Maroon only: repeater, rattle, round, circular 		Jamaica 211.212.1 Snare drum played with wooden sticks, carried with a strap, used in marching bands and Maroon music
snare drum[64]
 Suriname 211.212.1 Snare drum, used in kaseko
stave drum[9]
 Cuba 211.261.2-813 Drum with straight but sloping sides, closest to being a classic goblet drum, variation on a batá drum
subidor[65][20]
primo, repicador 		Puerto Rico 211.22 Smaller, barrel-shaped hand drums, covered with tight animal skin, used in bomba
super quinto See conga -
supertumba See conga -
tambora[18][66][15][6]
 Dominican Republic originally, now also common on St Maarten 211.222 Double-headed barrel drum of African origin, played with a stick on one head and a bare hand on the other
tambou[11]
 Grenada 211.221.1 Open-bottomed, goatskin-headed, made from barrels or tree trunks, larger partner of the baboula, accompanies the belair dance
tambou[23][45]
tanbou 		Haiti, Martinique and Guadeloupe {{{Number}}} Generic term for drums
tambour[67]
 Puerto Rico 211.211.2 Long drum, made from a hollowed-out tree trunk and topped with animal skin
tambourine[10]
 Haiti 212.211 Miniature version of the tymbale, beaten with two sticks
tambú[68][18]
tambu 		Curaçao 211.211.2 Long drum, made from a hollow log, used in tambú
tanbou See tambou -
tassa[36]
 Indo-Trinidadian, now commonplace 211.11 Kettle drum with a goatskin head, used in the Muslim Hosay (Hosein) ritual
tenbal, tambou[57]
 Saint Lucia 211.212.1 Snare drum, used in cockfights, séwinal, merry-go-rounds, other celebrations
tenor drum[28]
 Jamaica 2 Carried with a strap, used in marching bands
tétendóga See biapá -
timbales See tymbales -
tom[25]
 Guadeloupe 211.212.1 Cylindrical drum like the tom-tom drum, [played with sticks
tombas[25]
 Guadeloupe 211.212.1 Bass drum, played with sticks
toombah[26]
tumtum 		Antigua and Barbuda 2 Small drum, decorated with shells and tin
tres golpes See conga -
tres por dos[33]
 Cuba 211.22 Medium-sized barrel-shaped hand drum of the tumbadora family
true conga See bass tumbadora -
tumba[33] [9]
 Cuba 211.221-7 Largest variety of the conga family, stave drum with a cowskin head
tumbadora[33]
bass tumbadora, true conga, tres por dos, quinto 		Cuba 211.22.2 Cuban conga drum, barrel-shaped hand drum
tumao[4] [5]
 Suriname 211.211.2 Intermediate drum of the set, with agida and apinti, played with one hand, pitch can be varied based on the location of the head struck, made from hollow logs with heads of skin
tumtum See toombah -
tumtum[27]
 Barbados 211.212.1 Hollowed-out tree trunk with skins at either end
tun[22]
 French Guiana 2 Small drum, used among the Alukuó Maroons
twavay, tambou[38]
 Dominica 22 Small barrel frame drum, headed with goatskin; a cord with an attached bead is placed on the drumskin to add a buzzing quality to the sound, used to accompany work songs
tymbale[10]
 Haiti 212.212.1 Large two-headed hooped drum, carried with a strap and sometimes with an attached board called an assot
tymbales[9]
timbales 		Cuba 211.211.1 European-derived open-bottomed twin drum, played using sticks
uyó[9]
 Cuba 23 Abakua friction drum, details of construction are kept secret
woowoo See French reel -
xumpé[9]
French drum 		Cuba 211.22-861 Second-largest of the four drums used in the Haitian-Cuban Arada ceremonies, along with hugán, hun-hogúlo and huní
yuka[46][44]
makuta, ngoma, tambor de yuka 		Cuba 211.211.2 Class of three folk tubular drums: caja, mula, and cachimbo
zesse[10]
 Haiti 22 Cylindrical drum used in the dance of the same name, has a wire stretched across the single goatskin head


References

  • Manuel, Peter (1988). Popular Musics of the Non-Western World: An Introductory Survey. New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0195063341.
  • Koskoff, Ellen (2001). The Garland Encyclopedia of World Music, Volume 3: The United States and Canada. New York and London: Garland Publishing. ISBN 0824060407.

Notes

  1. ^ Catherine Schmidt-Jones. "Classifying Musical Instruments: Membranophones". Connexions. Retrieved January 22. {{cite web}}: Check date values in: |accessdate= (help); Unknown parameter |accessyear= ignored (|access-date= suggested) (help)
  2. ^ "534m Membranophones". SIL. Retrieved January 4. {{cite web}}: Check date values in: |accessdate= (help); Unknown parameter |accessyear= ignored (|access-date= suggested) (help)
  3. ^ von Hornbostel, Erich M. (1961). "Classification of Musical Instruments: Translated from the Original German by Anthony Baines and Klaus P. Wachsmann". The Galpin Society Journal. 14: 3–29. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help); Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
  4. ^ a b c d Melville J. Herskovits. "Suriname folk-lore". Retrieved March 10. {{cite web}}: Check date values in: |accessdate= (help); Unknown parameter |accessyear= ignored (|access-date= suggested) (help); Unknown parameter |coauthor= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
  5. ^ a b c Goines, Leonard (1975). "The Black Perspective in Music". 3 (1): 40–44. {{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help); Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
  6. ^ a b c d Malm, Krister (1973). "Review of Caribbean Island Music: Songs and Dances of Haiti, the Dominican Republic and Jamaica by John Storm Roberts". Ethnomusicology. 17 (3): 587–589. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
  7. ^ a b c d e f g Davis, Martha Ellen (July 7-11). "A Survey of Afro-Dominican Palos Sacred Drum Music". Séminaire d'ethnomusicologie caribéenne. Sainte-Anne, Guadeloupe: University of Florida. Retrieved March 9. {{cite web}}: Check date values in: |accessdate=, |date=, and |year= / |date= mismatch (help); Unknown parameter |accessyear= ignored (|access-date= suggested) (help)
  8. ^ a b c d e f "Abakuá Drums in Havana". Folk Cuba. Retrieved March 10. {{cite web}}: Check date values in: |accessdate= (help); Unknown parameter |accessyear= ignored (|access-date= suggested) (help)
  9. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v w x y z Courlander, Harold (1942). "Musical Instruments of Cuba". The Musical Quarterly. 28 (2): 227–240. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
  10. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m Courlander, Harold (1941). "Musical Instruments of Haiti". The Musical Quarterly. 27 (3): 371–383. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
  11. ^ a b c d e f =McDaniel, Lorna. "Grenada". Garland Encyclopedia of World Music. pp. pp 865-872. {{cite book}}: |pages= has extra text (help)CS1 maint: extra punctuation (link)
  12. ^ a b c "Tombstone - Big Drum - Saraca". Paradise Inn. Retrieved September 10. {{cite web}}: Check date values in: |accessdate= (help); Unknown parameter |accessyear= ignored (|access-date= suggested) (help)
  13. ^ a b c Mesener. "Montserrat". Garland Encyclopedia of World Music, Volume Two: South America, Mexico, Central America, and the Caribbean. pp. 922–926. {{cite book}}: Text "firstJohn" ignored (help)
  14. ^ a b Messenger, John C. (1973). "African Retentions in Montserrat". African Arts. 6 (4): 54–57, 95–96. Retrieved March 12. {{cite journal}}: Check date values in: |accessdate= (help); Unknown parameter |accessyear= ignored (|access-date= suggested) (help); Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
  15. ^ a b c d e f g Sydney Hutchinson (2006). "Dominican Music Overview". Merengue-Ripiao.com. Retrieved March 6. {{cite web}}: Check date values in: |accessdate= (help); Unknown parameter |accessyear= ignored (|access-date= suggested) (help)
  16. ^ a b c d "Virgin Islands". Garland Encyclopedia of World Music, Volume Two: South America, Mexico, Central America, and the Caribbean.
  17. ^ "Culture: A Rich and Diverse Heritage". Bonaire. Retrieved November 11. {{cite web}}: Check date values in: |accessdate= (help); Unknown parameter |accessyear= ignored (|access-date= suggested) (help)
  18. ^ a b c d e Bilby, Kenneth. "Netherlands Antilles and Aruba". New Grove Encyclopedia of Music.
  19. ^ Sheehy, Daniel E. "Aruba and the Netherlands Antilles". Garland Encyclopedia of World Music, Volume Two: South America, Mexico, Central America, and the Caribbean. pp. 927–931.
  20. ^ a b c Nili Belkind. "Bomba". National Geographic World Music. Retrieved March 10. {{cite web}}: Check date values in: |accessdate= (help); Unknown parameter |accessyear= ignored (|access-date= suggested) (help)
  21. ^ a b c d e f Guilbault, Jocelyne. "Guadeloupe". Garland Encyclopedia of World Music, Volume Two: South America, Mexico, Central America, and the Caribbean. pp. pp 873-880. {{cite book}}: |pages= has extra text (help)
  22. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n "French West Indies". New Grove Dictionary of Music. Retrieved September 27. {{cite web}}: Check date values in: |accessdate= (help); Unknown parameter |accessyear= ignored (|access-date= suggested) (help)
  23. ^ a b c d e f g Berrian, Brenda F. (2000). Awakening Spaces: French Caribbean Popular Songs, Music, and Culture. Chicago and London: University of Chicago Press. ISBN 0226044564.
  24. ^ a b c d Cyrille, Dominique (2002). "Popular Music and Martinican-Creole Identityjournal=Black Music Research Journal". 22 (1): 65–83. {{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help); Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
  25. ^ a b c d e f Guilbault, Jocelyne (1993). Zouk: World Music in the West Indies. University of Chicago Press. ISBN 0226310418.
  26. ^ a b c McDaniel, Lorna. "Antigua and Barbuda". Garland Encyclopedia of World Music, Volume Two: South America, Mexico, Central America, and the Caribbean. pp. pp 798 - 800. {{cite book}}: |pages= has extra text (help)
  27. ^ a b c d Millington, Janice. "Barbados". Garland Encyclopedia of World Music, Volume Two: South America, Mexico, Central America, and the Caribbean. pp. 813–821.
  28. ^ a b c d "Drums Keep the Beat!". Jamaica Gleaner News. November 13. Retrieved March 4. {{cite web}}: Check date values in: |accessdate=, |date=, and |year= / |date= mismatch (help); Unknown parameter |accessyear= ignored (|access-date= suggested) (help)
  29. ^ a b c d "Princes and Dreadlocks". Caribbean Religion. Retrieved March 4. {{cite web}}: Check date values in: |accessdate= (help); Unknown parameter |accessyear= ignored (|access-date= suggested) (help)
  30. ^ a b c d e Dickerson, Ronald Eric (1999). "Musical Play Across Ethnic Boundaries in Western Jamaica" (pdf). Retrieved March 4. {{cite web}}: Check date values in: |accessdate= (help); Unknown parameter |accessyear= ignored (|access-date= suggested) (help)
  31. ^ a b c Kahn, Jason. "Drumming, the Backbone of African and Reggae Music". The Dread Library. Retrieved March 4. {{cite web}}: Check date values in: |accessdate= (help); Unknown parameter |accessyear= ignored (|access-date= suggested) (help)
  32. ^ a b c DjeDje, Jacqueline Cogdell (1998). "Remembering Kojo: History, Music, and Gender in the January Sixth Celebration of the Jamaican Accompong Maroons". Black Music Research Journal. 18 (1/2): 67–120. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
  33. ^ a b c d e f g h "Instruments". Music of Puerto Rico. Retrieved March 10. {{cite web}}: Check date values in: |accessdate= (help); Unknown parameter |accessyear= ignored (|access-date= suggested) (help)
  34. ^ a b c d Mark Corrales. "The Bata Drums". Latin American Folk Institute. Retrieved March 10. {{cite web}}: Check date values in: |accessdate= (help); Unknown parameter |accessyear= ignored (|access-date= suggested) (help)
  35. ^ a b c d e Al Craighton (2001). "African Heritage in Guyana". Retrieved March 10. {{cite web}}: Check date values in: |accessdate= (help); Unknown parameter |accessyear= ignored (|access-date= suggested) (help)
  36. ^ a b c d e f g h McDaniel, Lorna. "Trinidad and Tobago". Garland Encyclopedia of World Music, Volume Two: South America, Mexico, Central America, and the Caribbean. pp. 952–967.
  37. ^ a b c d e f Charles de Ledesma and Gene Scaramuzzo (2000). "Dance Funk Creole Style". In Broughton, Simon and Mark Ellingham with James McConnachie and Orla Duane (Eds.) (ed.). Rough Guide to World Music, Vol. 2. Rough Guides Ltd. p. pp 289-303. ISBN 1-85828-636-0. {{cite book}}: |page= has extra text (help)
  38. ^ a b c d Guilbault, Jocelyne. "Dominica". Garland Encyclopedia of World Music, Volume Two: South America, Mexico, Central America, and the Caribbean. pp. pp 840-844. {{cite book}}: |pages= has extra text (help)
  39. ^ "The Arts and Literature". Cultural Profiles Project. Retrieved September 27. {{cite web}}: Check date values in: |accessdate= (help); Unknown parameter |accessyear= ignored (|access-date= suggested) (help)
  40. ^ McDaniel, Lorna (2002). "Musical Thoughts on Unresolved Questions and Recent Findings in Big Drum Research". Black Music Research Journal. 22 (1): 127–139. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
  41. ^ a b Manuel, pgs. 39-42
  42. ^ a b c Manuel, pgs. 24-36 Cite error: The named reference "ManuelCuba" was defined multiple times with different content (see the help page).
  43. ^ a b c Sublette, Ned (2004). Cuba and Its Music: From the First Drums to the Mambo. Chicago Review Press. ISBN 1556526326.
  44. ^ a b c d e f Hill, Donald R. (1998). "West African and Haitian Influences on the Ritual and Popular Music of Carriacou, Trinidad, and Cuba". Black Music Research Journal. 18 (1/2): 183–201. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
  45. ^ a b c d e f g Gaston Jean-Baptiste. "Tanbou". Haitian Drums. Retrieved March 10. {{cite web}}: Check date values in: |accessdate= (help); Unknown parameter |accessyear= ignored (|access-date= suggested) (help)
  46. ^ a b c d "Tambor de Yuka". Folk Cuba. Retrieved March 10. {{cite web}}: Check date values in: |accessdate= (help); Unknown parameter |accessyear= ignored (|access-date= suggested) (help)
  47. ^ a b c Bowen, David (2007). "That Sweet Sound: Ripsaw Music and Our Musical Heritage". Times of the Islands. Retrieved March 10. {{cite journal}}: Check date values in: |accessdate= (help); Unknown parameter |accessyear= ignored (|access-date= suggested) (help); Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
  48. ^ Ramnarine, Tina K. (1998). "Brotherhood of the Boat: Musical Dialogues in a Caribbean Context". British Journal of Ethnomusicology. 7: 1–22.
  49. ^ John A. Donahue. "Applying Experimental Archaeology to Ethnomusicology: Recreating an Ancient Maya Friction Drum through Various Lines of Evidence". Retrieved March 10. {{cite web}}: Check date values in: |accessdate= (help); Unknown parameter |accessyear= ignored (|access-date= suggested) (help)
  50. ^ Velez, Maria Teresa (2000). Drumming for the Gods: The Life and Times of Felips Garcia Villamil. Temple University Press. p. 20. ISBN 1566397316.
  51. ^ a b c d Logan, Wendell (1982). "Some Aspects of Religious Cult Music in Jamaica". The Black Perspective in Music. 10 (1): 85–94. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |coauthor= ignored (|author= suggested) (help); Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
  52. ^ a b c "Bermuda: In Depth". Frommers. Retrieved March 10. {{cite web}}: Check date values in: |accessdate= (help); Unknown parameter |accessyear= ignored (|access-date= suggested) (help)
  53. ^ a b c Irene Smalls. Roots of an African American Christmas "Roots of an African-American Christmas". Retrieved March 10. {{cite web}}: Check |url= value (help); Check date values in: |accessdate= (help); Unknown parameter |accessyear= ignored (|access-date= suggested) (help)
  54. ^ "Art/Music/Dance". Bahamas.com. Retrieved March 10. {{cite web}}: Check date values in: |accessdate= (help); Unknown parameter |accessyear= ignored (|access-date= suggested) (help)
  55. ^ "Glossary". Creativity and Resistance: Maroon Cultures in the Americas. Retrieved March 10. {{cite web}}: Check date values in: |accessdate= (help); Unknown parameter |accessyear= ignored (|access-date= suggested) (help)
  56. ^ Bilby, Kenneth (1983). Kumina: A Congo Based Tradition in the New World. Brussels: Les Cahiers du CEDAF 4: Linguistique. {{cite book}}: Unknown parameter |coauthor= ignored (|author= suggested) (help) cited in Dickerson, Ronald Eric (1999). "Musical Play Across Ethnic Boundaries in Western Jamaica" (pdf). Retrieved March 4. {{cite web}}: Check date values in: |accessdate= (help); Unknown parameter |accessyear= ignored (|access-date= suggested) (help)
  57. ^ a b c d Guilbault, Jocelyne. "Saint Lucia". Garland Encyclopedia of World Music, Volume Two: South America, Mexico, Central America, and the Caribbean.
  58. ^ a b National Library of Jamaica. "Kumina". History Notes. Retrieved March 4. {{cite web}}: Check date values in: |accessdate= (help); Unknown parameter |accessyear= ignored (|access-date= suggested) (help)
  59. ^ a b Bradley, Lloyd (2001). This Is Reggae Music: The Story of Jamaica's Music. Grove Press. ISBN 0802138284. {{cite book}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
  60. ^ Figueroa, Frank (November 1, 2002). "Frank Figueroa on Afro-Caribbean percussion instruments". Latin Beat. Retrieved March 13. {{cite web}}: Check date values in: |accessdate= (help); Unknown parameter |accessyear= ignored (|access-date= suggested) (help)
  61. ^ a b Steward, Sue (2000). "Compass Points". In Simon Broughton, Mark Ellingham, JamesMcConnachie and Orla Duane (Eds.) (ed.). World Music, Vol. 2: Latin & North America, Caribbean, India, Asia and Pacific. Rough Guides. pp. pp 421-429. ISBN 1858286360. {{cite book}}: |pages= has extra text (help); Cite has empty unknown parameter: |1= (help); Unknown parameter |coauthor= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: editors list (link)
  62. ^ "Puerto Rican Bomba and Plena". Smithsonian Global Sound. Retrieved March 10. {{cite web}}: Check date values in: |accessdate= (help); Unknown parameter |accessyear= ignored (|access-date= suggested) (help)
  63. ^ Manuel, Peter (1995). Caribbean Currents: Caribbean Music from Rumba to Reggae. Philadelphia: Temple University Press. ISBN 1-56639-338-8.
  64. ^ a b Rein Spoorman. "Kaseko". World Music Central. Retrieved March 10. {{cite web}}: Check date values in: |accessdate= (help); Unknown parameter |accessyear= ignored (|access-date= suggested) (help)
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  66. ^ Manuel, pgs. 42-46
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  68. ^ "Curacao's Culture". Curacao Culture and Folklore. Retrieved December 3. {{cite web}}: Check date values in: |accessdate= (help); Unknown parameter |accessyear= ignored (|access-date= suggested) (help)

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