Wikipedia:Version 1.0 Editorial Team/South American military history articles by quality/1 and Weimar Republic: Difference between pages
WP 1.0 bot (talk | contribs) Update for April 26, 2009 (test code) |
→Aftermath: removed undocumented statement about the Catholic Church support for "wholesale eradication of the Jews". Even were this documented, it probably belongs on the Third Reich page |
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The period of [[History of Germany|German history]] from [[1919]] to [[1933]] is known as the '''Weimar Republic''' ([[International Phonetic Alphabet|IPA]] {{IPA|/ˈvaɪmar/}}, [[German language|German]] ''Weimarer Republik''). It is named after the city of [[Weimar, Germany|Weimar]] where a national assembly convened to produce a new [[constitution]] after the [[German Monarchy]] and [[German Empire]] were abolished following the nation's defeat in [[World War I]]. |
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<noinclude>== [[Wikipedia:WikiProject Military history/South American military history task force]] ==</noinclude> |
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{{assessment header|Wikipedia talk:WikiProject Military history/South American military history task force|WP Military history/South American military history task force}} |
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{{assessment | page=[[HMS Cardiff (D108)]] [http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=HMS_Cardiff_%28D108%29&oldid=221676320 ] | importance= | date=June 25, 2008 | class={{FA-Class}} | version= | comments= }} |
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{{assessment | page=[[Military career of Hugo Chávez]] [http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Military_career_of_Hugo_Ch%c3%a1vez&oldid=249169953 ] | importance= | date=November 13, 2008 | class={{FA-Class}} | version= | comments= }} |
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{{assessment | page=[[Military history of Puerto Rico]] [http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Military_history_of_Puerto_Rico&oldid=119495053 ] | importance= | date=April 12, 2007 | class={{FA-Class}} | version=0.5 | comments= }} |
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{{assessment | page=[[TAM (tank)]] [http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=TAM_%28tank%29&oldid=245075728 ] | importance= | date=October 16, 2008 | class={{FA-Class}} | version= | comments= }} |
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{{assessment | page=[[Brazilian battleship Minas Geraes]] [http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Brazilian_battleship_Minas_Geraes&oldid=283924586 ] | importance= | date=April 15, 2009 | class={{A-Class}} | version= | comments= }} |
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{{assessment | page=[[Battle of Ollantaytambo]] [http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Battle_of_Ollantaytambo&oldid=228346489 ] | importance= | date=August 3, 2008 | class={{GA-Class}} | version= | comments= }} |
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{{assessment | page=[[Invasion of Cayenne (1809)]] [http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Invasion_of_Cayenne_%281809%29&oldid=286141306 ] | importance= | date=April 26, 2009 | class={{GA-Class}} | version= | comments= }} |
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{{assessment | page=[[Secretaría de Inteligencia]] [http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Secretar%c3%ada_de_Inteligencia&oldid=235183879 ] | importance= | date=September 9, 2008 | class={{GA-Class}} | version= | comments= }} |
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{{assessment | page=[[Shining Path]] [http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Shining_Path&oldid=207672361 ] | importance= | date=May 5, 2008 | class={{GA-Class}} | version= | comments= }} |
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{{assessment | page=[[1964 Brazilian coup d'état]] [http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=1964_Brazilian_coup_d%27%c3%a9tat&oldid=155507335 ] | importance= | date=September 7, 2007 | class={{B-Class}} | version= | comments= }} |
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{{assessment | page=[[1982 invasion of the Falkland Islands]] [http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=1982_invasion_of_the_Falkland_Islands&oldid=122513782 ] | importance= | date=April 12, 2007 | class={{B-Class}} | version= | comments= }} |
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{{assessment | page=[[2002 Venezuelan coup d'état attempt]] [http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=2002_Venezuelan_coup_d%27%c3%a9tat_attempt&oldid=206696229 ] | importance= | date=April 22, 2008 | class={{B-Class}} | version= | comments= }} |
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{{assessment | page=[[ARA General Belgrano]] [http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=ARA_General_Belgrano&oldid=195759838 ] | importance= | date=March 11, 2008 | class={{B-Class}} | version= | comments= }} |
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{{assessment | page=[[Abimael Guzmán]] [http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Abimael_Guzm%c3%a1n&oldid=178441024 ] | importance= | date=December 26, 2007 | class={{B-Class}} | version= | comments= }} |
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{{assessment | page=[[Action of Tambo Nuevo]] [http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Action_of_Tambo_Nuevo&oldid=279796101 ] | importance= | date=March 26, 2009 | class={{B-Class}} | version= | comments= }} |
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{{assessment | page=[[Argentine Army]] [http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Argentine_Army&oldid=179576848 ] | importance= | date=December 26, 2007 | class={{B-Class}} | version= | comments= }} |
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{{assessment | page=[[Argentine air forces in the Falklands War]] [http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Argentine_air_forces_in_the_Falklands_War&oldid=198386891 ] | importance= | date=March 22, 2008 | class={{B-Class}} | version= | comments= }} |
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{{assessment | page=[[Battle of Las Salinas]] [http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Battle_of_Las_Salinas&oldid=255711012 ] | importance= | date=December 10, 2008 | class={{B-Class}} | version= | comments= }} |
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{{assessment | page=[[Battle of Miraflores]] [http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Battle_of_Miraflores&oldid=272330178 ] | importance= | date=March 2, 2009 | class={{B-Class}} | version= | comments= }} |
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{{assessment | page=[[Battle of Pequereque]] [http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Battle_of_Pequereque&oldid=279796014 ] | importance= | date=March 26, 2009 | class={{B-Class}} | version= | comments= }} |
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{{assessment | page=[[Battle of Sangarará]] [http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Battle_of_Sangarar%c3%a1&oldid=254451354 ] | importance= | date=December 14, 2008 | class={{B-Class}} | version= | comments= }} |
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{{assessment | page=[[Beagle conflict]] [http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Beagle_conflict&oldid=250526897 ] | importance= | date=December 18, 2008 | class={{B-Class}} | version= | comments= }} |
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{{assessment | page=[[Brazilian battleship São Paulo]] [http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Brazilian_battleship_S%c3%a3o_Paulo&oldid=285457098 ] | importance= | date=April 22, 2009 | class={{B-Class}} | version= | comments= }} |
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{{assessment | page=[[Che Guevara]] [http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Che_Guevara&oldid=218123591 ] | importance= | date=June 11, 2008 | class={{B-Class}} | version= | comments= }} |
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{{assessment | page=[[Colombian armed conflict (1964–present)]] [http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Colombian_armed_conflict_%281964%e2%80%93present%29&oldid=234118647 ] | importance= | date=September 17, 2008 | class={{B-Class}} | version= | comments= }} |
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{{assessment | page=[[Dirty War]] [http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Dirty_War&oldid=122458300 ] | importance= | date=April 12, 2007 | class={{B-Class}} | version= | comments= }} |
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{{assessment | page=[[Falklands War]] [http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Falklands_War&oldid=122474984 ] | importance= | date=April 12, 2007 | class={{B-Class}} | version= | comments= }} |
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{{assessment | page=[[Fulgencio Batista]] [http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Fulgencio_Batista&oldid=211597818 ] | importance= | date=May 11, 2008 | class={{B-Class}} | version= | comments= }} |
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{{assessment | page=[[GADA 601]] [http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=GADA_601&oldid=212972666 ] | importance= | date=May 18, 2008 | class={{B-Class}} | version= | comments= }} |
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{{assessment | page=[[Granma (yacht)]] [http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Granma_%28yacht%29&oldid=255396438 ] | importance= | date=December 4, 2008 | class={{B-Class}} | version= | comments= }} |
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{{assessment | page=[[Hugo Chávez]] [http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Hugo_Ch%c3%a1vez&oldid=257094064 ] | importance= | date=December 21, 2008 | class={{B-Class}} | version= | comments= }} |
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{{assessment | page=[[Juan Perón]] [http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Juan_Per%c3%b3n&oldid=259243251 ] | importance= | date=December 22, 2008 | class={{B-Class}} | version= | comments= }} |
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{{assessment | page=[[Paquisha War]] [http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Paquisha_War&oldid=259699033 ] | importance= | date=December 26, 2008 | class={{B-Class}} | version= | comments= }} |
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{{assessment | page=[[Pernambucan Revolt]] [http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Pernambucan_Revolt&oldid=244754672 ] | importance= | date=December 22, 2008 | class={{B-Class}} | version= | comments= }} |
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{{assessment | page=[[Platine War]] [http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Platine_War&oldid=274230730 ] | importance= | date=March 2, 2009 | class={{B-Class}} | version= | comments= }} |
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{{assessment | page=[[Sovereignty of the Falkland Islands]] [http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Sovereignty_of_the_Falkland_Islands&oldid=157548319 ] | importance= | date=September 18, 2007 | class={{B-Class}} | version= | comments= }} |
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{{assessment | page=[[Tanquetazo]] [http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Tanquetazo&oldid=171205496 ] | importance= | date=December 14, 2007 | class={{B-Class}} | version= | comments= }} |
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{{assessment | page=[[1898 invasion of Guantánamo Bay]] [http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=1898_invasion_of_Guant%c3%a1namo_Bay&oldid=208506709 ] | importance= | date=May 5, 2008 | class={{Start-Class}} | version= | comments= }} |
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{{assessment | page=[[1925 Chilean coup d'état]] [http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=1925_Chilean_coup_d%27%c3%a9tat&oldid=197729198 ] | importance= | date=March 27, 2008 | class={{Start-Class}} | version= | comments= }} |
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{{assessment | page=[[1954 Guatemalan coup d'état]] [http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=1954_Guatemalan_coup_d%27%c3%a9tat&oldid=164316703 ] | importance= | date=March 11, 2008 | class={{Start-Class}} | version= | comments= }} |
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{{assessment | page=[[1973 Chilean coup d'état]] [http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=1973_Chilean_coup_d%27%c3%a9tat&oldid=207691587 ] | importance= | date=September 24, 2008 | class={{Start-Class}} | version= | comments= }} |
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{{assessment | page=[[1999–2002 FARC-Government peace process]] [http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=1999%e2%80%932002_FARC-Government_peace_process&oldid=160814193 ] | importance= | date=September 27, 2007 | class={{Start-Class}} | version= | comments= }} |
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{{assessment | page=[[3rd Division of the Colombian National Army]] [http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=3rd_Division_of_the_Colombian_National_Army&oldid=208035811 ] | importance= | date=May 5, 2008 | class={{Start-Class}} | version= | comments= }} |
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{{assessment | page=[[57 mm AZP S-60]] [http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=57_mm_AZP_S-60&oldid=127829974 ] | importance= | date=May 8, 2007 | class={{Start-Class}} | version= | comments= }} |
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{{assessment | page=[[5th Naval Infantry Battalion (Argentina)]] [http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=5th_Naval_Infantry_Battalion_%28Argentina%29&oldid=164753146 ] | importance= | date=October 24, 2007 | class={{Start-Class}} | version= | comments= }} |
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{{assessment | page=[[601 Air Assault Regiment]] [http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=601_Air_Assault_Regiment&oldid=167535741 ] | importance= | date=November 21, 2007 | class={{Start-Class}} | version= | comments= }} |
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{{assessment | page=[[7.5 cm FK 38]] [http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=7.5_cm_FK_38&oldid=197824898 ] | importance= | date=March 15, 2008 | class={{Start-Class}} | version= | comments= }} |
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{{assessment | page=[[A-4AR Fightinghawk]] [http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=A-4AR_Fightinghawk&oldid=121871824 ] | importance= | date=April 16, 2007 | class={{Start-Class}} | version= | comments= }} |
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{{assessment | page=[[AMX International AMX]] [http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=AMX_International_AMX&oldid=207832297 ] | importance= | date=May 5, 2008 | class={{Start-Class}} | version= | comments= }} |
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{{assessment | page=[[ARA Almirante Brown (D-10)]] [http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=ARA_Almirante_Brown_%28D-10%29&oldid=258717742 ] | importance= | date=December 18, 2008 | class={{Start-Class}} | version= | comments= }} |
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{{assessment | page=[[ARA Almirante Irízar (Q-5)]] [http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=ARA_Almirante_Ir%c3%adzar_%28Q-5%29&oldid=190917759 ] | importance= | date=August 8, 2008 | class={{Start-Class}} | version= | comments= }} |
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{{assessment | page=[[ARA Bahía Buen Suceso]] [http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=ARA_Bah%c3%ada_Buen_Suceso&oldid=279961445 ] | importance= | date=March 30, 2009 | class={{Start-Class}} | version= | comments= }} |
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{{assessment | page=[[ARA Gómez Roca (P-46)]] [http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=ARA_G%c3%b3mez_Roca_%28P-46%29&oldid=273636758 ] | importance= | date=March 30, 2009 | class={{Start-Class}} | version= | comments= }} |
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{{assessment | page=[[ARA La Argentina]] [http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=ARA_La_Argentina&oldid=159440101 ] | importance= | date=December 6, 2007 | class={{Start-Class}} | version= | comments= }} |
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{{assessment | page=[[ARA La Argentina (D-11)]] [http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=ARA_La_Argentina_%28D-11%29&oldid=279785803 ] | importance= | date=April 2, 2009 | class={{Start-Class}} | version= | comments= }} |
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{{assessment | page=[[ARA Libertad (Q-2)]] [http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=ARA_Libertad_%28Q-2%29&oldid=183181972 ] | importance= | date=February 4, 2008 | class={{Start-Class}} | version= | comments= }} |
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{{assessment | page=[[ARA Nueve de Julio]] [http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=ARA_Nueve_de_Julio&oldid=267565993 ] | importance= | date=April 2, 2009 | class={{Start-Class}} | version= | comments= }} |
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{{assessment | page=[[ARA Patagonia (B-1)]] [http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=ARA_Patagonia_%28B-1%29&oldid=273561173 ] | importance= | date=April 2, 2009 | class={{Start-Class}} | version= | comments= }} |
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{{assessment | page=[[ARA Santa Fe (S-21)]] [http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=ARA_Santa_Fe_%28S-21%29&oldid=119698951 ] | importance= | date=April 12, 2007 | class={{Start-Class}} | version= | comments= }} |
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{{assessment | page=[[ARA Santísima Trinidad (1948)]] [http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=ARA_Sant%c3%adsima_Trinidad_%281948%29&oldid=196990786 ] | importance= | date=December 21, 2008 | class={{Start-Class}} | version= | comments= }} |
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{{assessment | page=[[ARA Santísima Trinidad (1974)]] [http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=ARA_Sant%c3%adsima_Trinidad_%281974%29&oldid=277506078 ] | importance= | date=March 18, 2009 | class={{Start-Class}} | version= | comments= }} |
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{{assessment | page=[[ARA Sarandí (D-13)]] [http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=ARA_Sarand%c3%ad_%28D-13%29&oldid=280996551 ] | importance= | date=April 2, 2009 | class={{Start-Class}} | version= | comments= }} |
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{{assessment | page=[[ARA Veinticinco de Mayo (C-2)]] [http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=ARA_Veinticinco_de_Mayo_%28C-2%29&oldid=281221390 ] | importance= | date=April 2, 2009 | class={{Start-Class}} | version= | comments= }} |
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{{assessment | page=[[ARA Veinticinco de Mayo (V-2)]] [http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=ARA_Veinticinco_de_Mayo_%28V-2%29&oldid=159444617 ] | importance= | date=October 3, 2007 | class={{Start-Class}} | version= | comments= }} |
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{{assessment | page=[[AS-25K]] [http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=AS-25K&oldid=179665953 ] | importance= | date=December 23, 2007 | class={{Start-Class}} | version= | comments= }} |
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{{assessment | page=[[Academia Militar de Agulhas Negras]] [http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Academia_Militar_de_Agulhas_Negras&oldid=179687547 ] | importance= | date=January 18, 2008 | class={{Start-Class}} | version= | comments= }} |
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{{assessment | page=[[Agrupación Aérea Presidencial]] [http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Agrupaci%c3%b3n_A%c3%a9rea_Presidencial&oldid=188541683 ] | importance= | date=February 4, 2008 | class={{Start-Class}} | version= | comments= }} |
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{{assessment | page=[[Agrupación de Fuerzas Especiales Antiterroristas Urbanas]] [http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Agrupaci%c3%b3n_de_Fuerzas_Especiales_Antiterroristas_Urbanas&oldid=204625173 ] | importance= | date=May 5, 2008 | class={{Start-Class}} | version= | comments= }} |
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{{assessment | page=[[Agustín Pedro Justo]] [http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Agust%c3%adn_Pedro_Justo&oldid=183877663 ] | importance= | date=January 18, 2008 | class={{Start-Class}} | version= | comments= }} |
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{{assessment | page=[[Alfredo Ovando Candía]] [http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Alfredo_Ovando_Cand%c3%ada&oldid=211214467 ] | importance= | date=June 4, 2008 | class={{Start-Class}} | version= | comments= }} |
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{{assessment | page=[[Alférez]] [http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Alf%c3%a9rez&oldid=223980551 ] | importance= | date=August 8, 2008 | class={{Start-Class}} | version= | comments= }} |
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{{assessment | page=[[Almirante Brown class destroyer]] [http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Almirante_Brown_class_destroyer&oldid=273561407 ] | importance= | date=April 2, 2009 | class={{Start-Class}} | version= | comments= }} |
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{{assessment | page=[[Almirante Clemente class destroyer]] [http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Almirante_Clemente_class_destroyer&oldid=205855908 ] | importance= | date=April 22, 2008 | class={{Start-Class}} | version= | comments= }} |
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{{assessment | page=[[Almirante Lynch class destroyer]] [http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Almirante_Lynch_class_destroyer&oldid=161549230 ] | importance= | date=October 6, 2007 | class={{Start-Class}} | version= | comments= }} |
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{{assessment | page=[[Anastasio Bustamante]] [http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Anastasio_Bustamante&oldid=231842489 ] | importance= | date=August 26, 2008 | class={{Start-Class}} | version= | comments= }} |
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{{assessment | page=[[Anastasio Somoza García]] [http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Anastasio_Somoza_Garc%c3%ada&oldid=253785571 ] | importance= | date=November 26, 2008 | class={{Start-Class}} | version= | comments= }} |
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{{assessment | page=[[Andrés Avelino Cáceres]] [http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Andr%c3%a9s_Avelino_C%c3%a1ceres&oldid=250350827 ] | importance= | date=November 26, 2008 | class={{Start-Class}} | version= | comments= }} |
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{{assessment | page=[[Andrés de Santa Cruz]] [http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Andr%c3%a9s_de_Santa_Cruz&oldid=228793527 ] | importance= | date=August 26, 2008 | class={{Start-Class}} | version= | comments= }} |
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{{assessment | page=[[Antonio José de Sucre]] [http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Antonio_Jos%c3%a9_de_Sucre&oldid=228642783 ] | importance= | date=August 26, 2008 | class={{Start-Class}} | version= | comments= }} |
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{{assessment | page=[[Antonio Maceo Grajales]] [http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Antonio_Maceo_Grajales&oldid=225730798 ] | importance= | date=August 26, 2008 | class={{Start-Class}} | version= | comments= }} |
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{{assessment | page=[[Antonio Ricaurte]] [http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Antonio_Ricaurte&oldid=253967595 ] | importance= | date=November 26, 2008 | class={{Start-Class}} | version= | comments= }} |
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{{assessment | page=[[Antonio Valero de Bernabe]] [http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Antonio_Valero_de_Bernabe&oldid=232172394 ] | importance= | date=August 26, 2008 | class={{Start-Class}} | version= | comments= }} |
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{{assessment | page=[[Antonio de los Reyes Correa]] [http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Antonio_de_los_Reyes_Correa&oldid=230752221 ] | importance= | date=August 26, 2008 | class={{Start-Class}} | version= | comments= }} |
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{{assessment | page=[[Arauco War]] [http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Arauco_War&oldid=171096828 ] | importance= | date=November 24, 2007 | class={{Start-Class}} | version= | comments= }} |
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{{assessment | page=[[Argentina–Brazil War]] [http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Argentina%e2%80%93Brazil_War&oldid=118517626 ] | importance= | date=April 12, 2007 | class={{Start-Class}} | version= | comments= }} |
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{{assessment | page=[[Argentine Air Force]] [http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Argentine_Air_Force&oldid=121318273 ] | importance= | date=April 12, 2007 | class={{Start-Class}} | version= | comments= }} |
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{{assessment | page=[[Argentine Anticommunist Alliance]] [http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Argentine_Anticommunist_Alliance&oldid=164937836 ] | importance= | date=October 31, 2007 | class={{Start-Class}} | version= | comments= }} |
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{{assessment | page=[[Argentine Army enlisted rank insignia]] [http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Argentine_Army_enlisted_rank_insignia&oldid=178895030 ] | importance= | date=June 15, 2008 | class={{Start-Class}} | version= | comments= }} |
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{{assessment | page=[[Argentine Army officer rank insignia]] [http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Argentine_Army_officer_rank_insignia&oldid=188889734 ] | importance= | date=June 15, 2008 | class={{Start-Class}} | version= | comments= }} |
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{{assessment | page=[[Argentine Nation to the Heroic Valour in Combat Cross]] [http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Argentine_Nation_to_the_Heroic_Valour_in_Combat_Cross&oldid=169692604 ] | importance= | date=May 28, 2008 | class={{Start-Class}} | version= | comments= }} |
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{{assessment | page=[[Argentine Navy]] [http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Argentine_Navy&oldid=122455628 ] | importance= | date=April 12, 2007 | class={{Start-Class}} | version= | comments= }} |
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{{assessment | page=[[Argentine War of Independence]] [http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Argentine_War_of_Independence&oldid=215911835 ] | importance= | date=June 15, 2008 | class={{Start-Class}} | version= | comments= }} |
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{{assessment | page=[[Argentine ground forces in the Falklands War]] [http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Argentine_ground_forces_in_the_Falklands_War&oldid=195168337 ] | importance= | date=March 22, 2008 | class={{Start-Class}} | version= | comments= }} |
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{{assessment | page=[[Argentine naval forces in the Falklands War]] [http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Argentine_naval_forces_in_the_Falklands_War&oldid=199901848 ] | importance= | date=March 22, 2008 | class={{Start-Class}} | version= | comments= }} |
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{{assessment | page=[[Ariostazo]] [http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ariostazo&oldid=239689113 ] | importance= | date=October 13, 2008 | class={{Start-Class}} | version= | comments= }} |
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{{assessment | page=[[Armed Forces of the Argentine Republic]] [http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Armed_Forces_of_the_Argentine_Republic&oldid=209152960 ] | importance= | date=May 11, 2008 | class={{Start-Class}} | version= | comments= }} |
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{{assessment | page=[[BAP Aguirre (CH-84)]] [http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=BAP_Aguirre_%28CH-84%29&oldid=259089541 ] | importance= | date=December 21, 2008 | class={{Start-Class}} | version= | comments= }} |
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{{assessment | page=[[BAP Angamos (SS-31)]] [http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=BAP_Angamos_%28SS-31%29&oldid=157196709 ] | importance= | date=December 20, 2007 | class={{Start-Class}} | version= | comments= }} |
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{{assessment | page=[[BAP Apurimac]] [http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=BAP_Apurimac&oldid=225217562 ] | importance= | date=July 13, 2008 | class={{Start-Class}} | version= | comments= }} |
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{{assessment | page=[[BAP Ferré (DM-74)]] [http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=BAP_Ferr%c3%a9_%28DM-74%29&oldid=202280956 ] | importance= | date=May 14, 2008 | class={{Start-Class}} | version= | comments= }} |
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{{assessment | page=[[BAP Palacios (DM-73)]] [http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=BAP_Palacios_%28DM-73%29&oldid=202281011 ] | importance= | date=May 14, 2008 | class={{Start-Class}} | version= | comments= }} |
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{{assessment | page=[[BINCI]] [http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=BINCI&oldid=145211475 ] | importance= | date=June 18, 2008 | class={{Start-Class}} | version= | comments= }} |
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{{assessment | page=[[Background to the Falklands War]] [http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Background_to_the_Falklands_War&oldid=158514731 ] | importance= | date=April 22, 2008 | class={{Start-Class}} | version= | comments= }} |
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{{assessment | page=[[Bartolomé Mitre]] [http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Bartolom%c3%a9_Mitre&oldid=166782634 ] | importance= | date=November 9, 2007 | class={{Start-Class}} | version= | comments= }} |
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{{assessment | page=[[Batalhão de Operações Policiais Especiais]] [http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Batalh%c3%a3o_de_Opera%c3%a7%c3%b5es_Policiais_Especiais&oldid=172686899 ] | importance= | date=November 21, 2007 | class={{Start-Class}} | version= | comments= }} |
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{{assessment | page=[[Battle of Acosta Ñu]] [http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Battle_of_Acosta_%c3%91u&oldid=171129573 ] | importance= | date=December 23, 2007 | class={{Start-Class}} | version= | comments= }} |
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{{assessment | page=[[Battle of Aguadulce]] [http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Battle_of_Aguadulce&oldid=160601572 ] | importance= | date=October 24, 2007 | class={{Start-Class}} | version= | comments= }} |
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{{assessment | page=[[Battle of Araure]] [http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Battle_of_Araure&oldid=162639886 ] | importance= | date=March 31, 2008 | class={{Start-Class}} | version= | comments= }} |
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{{assessment | page=[[Battle of Arica]] [http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Battle_of_Arica&oldid=167382825 ] | importance= | date=November 18, 2007 | class={{Start-Class}} | version= | comments= }} |
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{{assessment | page=[[Battle of Ayohuma]] [http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Battle_of_Ayohuma&oldid=171160869 ] | importance= | date=May 5, 2008 | class={{Start-Class}} | version= | comments= }} |
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{{assessment | page=[[Battle of Boyacá]] [http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Battle_of_Boyac%c3%a1&oldid=248891805 ] | importance= | date=December 10, 2008 | class={{Start-Class}} | version= | comments= }} |
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{{assessment | page=[[Battle of Cajamarca]] [http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Battle_of_Cajamarca&oldid=202604591 ] | importance= | date=May 5, 2008 | class={{Start-Class}} | version= | comments= }} |
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{{assessment | page=[[Battle of Callao]] [http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Battle_of_Callao&oldid=209942861 ] | importance= | date=May 5, 2008 | class={{Start-Class}} | version= | comments= }} |
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{{assessment | page=[[Battle of Carabobo]] [http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Battle_of_Carabobo&oldid=256793782 ] | importance= | date=December 10, 2008 | class={{Start-Class}} | version= | comments= }} |
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{{assessment | page=[[Battle of Caseros]] [http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Battle_of_Caseros&oldid=256117807 ] | importance= | date=December 10, 2008 | class={{Start-Class}} | version= | comments= }} |
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{{assessment | page=[[Battle of Cepeda (1859)]] [http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Battle_of_Cepeda_%281859%29&oldid=150214429 ] | importance= | date=December 10, 2008 | class={{Start-Class}} | version= | comments= }} |
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{{assessment | page=[[Battle of Chacabuco]] [http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Battle_of_Chacabuco&oldid=255957318 ] | importance= | date=December 10, 2008 | class={{Start-Class}} | version= | comments= }} |
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{{assessment | page=[[Battle of Chorrillos]] [http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Battle_of_Chorrillos&oldid=201973413 ] | importance= | date=March 31, 2008 | class={{Start-Class}} | version= | comments= }} |
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{{assessment | page=[[Battle of Iquique]] [http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Battle_of_Iquique&oldid=197590512 ] | importance= | date=March 15, 2008 | class={{Start-Class}} | version= | comments= }} |
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{{assessment | page=[[Battle of Ituzaingó]] [http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Battle_of_Ituzaing%C3%B3&oldid=121403224 ] | importance= | date=April 12, 2007 | class={{Start-Class}} | version= | comments= }} |
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{{assessment | page=[[Battle of Las Queseras del Medio]] [http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Battle_of_Las_Queseras_del_Medio&oldid=238372065 ] | importance= | date=December 10, 2008 | class={{Start-Class}} | version= | comments= }} |
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{{assessment | page=[[Battle of Maipú]] [http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Battle_of_Maip%c3%ba&oldid=239537918 ] | importance= | date=December 14, 2008 | class={{Start-Class}} | version= | comments= }} |
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{{assessment | page=[[Battle of Masoller]] [http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Battle_of_Masoller&oldid=249530138 ] | importance= | date=December 14, 2008 | class={{Start-Class}} | version= | comments= }} |
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{{assessment | page=[[Battle of Monterrey]] [http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Battle_of_Monterrey&oldid=168819468 ] | importance= | date=November 7, 2007 | class={{Start-Class}} | version= | comments= }} |
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{{assessment | page=[[Battle of Montevideo (1807)]] [http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Battle_of_Montevideo_%281807%29&oldid=248248427 ] | importance= | date=December 14, 2008 | class={{Start-Class}} | version= | comments= }} |
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{{assessment | page=[[Battle of Mount Harriet]] [http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Battle_of_Mount_Harriet&oldid=210382834 ] | importance= | date=May 11, 2008 | class={{Start-Class}} | version= | comments= }} |
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{{assessment | page=[[Battle of Mount Longdon]] [http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Battle_of_Mount_Longdon&oldid=210668695 ] | importance= | date=May 11, 2008 | class={{Start-Class}} | version= | comments= }} |
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{{assessment | page=[[Battle of Mount Tumbledown]] [http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Battle_of_Mount_Tumbledown&oldid=248279446 ] | importance= | date=December 10, 2008 | class={{Start-Class}} | version= | comments= }} |
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{{assessment | page=[[Battle of Pichincha]] [http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Battle_of_Pichincha&oldid=164769397 ] | importance= | date=December 29, 2007 | class={{Start-Class}} | version= | comments= }} |
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{{assessment | page=[[Battle of Punta Gruesa]] [http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Battle_of_Punta_Gruesa&oldid=228647462 ] | importance= | date=December 14, 2008 | class={{Start-Class}} | version= | comments= }} |
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{{assessment | page=[[Battle of Punta Quemada]] [http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Battle_of_Punta_Quemada&oldid=257821950 ] | importance= | date=December 14, 2008 | class={{Start-Class}} | version= | comments= }} |
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{{assessment | page=[[Battle of Puná]] [http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Battle_of_Pun%c3%a1&oldid=257006583 ] | importance= | date=December 14, 2008 | class={{Start-Class}} | version= | comments= }} |
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{{assessment | page=[[Battle of Riachuelo]] [http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Battle_of_Riachuelo&oldid=247762470 ] | importance= | date=December 14, 2008 | class={{Start-Class}} | version= | comments= }} |
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{{assessment | page=[[Battle of Rio de Janeiro]] [http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Battle_of_Rio_de_Janeiro&oldid=196987215 ] | importance= | date=December 14, 2008 | class={{Start-Class}} | version= | comments= }} |
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{{assessment | page=[[Battle of San Lorenzo]] [http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Battle_of_San_Lorenzo&oldid=238683275 ] | importance= | date=December 14, 2008 | class={{Start-Class}} | version= | comments= }} |
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{{assessment | page=[[Battle of Seal Cove]] [http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Battle_of_Seal_Cove&oldid=205447642 ] | importance= | date=May 5, 2008 | class={{Start-Class}} | version= | comments= }} |
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{{assessment | page=[[Battle of Suipacha]] [http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Battle_of_Suipacha&oldid=251005178 ] | importance= | date=December 14, 2008 | class={{Start-Class}} | version= | comments= }} |
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{{assessment | page=[[Battle of Top Malo House]] [http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Battle_of_Top_Malo_House&oldid=143383900 ] | importance= | date=July 10, 2007 | class={{Start-Class}} | version= | comments= }} |
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{{assessment | page=[[Battle of Tuyutí]] [http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Battle_of_Tuyut%c3%ad&oldid=171129622 ] | importance= | date=May 5, 2008 | class={{Start-Class}} | version= | comments= }} |
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{{assessment | page=[[Battle of Two Sisters]] [http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Battle_of_Two_Sisters&oldid=199783843 ] | importance= | date=May 5, 2008 | class={{Start-Class}} | version= | comments= }} |
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{{assessment | page=[[Battle of Wireless Ridge]] [http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Battle_of_Wireless_Ridge&oldid=205205003 ] | importance= | date=May 5, 2008 | class={{Start-Class}} | version= | comments= }} |
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{{assessment | page=[[Battle of Yungay]] [http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Battle_of_Yungay&oldid=209668324 ] | importance= | date=May 5, 2008 | class={{Start-Class}} | version= | comments= }} |
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{{assessment | page=[[Battle of the Atlantic (1939–1945)]] [http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Battle_of_the_Atlantic_%281939%e2%80%931945%29&oldid=258820450 ] | importance= | date=December 21, 2008 | class={{Start-Class}} | version= | comments= }} |
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{{assessment | page=[[Bernardo O'Higgins]] [http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Bernardo_O%27Higgins&oldid=163951380 ] | importance= | date=October 24, 2007 | class={{Start-Class}} | version= | comments= }} |
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{{assessment | page=[[Bojayá massacre]] [http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Bojay%c3%a1_massacre&oldid=160813703 ] | importance= | date=September 27, 2007 | class={{Start-Class}} | version= | comments= }} |
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{{assessment | page=[[Bolivarian Armada of Venezuela]] [http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Bolivarian_Armada_of_Venezuela&oldid=148353941 ] | importance= | date=July 31, 2007 | class={{Start-Class}} | version= | comments= }} |
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{{assessment | page=[[Bolívar's campaign to liberate New Granada]] [http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Bol%c3%advar_in_New_Granada&oldid=188233286 ] | importance= | date=May 5, 2008 | class={{Start-Class}} | version= | comments= }} |
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{{assessment | page=[[Brazil and weapons of mass destruction]] [http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Brazil_and_weapons_of_mass_destruction&oldid=167362636 ] | importance= | date=October 28, 2007 | class={{Start-Class}} | version= | comments= }} |
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{{assessment | page=[[Brazil during World War I]] [http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Brazil_during_World_War_I&oldid=283196846 ] | importance= | date=April 11, 2009 | class={{Start-Class}} | version= | comments= }} |
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{{assessment | page=[[Brazilian Air Force]] [http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Brazilian_Air_Force&oldid=160914181 ] | importance= | date=October 11, 2007 | class={{Start-Class}} | version= | comments= }} |
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{{assessment | page=[[Brazilian Armed Forces]] [http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Brazilian_Armed_Forces&oldid=161358692 ] | importance= | date=October 11, 2007 | class={{Start-Class}} | version= | comments= }} |
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{{assessment | page=[[Brazilian Army]] [http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Brazilian_Army&oldid=123172260 ] | importance= | date=April 20, 2007 | class={{Start-Class}} | version= | comments= }} |
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{{assessment | page=[[Brazilian Army Aviation Command]] [http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Brazilian_Army_Aviation_Command&oldid=216440182 ] | importance= | date=June 4, 2008 | class={{Start-Class}} | version= | comments= }} |
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{{assessment | page=[[Brazilian Expeditionary Force (FEB)]] [http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Brazilian_Expeditionary_Force_%28FEB%29&oldid=131315256 ] | importance= | date=April 15, 2008 | class={{Start-Class}} | version= | comments= }} |
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{{assessment | page=[[Brazilian Navy]] [http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Brazilian_Navy&oldid=210176563 ] | importance= | date=May 11, 2008 | class={{Start-Class}} | version= | comments= }} |
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{{assessment | page=[[Brooklyn class cruiser]] [http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Brooklyn_class_cruiser&oldid=175281775 ] | importance= | date=December 3, 2007 | class={{Start-Class}} | version= | comments= }} |
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{{assessment | page=[[CIA activities in Argentina]] [http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=CIA_activities_in_Argentina&oldid=208709513 ] | importance= | date=May 5, 2008 | class={{Start-Class}} | version= | comments= }} |
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{{assessment | page=[[CIA activities in Bolivia]] [http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=CIA_activities_in_Bolivia&oldid=208710156 ] | importance= | date=May 5, 2008 | class={{Start-Class}} | version= | comments= }} |
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{{assessment | page=[[CIA activities in Brazil]] [http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=CIA_activities_in_Brazil&oldid=208926780 ] | importance= | date=June 8, 2008 | class={{Start-Class}} | version= | comments= }} |
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{{assessment | page=[[CIA activities in Chile]] [http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=CIA_activities_in_Chile&oldid=208706562 ] | importance= | date=May 5, 2008 | class={{Start-Class}} | version= | comments= }} |
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{{assessment | page=[[CIA activities in Colombia]] [http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=CIA_activities_in_Colombia&oldid=208709068 ] | importance= | date=May 5, 2008 | class={{Start-Class}} | version= | comments= }} |
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{{assessment | page=[[CIA activities in Honduras]] [http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=CIA_activities_in_Honduras&oldid=208710727 ] | importance= | date=May 5, 2008 | class={{Start-Class}} | version= | comments= }} |
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{{assessment | page=[[CIA activities in Nicaragua]] [http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=CIA_activities_in_Nicaragua&oldid=208706220 ] | importance= | date=May 5, 2008 | class={{Start-Class}} | version= | comments= }} |
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{{assessment | page=[[CIA activities in Peru]] [http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=CIA_activities_in_Peru&oldid=208710314 ] | importance= | date=May 5, 2008 | class={{Start-Class}} | version= | comments= }} |
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{{assessment | page=[[CIA activities in Venezuela]] [http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=CIA_activities_in_Venezuela&oldid=208706137 ] | importance= | date=May 5, 2008 | class={{Start-Class}} | version= | comments= }} |
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{{assessment | page=[[CITER 155mm L33 Gun]] [http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=CITER_155mm_L33_Gun&oldid=180913788 ] | importance= | date=January 2, 2008 | class={{Start-Class}} | version= | comments= }} |
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{{assessment | page=[[Calfucurá]] [http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Calfucur%c3%a1&oldid=233120774 ] | importance= | date=September 24, 2008 | class={{Start-Class}} | version= | comments= }} |
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{{assessment | page=[[Caribbean Bloc of the FARC-EP]] [http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Caribbean_Bloc_of_the_FARC-EP&oldid=176230948 ] | importance= | date=December 9, 2007 | class={{Start-Class}} | version= | comments= }} |
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{{assessment | page=[[Carlos Condell]] [http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Carlos_Condell&oldid=265553109 ] | importance= | date=January 23, 2009 | class={{Start-Class}} | version= | comments= }} |
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{{assessment | page=[[Carlos Ibáñez del Campo]] [http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Carlos_Ib%c3%a1%c3%b1ez_del_Campo&oldid=239306483 ] | importance= | date=September 24, 2008 | class={{Start-Class}} | version= | comments= }} |
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{{assessment | page=[[Cayenne Battery]] [http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Cayenne_Battery&oldid=230208930 ] | importance= | date=August 12, 2008 | class={{Start-Class}} | version= | comments= }} |
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{{assessment | page=[[Cenepa War]] [http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Cenepa_War&oldid=259628880 ] | importance= | date=January 6, 2009 | class={{Start-Class}} | version= | comments= }} |
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{{assessment | page=[[Chaco War]] [http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Chaco_War&oldid=209281977 ] | importance= | date=May 5, 2008 | class={{Start-Class}} | version= | comments= }} |
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{{assessment | page=[[Chilean Air Force]] [http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Chilean_Air_Force&oldid=162059004 ] | importance= | date=October 3, 2007 | class={{Start-Class}} | version= | comments= }} |
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{{assessment | page=[[Chilean Army]] [http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Chilean_Army&oldid=151662196 ] | importance= | date=August 16, 2007 | class={{Start-Class}} | version= | comments= }} |
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{{assessment | page=[[Chilean Civil War of 1829]] [http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Chilean_Civil_War_of_1829&oldid=230268412 ] | importance= | date=October 16, 2008 | class={{Start-Class}} | version= | comments= }} |
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{{assessment | page=[[Chilean Navy]] [http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Chilean_Navy&oldid=152432796 ] | importance= | date=August 19, 2007 | class={{Start-Class}} | version= | comments= }} |
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{{assessment | page=[[Chilean War of Independence]] [http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Chilean_War_of_Independence&oldid=217277145 ] | importance= | date=June 15, 2008 | class={{Start-Class}} | version= | comments= }} |
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{{assessment | page=[[Chilean battery ship Almirante Cochrane]] [http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Chilean_battery_ship_Almirante_Cochrane&oldid=251006982 ] | importance= | date=November 13, 2008 | class={{Start-Class}} | version= | comments= }} |
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{{assessment | page=[[Colombia Three]] [http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Colombia_Three&oldid=171904750 ] | importance= | date=March 15, 2008 | class={{Start-Class}} | version= | comments= }} |
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{{assessment | page=[[Colombian Air Force]] [http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Colombian_Air_Force&oldid=211502018 ] | importance= | date=May 11, 2008 | class={{Start-Class}} | version= | comments= }} |
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{{assessment | page=[[Colombian Civil War (1860–1862)]] [http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Colombian_Civil_War_%281860%e2%80%931862%29&oldid=218809836 ] | importance= | date=September 17, 2008 | class={{Start-Class}} | version= | comments= }} |
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{{assessment | page=[[Colombian National Armada]] [http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Colombian_National_Armada&oldid=166506601 ] | importance= | date=October 24, 2007 | class={{Start-Class}} | version= | comments= }} |
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{{assessment | page=[[Commandant Rivière class frigate]] [http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Commandant_Rivi%c3%a8re_class_frigate&oldid=220303367 ] | importance= | date=June 22, 2008 | class={{Start-Class}} | version= | comments= }} |
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{{assessment | page=[[Cooperation System of the American Air Forces]] [http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Cooperation_System_of_the_American_Air_Forces&oldid=220592632 ] | importance= | date=September 24, 2008 | class={{Start-Class}} | version= | comments= }} |
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{{assessment | page=[[Corps of Naval Fusiliers]] [http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Corps_of_Naval_Fusiliers&oldid=222174053 ] | importance= | date=July 2, 2008 | class={{Start-Class}} | version= | comments= }} |
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{{assessment | page=[[Corvo (knife)]] [http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Corvo_%28knife%29&oldid=234624952 ] | importance= | date=September 17, 2008 | class={{Start-Class}} | version= | comments= }} |
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{{assessment | page=[[Cultural impact of the Falklands War]] [http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Cultural_impact_of_the_Falklands_War&oldid=173617781 ] | importance= | date=December 20, 2007 | class={{Start-Class}} | version= | comments= }} |
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{{assessment | page=[[D'Estienne d'Orves class]] [http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=D%27Estienne_d%27Orves_class&oldid=194639546 ] | importance= | date=March 4, 2008 | class={{Start-Class}} | version= | comments= }} |
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{{assessment | page=[[De Zeven Provinciën class cruiser]] [http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=De_Zeven_Provinci%c3%abn_class_cruiser&oldid=146586081 ] | importance= | date=December 14, 2007 | class={{Start-Class}} | version= | comments= }} |
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{{assessment | page=[[Drummond class corvette]] [http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Drummond_class_corvette&oldid=158982201 ] | importance= | date=December 9, 2007 | class={{Start-Class}} | version= | comments= }} |
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{{assessment | page=[[Ecuadorian Air Force]] [http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ecuadorian_Air_Force&oldid=149429690 ] | importance= | date=August 16, 2007 | class={{Start-Class}} | version= | comments= }} |
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{{assessment | page=[[Ecuadorian Army]] [http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ecuadorian_Army&oldid=209480701 ] | importance= | date=June 15, 2008 | class={{Start-Class}} | version= | comments= }} |
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{{assessment | page=[[Ecuadorian War of Independence]] [http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ecuadorian_War_of_Independence&oldid=215191871 ] | importance= | date=June 15, 2008 | class={{Start-Class}} | version= | comments= }} |
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{{assessment | page=[[Ecuadorian–Peruvian War]] [http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ecuadorian%e2%80%93Peruvian_War&oldid=214777627 ] | importance= | date=June 15, 2008 | class={{Start-Class}} | version= | comments= }} |
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{{assessment | page=[[Eduardo Abaroa]] [http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Eduardo_Abaroa&oldid=226861393 ] | importance= | date=September 29, 2008 | class={{Start-Class}} | version= | comments= }} |
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{{assessment | page=[[Efraín Ríos Montt]] [http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Efra%c3%adn_R%c3%ados_Montt&oldid=143563520 ] | importance= | date=July 16, 2007 | class={{Start-Class}} | version= | comments= }} |
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{{assessment | page=[[Eleazar López Contreras]] [http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Eleazar_L%c3%b3pez_Contreras&oldid=168888484 ] | importance= | date=December 3, 2007 | class={{Start-Class}} | version= | comments= }} |
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{{assessment | page=[[Eliseo Payán]] [http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Eliseo_Pay%c3%a1n&oldid=156075023 ] | importance= | date=November 18, 2007 | class={{Start-Class}} | version= | comments= }} |
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{{assessment | page=[[Embraer EMB 312 Tucano]] [http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Embraer_EMB_312_Tucano&oldid=236587319 ] | importance= | date=September 9, 2008 | class={{Start-Class}} | version= | comments= }} |
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{{assessment | page=[[Embraer EMB 314 Super Tucano]] [http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Embraer_EMB_314_Super_Tucano&oldid=236432329 ] | importance= | date=September 9, 2008 | class={{Start-Class}} | version= | comments= }} |
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{{assessment | page=[[Emilio Kosterlitzky]] [http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Emilio_Kosterlitzky&oldid=152197481 ] | importance= | date=December 17, 2007 | class={{Start-Class}} | version= | comments= }} |
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{{assessment | page=[[Escuadrón Fénix]] [http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Escuadr%c3%b3n_F%c3%a9nix&oldid=101453638 ] | importance= | date=January 21, 2008 | class={{Start-Class}} | version= | comments= }} |
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{{assessment | page=[[Espora class frigate]] [http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Espora_class_frigate&oldid=221027151 ] | importance= | date=June 25, 2008 | class={{Start-Class}} | version= | comments= }} |
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{{assessment | page=[[Events leading to the Falklands War]] [http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Events_leading_to_the_Falklands_War&oldid=185947989 ] | importance= | date=January 21, 2008 | class={{Start-Class}} | version= | comments= }} |
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{{assessment | page=[[FAD assault rifle]] [http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=FAD_assault_rifle&oldid=225916049 ] | importance= | date=July 16, 2008 | class={{Start-Class}} | version= | comments= }} |
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{{assessment | page=[[FARA 83]] [http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=FARA_83&oldid=148581157 ] | importance= | date=August 7, 2007 | class={{Start-Class}} | version= | comments= }} |
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{{assessment | page=[[FMA IA 50 Guaraní II]] [http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=FMA_IA_50_Guaran%c3%ad_II&oldid=163156538 ] | importance= | date=October 28, 2007 | class={{Start-Class}} | version= | comments= }} |
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{{assessment | page=[[FMA IA 58 Pucará]] [http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=FMA_IA_58_Pucar%C3%A1&oldid=121070979 ] | importance= | date=April 12, 2007 | class={{Start-Class}} | version= | comments= }} |
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{{assessment | page=[[FMA IA 63 Pampa]] [http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=FMA_IA_63_Pampa&oldid=152306180 ] | importance= | date=August 31, 2007 | class={{Start-Class}} | version= | comments= }} |
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{{assessment | page=[[FMA IAe 33 Pulqui II]] [http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=FMA_IAe_33_Pulqui_II&oldid=115817486 ] | importance= | date=April 12, 2007 | class={{Start-Class}} | version= | comments= }} |
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{{assessment | page=[[FMA SAIA 90]] [http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=FMA_SAIA_90&oldid=183090234 ] | importance= | date=February 4, 2008 | class={{Start-Class}} | version= | comments= }} |
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{{assessment | page=[[Falkland Islands Defence Force]] [http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Falkland_Islands_Defence_Force&oldid=155902175 ] | importance= | date=September 15, 2007 | class={{Start-Class}} | version= | comments= }} |
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{{assessment | page=[[Falklands War Argentine surrender]] [http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Falklands_War_Argentine_surrender&oldid=166248849 ] | importance= | date=February 4, 2008 | class={{Start-Class}} | version= | comments= }} |
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{{assessment | page=[[Fanaero-Chile Chincol]] [http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Fanaero-Chile_Chincol&oldid=196908605 ] | importance= | date=March 11, 2008 | class={{Start-Class}} | version= | comments= }} |
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{{assessment | page=[[Fatherland and Liberty]] [http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Fatherland_and_Liberty&oldid=232406267 ] | importance= | date=September 24, 2008 | class={{Start-Class}} | version= | comments= }} |
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{{assessment | page=[[First Battle of Rivas]] [http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=First_Battle_of_Rivas&oldid=202988773 ] | importance= | date=April 6, 2008 | class={{Start-Class}} | version= | comments= }} |
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{{assessment | page=[[First European colonization wave (15th century–19th century)]] [http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=First_European_colonization_wave_%2815th_century%e2%80%9319th_century%29&oldid=205956485 ] | importance= | date=May 5, 2008 | class={{Start-Class}} | version= | comments= }} |
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{{assessment | page=[[Flower war]] [http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Flower_war&oldid=209547004 ] | importance= | date=May 5, 2008 | class={{Start-Class}} | version= | comments= }} |
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{{assessment | page=[[Football War]] [http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Football_War&oldid=209971543 ] | importance= | date=May 5, 2008 | class={{Start-Class}} | version= | comments= }} |
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{{assessment | page=[[Fort of São João do Arade]] [http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Fort_of_S%c3%a3o_Jo%c3%a3o_do_Arade&oldid=209762861 ] | importance= | date=May 5, 2008 | class={{Start-Class}} | version= | comments= }} |
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{{assessment | page=[[Francisco Bolognesi]] [http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Francisco_Bolognesi&oldid=155091926 ] | importance= | date=November 30, 2007 | class={{Start-Class}} | version= | comments= }} |
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{{assessment | page=[[General Ulpiano Paez Airport]] [http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=General_Ulpiano_Paez_Airport&oldid=274583210 ] | importance= | date=March 6, 2009 | class={{Start-Class}} | version= | comments= }} |
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{{assessment | page=[[Gildardo Magaña]] [http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Gildardo_Maga%c3%b1a&oldid=167059926 ] | importance= | date=December 3, 2007 | class={{Start-Class}} | version= | comments= }} |
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{{assessment | page=[[Guatemalan Civil War]] [http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Guatemalan_Civil_War&oldid=211070453 ] | importance= | date=May 18, 2008 | class={{Start-Class}} | version= | comments= }} |
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{{assessment | page=[[Guillermo Suárez Mason]] [http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Guillermo_Su%c3%a1rez_Mason&oldid=173278343 ] | importance= | date=December 20, 2007 | class={{Start-Class}} | version= | comments= }} |
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{{assessment | page=[[Gustavo Leigh]] [http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Gustavo_Leigh&oldid=211528529 ] | importance= | date=May 28, 2008 | class={{Start-Class}} | version= | comments= }} |
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{{assessment | page=[[Guyana Defence Force]] [http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Guyana_Defence_Force&oldid=211383340 ] | importance= | date=May 28, 2008 | class={{Start-Class}} | version= | comments= }} |
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{{assessment | page=[[HMS Glamorgan (D19)]] [http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=HMS_Glamorgan_%28D19%29&oldid=207793345 ] | importance= | date=May 5, 2008 | class={{Start-Class}} | version= | comments= }} |
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{{assessment | page=[[HMS Marlborough (F233)]] [http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=HMS_Marlborough_%28F233%29&oldid=203145378 ] | importance= | date=May 11, 2008 | class={{Start-Class}} | version= | comments= }} |
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{{assessment | page=[[HMS Newfoundland (59)]] [http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=HMS_Newfoundland_%2859%29&oldid=203801811 ] | importance= | date=May 11, 2008 | class={{Start-Class}} | version= | comments= }} |
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{{assessment | page=[[HMS Norfolk (D21)]] [http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=HMS_Norfolk_%28D21%29&oldid=205603361 ] | importance= | date=May 11, 2008 | class={{Start-Class}} | version= | comments= }} |
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{{assessment | page=[[HMS Norfolk (F230)]] [http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=HMS_Norfolk_%28F230%29&oldid=219113923 ] | importance= | date=June 29, 2008 | class={{Start-Class}} | version= | comments= }} |
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{{assessment | page=[[HMS Sheffield (F96)]] [http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=HMS_Sheffield_%28F96%29&oldid=222020898 ] | importance= | date=June 29, 2008 | class={{Start-Class}} | version= | comments= }} |
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{{assessment | page=[[HMS Warrior (R31)]] [http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=HMS_Warrior_%28R31%29&oldid=119729764 ] | importance= | date=April 12, 2007 | class={{Start-Class}} | version= | comments= }} |
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{{assessment | page=[[History Will Absolve Me]] [http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=History_Will_Absolve_Me&oldid=168835809 ] | importance= | date=March 27, 2008 | class={{Start-Class}} | version= | comments= }} |
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{{assessment | page=[[Holland 602 type submarine]] [http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Holland_602_type_submarine&oldid=161137947 ] | importance= | date=October 6, 2007 | class={{Start-Class}} | version= | comments= }} |
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{{assessment | page=[[Huáscar (ship)]] [http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Hu%c3%a1scar_%28ship%29&oldid=161800580 ] | importance= | date=October 6, 2007 | class={{Start-Class}} | version= | comments= }} |
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{{assessment | page=[[I.Ae. 24 Calquin]] [http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=I.Ae._24_Calquin&oldid=193454754 ] | importance= | date=May 11, 2008 | class={{Start-Class}} | version= | comments= }} |
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{{assessment | page=[[I.Ae. 27 Pulqui I]] [http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=I.Ae._27_Pulqui_I&oldid=150383671 ] | importance= | date=November 27, 2007 | class={{Start-Class}} | version= | comments= }} |
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{{assessment | page=[[IAI Nesher]] [http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=IAI_Nesher&oldid=202918392 ] | importance= | date=May 11, 2008 | class={{Start-Class}} | version= | comments= }} |
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{{assessment | page=[[IAe.22 DL]] [http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=IAe.22_DL&oldid=163554706 ] | importance= | date=November 21, 2007 | class={{Start-Class}} | version= | comments= }} |
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{{assessment | page=[[Inca Civil War]] [http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Inca_Civil_War&oldid=233670999 ] | importance= | date=September 14, 2008 | class={{Start-Class}} | version= | comments= }} |
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{{assessment | page=[[Intelligence Oversight Board Report on Guatemala]] [http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Intelligence_Oversight_Board_Report_on_Guatemala&oldid=219371609 ] | importance= | date=June 15, 2008 | class={{Start-Class}} | version= | comments= }} |
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{{assessment | page=[[Inter-American Defense College]] [http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Inter-American_Defense_College&oldid=214349123 ] | importance= | date=May 25, 2008 | class={{Start-Class}} | version= | comments= }} |
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{{assessment | page=[[Internal conflict in Peru]] [http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Internal_conflict_in_Peru&oldid=115764845 ] | importance= | date=March 31, 2008 | class={{Start-Class}} | version= | comments= }} |
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{{assessment | page=[[Isaías Medina Angarita]] [http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Isa%c3%adas_Medina_Angarita&oldid=253355329 ] | importance= | date=December 21, 2008 | class={{Start-Class}} | version= | comments= }} |
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{{assessment | page=[[Joaquín Gómez]] [http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Joaqu%c3%adn_G%c3%b3mez&oldid=195910024 ] | importance= | date=March 11, 2008 | class={{Start-Class}} | version= | comments= }} |
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{{assessment | page=[[Joint Command of the Armed Forces of Peru]] [http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Joint_Command_of_the_Armed_Forces_of_Peru&oldid=141611344 ] | importance= | date=December 9, 2007 | class={{Start-Class}} | version= | comments= }} |
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{{assessment | page=[[Joint Interagency Task Force South]] [http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Joint_Interagency_Task_Force_South&oldid=211389107 ] | importance= | date=May 11, 2008 | class={{Start-Class}} | version= | comments= }} |
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{{assessment | page=[[Joint Task Force OMEGA]] [http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Joint_Task_Force_OMEGA&oldid=176116826 ] | importance= | date=December 23, 2007 | class={{Start-Class}} | version= | comments= }} |
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{{assessment | page=[[Jorge Briceño]] [http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Jorge_Brice%c3%b1o&oldid=252393718 ] | importance= | date=December 22, 2008 | class={{Start-Class}} | version= | comments= }} |
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{{assessment | page=[[José Ballivián]] [http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Jos%c3%a9_Ballivi%c3%a1n&oldid=172513033 ] | importance= | date=November 24, 2007 | class={{Start-Class}} | version= | comments= }} |
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{{assessment | page=[[José Hilario López]] [http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Jos%c3%a9_Hilario_L%c3%b3pez&oldid=256669758 ] | importance= | date=December 22, 2008 | class={{Start-Class}} | version= | comments= }} |
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{{assessment | page=[[José Toribio Merino]] [http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Jos%c3%a9_Toribio_Merino&oldid=158825894 ] | importance= | date=November 12, 2007 | class={{Start-Class}} | version= | comments= }} |
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{{assessment | page=[[Juan Antonio Pezet]] [http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Juan_Antonio_Pezet&oldid=154374525 ] | importance= | date=December 3, 2007 | class={{Start-Class}} | version= | comments= }} |
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{{assessment | page=[[Juan José Torres]] [http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Juan_Jos%c3%a9_Torres&oldid=170866021 ] | importance= | date=December 3, 2007 | class={{Start-Class}} | version= | comments= }} |
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{{assessment | page=[[Juan José de Sámano y Uribarri]] [http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Juan_Jos%c3%a9_de_S%c3%a1mano_y_Uribarri&oldid=182810090 ] | importance= | date=May 11, 2008 | class={{Start-Class}} | version= | comments= }} |
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{{assessment | page=[[Juan Pizarro (conquistador)]] [http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Juan_Pizarro_%28conquistador%29&oldid=194197019 ] | importance= | date=May 11, 2008 | class={{Start-Class}} | version= | comments= }} |
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{{assessment | page=[[Juan Rius Rivera]] [http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Juan_Rius_Rivera&oldid=176917487 ] | importance= | date=May 11, 2008 | class={{Start-Class}} | version= | comments= }} |
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{{assessment | page=[[Juan Williams Rebolledo]] [http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Juan_Williams_Rebolledo&oldid=209663767 ] | importance= | date=May 11, 2008 | class={{Start-Class}} | version= | comments= }} |
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{{assessment | page=[[Kurt Tank]] [http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Kurt_Tank&oldid=169225737 ] | importance= | date=November 7, 2007 | class={{Start-Class}} | version= | comments= }} |
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{{assessment | page=[[LAPA FA-03]] [http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=LAPA_FA-03&oldid=211485995 ] | importance= | date=June 15, 2008 | class={{Start-Class}} | version= | comments= }} |
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{{assessment | page=[[La Violencia]] [http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=La_Violencia&oldid=156352077 ] | importance= | date=September 15, 2007 | class={{Start-Class}} | version= | comments= }} |
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{{assessment | page=[[Lancero]] [http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Lancero&oldid=226129988 ] | importance= | date=July 20, 2008 | class={{Start-Class}} | version= | comments= }} |
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{{assessment | page=[[Latin American wars of independence]] [http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Latin_American_wars_of_independence&oldid=262009100 ] | importance= | date=January 6, 2009 | class={{Start-Class}} | version= | comments= }} |
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{{assessment | page=[[Lautaro (toqui)]] [http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Lautaro_%28toqui%29&oldid=130908225 ] | importance= | date=May 14, 2007 | class={{Start-Class}} | version= | comments= }} |
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{{assessment | page=[[Lempira (Lenca ruler)]] [http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Lempira_%28Lenca_ruler%29&oldid=163412248 ] | importance= | date=January 18, 2008 | class={{Start-Class}} | version= | comments= }} |
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{{assessment | page=[[Leopoldo Galtieri]] [http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Leopoldo_Galtieri&oldid=168304394 ] | importance= | date=November 21, 2007 | class={{Start-Class}} | version= | comments= }} |
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{{assessment | page=[[List of Peruvian Navy ships]] [http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=List_of_Peruvian_Navy_ships&oldid=185420444 ] | importance= | date=February 6, 2008 | class={{Start-Class}} | version= | comments= }} |
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{{assessment | page=[[List of aircraft of the Argentine Air Force]] [http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=List_of_aircraft_of_the_Argentine_Air_Force&oldid=181186999 ] | importance= | date=February 6, 2008 | class={{Start-Class}} | version= | comments= }} |
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{{assessment | page=[[List of aircraft of the Brazilian Navy]] [http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=List_of_aircraft_of_the_Brazilian_Navy&oldid=197055885 ] | importance= | date=March 11, 2008 | class={{Start-Class}} | version= | comments= }} |
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{{assessment | page=[[List of battles of the Peruvian Navy]] [http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=List_of_battles_of_the_Peruvian_Navy&oldid=185419118 ] | importance= | date=February 6, 2008 | class={{Start-Class}} | version= | comments= }} |
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{{assessment | page=[[List of conflicts in South America]] [http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=List_of_conflicts_in_South_America&oldid=194443147 ] | importance= | date=May 5, 2008 | class={{Start-Class}} | version= | comments= }} |
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{{assessment | page=[[List of current ships of the Chilean Navy]] [http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=List_of_current_ships_of_the_Chilean_Navy&oldid=185886141 ] | importance= | date=February 6, 2008 | class={{Start-Class}} | version= | comments= }} |
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{{assessment | page=[[List of senior officers of the Argentine Army]] [http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=List_of_senior_officers_of_the_Argentine_Army&oldid=144585658 ] | importance= | date=August 13, 2007 | class={{Start-Class}} | version= | comments= }} |
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{{assessment | page=[[List of senior officers of the Peruvian Army]] [http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=List_of_senior_officers_of_the_Peruvian_Army&oldid=201238268 ] | importance= | date=May 5, 2008 | class={{Start-Class}} | version= | comments= }} |
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{{assessment | page=[[List of ships of the Argentine Navy]] [http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=List_of_ships_of_the_Argentine_Navy&oldid=195298239 ] | importance= | date=March 4, 2008 | class={{Start-Class}} | version= | comments= }} |
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{{assessment | page=[[List of wars involving Colombia]] [http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=List_of_wars_involving_Colombia&oldid=173944999 ] | importance= | date=January 22, 2008 | class={{Start-Class}} | version= | comments= }} |
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{{assessment | page=[[Little War (Cuba)]] [http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Little_War_%28Cuba%29&oldid=188220015 ] | importance= | date=June 4, 2008 | class={{Start-Class}} | version= | comments= }} |
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{{assessment | page=[[Lockheed Martin Aircraft Argentina]] [http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Lockheed_Martin_Aircraft_Argentina&oldid=180682669 ] | importance= | date=February 6, 2008 | class={{Start-Class}} | version= | comments= }} |
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{{assessment | page=[[Luis Carrera]] [http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Luis_Carrera&oldid=179268466 ] | importance= | date=May 11, 2008 | class={{Start-Class}} | version= | comments= }} |
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{{assessment | page=[[Luis Maria Mendia]] [http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Luis_Maria_Mendia&oldid=163562863 ] | importance= | date=December 22, 2008 | class={{Start-Class}} | version= | comments= }} |
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{{assessment | page=[[Luis María Mendía]] [http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Luis_Mar%c3%ada_Mend%c3%ada&oldid=163565150 ] | importance= | date=May 11, 2008 | class={{Start-Class}} | version= | comments= }} |
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{{assessment | page=[[Luisa Cáceres de Arismendi]] [http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Luisa_C%c3%a1ceres_de_Arismendi&oldid=151213207 ] | importance= | date=November 27, 2007 | class={{Start-Class}} | version= | comments= }} |
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{{assessment | page=[[Lupo class frigate]] [http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Lupo_class_frigate&oldid=177718515 ] | importance= | date=December 14, 2007 | class={{Start-Class}} | version= | comments= }} |
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{{assessment | page=[[Luís Alves de Lima e Silva]] [http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Lu%c3%ads_Alves_de_Lima_e_Silva&oldid=257550829 ] | importance= | date=December 22, 2008 | class={{Start-Class}} | version= | comments= }} |
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{{assessment | page=[[MEKO]] [http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=MEKO&oldid=209060624 ] | importance= | date=May 5, 2008 | class={{Start-Class}} | version= | comments= }} |
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{{assessment | page=[[MGP submachine gun]] [http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=MGP_submachine_gun&oldid=230167765 ] | importance= | date=August 8, 2008 | class={{Start-Class}} | version= | comments= }} |
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{{assessment | page=[[MS Alfhem]] [http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=MS_Alfhem&oldid=200537184 ] | importance= | date=May 11, 2008 | class={{Start-Class}} | version= | comments= }} |
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{{assessment | page=[[Machurucuto Incident]] [http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Machurucuto_Incident&oldid=156752678 ] | importance= | date=April 22, 2008 | class={{Start-Class}} | version= | comments= }} |
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{{assessment | page=[[Macuahuitl]] [http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Macuahuitl&oldid=210207053 ] | importance= | date=May 11, 2008 | class={{Start-Class}} | version= | comments= }} |
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{{assessment | page=[[Manta Air Base]] [http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Manta_Air_Base&oldid=212830189 ] | importance= | date=May 21, 2008 | class={{Start-Class}} | version= | comments= }} |
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{{assessment | page=[[Manuel Ezequiel Bruzual]] [http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Manuel_Ezequiel_Bruzual&oldid=156338470 ] | importance= | date=October 24, 2007 | class={{Start-Class}} | version= | comments= }} |
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{{assessment | page=[[Manuel Piar]] [http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Manuel_Piar&oldid=210050557 ] | importance= | date=May 21, 2008 | class={{Start-Class}} | version= | comments= }} |
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{{assessment | page=[[Manuel Rodríguez Patriotic Front]] [http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Manuel_Rodr%c3%adguez_Patriotic_Front&oldid=260882993 ] | importance= | date=January 9, 2009 | class={{Start-Class}} | version= | comments= }} |
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{{assessment | page=[[Mariano Melgarejo]] [http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Mariano_Melgarejo&oldid=213471996 ] | importance= | date=May 21, 2008 | class={{Start-Class}} | version= | comments= }} |
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{{assessment | page=[[Mariano Osorio]] [http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Mariano_Osorio&oldid=178674904 ] | importance= | date=February 4, 2008 | class={{Start-Class}} | version= | comments= }} |
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{{assessment | page=[[Mariano Paredes]] [http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Mariano_Paredes&oldid=203184354 ] | importance= | date=May 21, 2008 | class={{Start-Class}} | version= | comments= }} |
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{{assessment | page=[[Mario Menéndez]] [http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Mario_Men%c3%a9ndez&oldid=260236321 ] | importance= | date=December 30, 2008 | class={{Start-Class}} | version= | comments= }} |
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{{assessment | page=[[Mariscal Estigarribia]] [http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Mariscal_Estigarribia&oldid=208575653 ] | importance= | date=May 28, 2008 | class={{Start-Class}} | version= | comments= }} |
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{{assessment | page=[[Marmaduque Grove]] [http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Marmaduque_Grove&oldid=164871003 ] | importance= | date=October 24, 2007 | class={{Start-Class}} | version= | comments= }} |
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{{assessment | page=[[Marshal (Brazil)]] [http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Marshal_%28Brazil%29&oldid=261474652 ] | importance= | date=January 6, 2009 | class={{Start-Class}} | version= | comments= }} |
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{{assessment | page=[[Mascarenhas de Morais]] [http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Mascarenhas_de_Morais&oldid=201718780 ] | importance= | date=June 8, 2008 | class={{Start-Class}} | version= | comments= }} |
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{{assessment | page=[[Massacre of Margarita Belén]] [http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Massacre_of_Margarita_Bel%c3%a9n&oldid=129883167 ] | importance= | date=December 3, 2007 | class={{Start-Class}} | version= | comments= }} |
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{{assessment | page=[[Mateo de Toro Zambrano, 1st Count of la Conquista]] [http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Mateo_de_Toro_Zambrano%2c_1st_Count_of_la_Conquista&oldid=162878399 ] | importance= | date=November 27, 2007 | class={{Start-Class}} | version= | comments= }} |
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{{assessment | page=[[Mathogo]] [http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Mathogo&oldid=179664097 ] | importance= | date=December 23, 2007 | class={{Start-Class}} | version= | comments= }} |
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{{assessment | page=[[Mexican Army]] [http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Mexican_Army&oldid=172681683 ] | importance= | date=November 21, 2007 | class={{Start-Class}} | version= | comments= }} |
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{{assessment | page=[[Middle Magdalena Bloc of the FARC-EP]] [http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Middle_Magdalena_Bloc_of_the_FARC-EP&oldid=213542087 ] | importance= | date=May 21, 2008 | class={{Start-Class}} | version= | comments= }} |
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{{assessment | page=[[Military Police (Brazil)]] [http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Military_Police_%28Brazil%29&oldid=231871924 ] | importance= | date=September 14, 2008 | class={{Start-Class}} | version= | comments= }} |
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{{assessment | page=[[Military career of Simón Bolívar]] [http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Military_career_of_Sim%c3%b3n_Bol%c3%advar&oldid=201820627 ] | importance= | date=May 5, 2008 | class={{Start-Class}} | version= | comments= }} |
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{{assessment | page=[[Military history of Brazil]] [http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Military_history_of_Brazil&oldid=236542016 ] | importance= | date=September 14, 2008 | class={{Start-Class}} | version= | comments= }} |
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{{assessment | page=[[Military of Colombia]] [http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Military_of_Colombia&oldid=161605698 ] | importance= | date=October 11, 2007 | class={{Start-Class}} | version= | comments= }} |
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{{assessment | page=[[Military of Ecuador]] [http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Military_of_Ecuador&oldid=170680897 ] | importance= | date=December 17, 2007 | class={{Start-Class}} | version= | comments= }} |
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{{assessment | page=[[Military of Panama]] [http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Military_of_Panama&oldid=171541381 ] | importance= | date=November 15, 2007 | class={{Start-Class}} | version= | comments= }} |
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{{assessment | page=[[Military of Peru]] [http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Military_of_Peru&oldid=216249123 ] | importance= | date=June 8, 2008 | class={{Start-Class}} | version= | comments= }} |
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{{assessment | page=[[Military of Suriname]] [http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Military_of_Suriname&oldid=270276064 ] | importance= | date=March 2, 2009 | class={{Start-Class}} | version= | comments= }} |
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{{assessment | page=[[Military of Uruguay]] [http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Military_of_Uruguay&oldid=210069415 ] | importance= | date=May 11, 2008 | class={{Start-Class}} | version= | comments= }} |
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{{assessment | page=[[Military of Venezuela]] [http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Military_of_Venezuela&oldid=163824527 ] | importance= | date=October 11, 2007 | class={{Start-Class}} | version= | comments= }} |
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{{assessment | page=[[Military ranks of Brazil]] [http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Military_ranks_of_Brazil&oldid=200608317 ] | importance= | date=June 15, 2008 | class={{Start-Class}} | version= | comments= }} |
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{{assessment | page=[[Military structure of the FARC-EP]] [http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Military_structure_of_the_FARC-EP&oldid=197175255 ] | importance= | date=March 11, 2008 | class={{Start-Class}} | version= | comments= }} |
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{{assessment | page=[[Minas Geraes class battleship]] [http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Minas_Geraes_class_battleship&oldid=189115936 ] | importance= | date=March 4, 2008 | class={{Start-Class}} | version= | comments= }} |
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{{assessment | page=[[NAe São Paulo]] [http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=NAe_S%c3%a3o_Paulo&oldid=179954793 ] | importance= | date=December 26, 2007 | class={{Start-Class}} | version= | comments= }} |
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{{assessment | page=[[NAeL Minas Gerais]] [http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=NAeL_Minas_Gerais&oldid=209128354 ] | importance= | date=May 14, 2008 | class={{Start-Class}} | version= | comments= }} |
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{{assessment | page=[[Nahuel (tank)]] [http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Nahuel_%28tank%29&oldid=195100388 ] | importance= | date=September 1, 2008 | class={{Start-Class}} | version= | comments= }} |
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{{assessment | page=[[Narciso López]] [http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Narciso_L%c3%b3pez&oldid=204547607 ] | importance= | date=April 15, 2008 | class={{Start-Class}} | version= | comments= }} |
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{{assessment | page=[[National Army of Colombia]] [http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=National_Army_of_Colombia&oldid=205212259 ] | importance= | date=May 11, 2008 | class={{Start-Class}} | version= | comments= }} |
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{{assessment | page=[[National Intelligence Service of Brazil]] [http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=National_Intelligence_Service_of_Brazil&oldid=158083336 ] | importance= | date=September 14, 2008 | class={{Start-Class}} | version= | comments= }} |
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{{assessment | page=[[National Navy of Uruguay]] [http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=National_Navy_of_Uruguay&oldid=243259482 ] | importance= | date=October 6, 2008 | class={{Start-Class}} | version= | comments= }} |
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{{assessment | page=[[Niteroi class frigate]] [http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Niteroi_class_frigate&oldid=151801591 ] | importance= | date=September 15, 2007 | class={{Start-Class}} | version= | comments= }} |
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{{assessment | page=[[Niños Héroes]] [http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ni%c3%b1os_H%c3%a9roes&oldid=214077656 ] | importance= | date=June 22, 2008 | class={{Start-Class}} | version= | comments= }} |
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{{assessment | page=[[No. 78 Squadron RAF]] [http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=No._78_Squadron_RAF&oldid=173315152 ] | importance= | date=November 24, 2007 | class={{Start-Class}} | version= | comments= }} |
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{{assessment | page=[[Nueva Esparta class destroyer]] [http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Nueva_Esparta_class_destroyer&oldid=209225281 ] | importance= | date=June 11, 2008 | class={{Start-Class}} | version= | comments= }} |
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{{assessment | page=[[Occupation of the Araucanía]] [http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Occupation_of_the_Araucan%c3%ada&oldid=212356999 ] | importance= | date=June 15, 2008 | class={{Start-Class}} | version= | comments= }} |
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{{assessment | page=[[Operation Black Buck]] [http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Operation_Black_Buck&oldid=160546657 ] | importance= | date=September 27, 2007 | class={{Start-Class}} | version= | comments= }} |
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{{assessment | page=[[Operation Emmanuel]] [http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Operation_Emmanuel&oldid=215228872 ] | importance= | date=June 22, 2008 | class={{Start-Class}} | version= | comments= }} |
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{{assessment | page=[[Operation JM]] [http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Operation_JM&oldid=221330468 ] | importance= | date=June 25, 2008 | class={{Start-Class}} | version= | comments= }} |
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{{assessment | page=[[Operation Journeyman]] [http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Operation_Journeyman&oldid=250564264 ] | importance= | date=December 26, 2008 | class={{Start-Class}} | version= | comments= }} |
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{{assessment | page=[[Operation Soberanía]] [http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Operation_Soberan%c3%ada&oldid=225284476 ] | importance= | date=July 13, 2008 | class={{Start-Class}} | version= | comments= }} |
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{{assessment | page=[[Operation Sutton]] [http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Operation_Sutton&oldid=168835953 ] | importance= | date=November 12, 2007 | class={{Start-Class}} | version= | comments= }} |
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{{assessment | page=[[PR-72P class corvette]] [http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=PR-72P_class_corvette&oldid=171813588 ] | importance= | date=November 30, 2007 | class={{Start-Class}} | version= | comments= }} |
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{{assessment | page=[[Pampero MRL]] [http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Pampero_MRL&oldid=182368721 ] | importance= | date=January 18, 2008 | class={{Start-Class}} | version= | comments= }} |
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{{assessment | page=[[Para-SAR]] [http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Para-SAR&oldid=260700899 ] | importance= | date=December 30, 2008 | class={{Start-Class}} | version= | comments= }} |
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{{assessment | page=[[Patricio Lynch]] [http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Patricio_Lynch&oldid=194212055 ] | importance= | date=June 18, 2008 | class={{Start-Class}} | version= | comments= }} |
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{{assessment | page=[[Pedro Lagos]] [http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Pedro_Lagos&oldid=168209722 ] | importance= | date=November 9, 2007 | class={{Start-Class}} | version= | comments= }} |
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{{assessment | page=[[People's Revolutionary Army (Argentina)]] [http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=People%27s_Revolutionary_Army_%28Argentina%29&oldid=208248156 ] | importance= | date=June 25, 2008 | class={{Start-Class}} | version= | comments= }} |
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{{assessment | page=[[Peruvian Air Force]] [http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Peruvian_Air_Force&oldid=220776707 ] | importance= | date=June 25, 2008 | class={{Start-Class}} | version= | comments= }} |
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{{assessment | page=[[Peruvian Coast Guard]] [http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Peruvian_Coast_Guard&oldid=260334954 ] | importance= | date=December 30, 2008 | class={{Start-Class}} | version= | comments= }} |
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{{assessment | page=[[Peruvian Naval Aviation]] [http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Peruvian_Naval_Aviation&oldid=251485461 ] | importance= | date=November 13, 2008 | class={{Start-Class}} | version= | comments= }} |
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{{assessment | page=[[Peruvian Navy]] [http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Peruvian_Navy&oldid=221533092 ] | importance= | date=June 25, 2008 | class={{Start-Class}} | version= | comments= }} |
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{{assessment footer|seealso=See also: [[:Category:South American military history articles by quality|assessed article categories]]. |lastdate=}} |
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This first attempt to establish a [[liberal democracy]] in Germany happened during a time of civil conflict, and failed with the ascent of [[Adolf Hitler]] and the [[Nazi Party]] in [[1933]]. Although technically the 1919 constitution was not invalidated until after [[World War II]], the legal measures taken by the Nazi government in 1933 (commonly known as ''[[Gleichschaltung]]'') destroyed the mechanisms of a typical democratic system, so 1933 is cited as the end of the Weimar Republic. |
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The phrase ''Weimar Republic'' is an invention of historians, and was not used during its existence. Germany's legal name was still the "German Empire" (''Deutsches Reich''), the same name used by the German monarchy before 1919. The use of the English word ''empire'' and its adjective ''imperial'' may be confusing because the Weimar Republic was a republic; ''empire'' is an imprecise translation of the German word ''Reich'' (which does not have a specific monarchic connotation) and is increasingly translated as ''commonwealth'' or ''[[realm]]''. |
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''This article outlines political events from 1918 until the collapse of the Republic in 1933. The [[Nazi Germany]] article describes what came after (see also [[Gleichschaltung]] for details on how the Nazi dictatorship was installed). For discussion of the cultural climate in Germany between the wars see [[Weimar culture]]'' |
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== Controlled revolution: the establishment of the Republic (1918-1919) == |
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[[Image:Flag_of_Germany_%282-3%29.svg|thumb|Flag of Weimar Republic, 1919-1933]] |
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From [[1916]] onwards, the [[1871]] [[German Empire]] had effectively been governed by the military, led by the ''[[Oberste Heeresleitung]]'' (OHL, Supreme Army Command) with the Chief of Staff [[Paul von Hindenburg]]. When it became apparent that [[World War I]] was lost, the OHL demanded that a civil government be installed in order to meet a key peace talk condition from [[United States]] President [[Woodrow Wilson]]. Any attempt to continue the war after [[Bulgaria]] had left the [[Central Powers]] would only have caused German territories to be occupied. The new ''Reichskanzler'' Prince [[Max von Baden]] thus offered a cease-fire to President Wilson on [[October 3]], [[1918]]. On [[October 28]], 1918, the 1871 constitution was finally amended to make the ''Reich'' a [[parliamentary system|parliamentary democracy]], which the government had refused for half a century: the Chancellor was henceforth responsible to Parliament, the ''[[Reichstag (institution)|Reichstag]],'' and no longer to the [[Kaiser]]. |
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The plan to transform Germany into a [[constitutional monarchy]] similar to [[United Kingdom|Britain]] quickly became obsolete as the country slid into a state of near-total chaos. Germany was flooded with soldiers returning from the front, many of whom were wounded physically, psychologically, or both. Violence was rampant, with fights breaking out even between rival [[leftist]] groups at funerals for leaders assassinated by right-wing adversaries. |
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Rebellion broke out when, on [[October 29]], the military command, without consultation with the government, ordered the German [[High Seas Fleet]] to sortie. This was not only entirely hopeless from a military standpoint, but was also certain to bring the peace negotiations to a halt. The crews of two ships in [[Wilhelmshaven]] mutinied. When the military arrested about 1,000 seamen and had them transported to [[Kiel]], the local revolt turned into a general rebellion that quickly swept over most of Germany. Other seamen, soldiers and workers, in solidarity with the arrested, began electing worker and soldier councils modelled after the [[Soviet Union|soviets]] of the [[Russian Revolution of 1917]], and took over military and civil powers in many cities. On November 7, the revolution had reached [[Munich]], causing [[Ludwig III of Bavaria]] to flee. |
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Initially, the demands of the councils were modest: they wanted the arrested seamen to be freed. In contrast to Russia one year earlier, the councils were not controlled by a communist party. Still, with the emergence of the Soviet Union, the rebellion caused great fear in the establishment down to the middle classes. The country was on the verge of becoming a [[socialism|socialist]] republic. |
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From November [[1918]] though to January [[1919]], Germany was governed dictatorially by the Council of People's Representatives composed of three representatives each from the [[Social Democratic Party of Germany|Social Democratic Party]] (SPD) and of the "Independent Social Democrats" (USPD, for ''Unabhängige Sozialdemokratische Partei Deutschlands)'', until withdawal of the USPD left the SPD to rule alone. In these three months, the government was extraordinarily active, and issued a large number of decrees. At the same time, its main activities were confined to certain spheres: the 8 hour day, domestic labour reform, agricultural labour reform, right of civil-service associations, local municipality social welfare relief (split between Reich and individual states) and important national health insurance, re-instatement of demobilised workers, protection arbitrary dismissal with appeal as right, regulated wage agreement, and Universal suffrage from 20 years of age in all classes of elections - local and national. Occasionally one will find the name "Die Deutsche sozialdemokratische Republik" (The German Social-Democratic Republic) in leaflets and on posters from this era. |
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At the time, the political representation of the working class was divided: a faction had separated from the Social Democratic Party, calling themselves "Independent Social Democrats" (USPD) and leaning towards a socialist system. In order not to lose their influence, the remaining "Majority Social Democrats" (MSPD, who supported a parliamentary system) decided to put themselves at the front of the movement, and on November 7, demanded that Emperor [[Wilhelm II of Germany|Wilhelm II]] abdicate. On [[November 9]], [[1918]], the Republic was proclaimed by [[Philipp Scheidemann]] at the [[Reichstag (building)|''Reichstag'' building]] in [[Berlin]], two hours after a socialist republic was proclaimed around the corner at the [[Berlin Castle]] by [[Karl Liebknecht]]. |
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On November 9, in a legally questionable act, ''Reichskanzler'' Prince [[Max von Baden]] transferred his powers to [[Friedrich Ebert]], the leader of the MSPD. It was apparent that this act would not be sufficient to satisfy the masses, so a day later, a revolutionary government called "Council of People's Deputies" (''Rat der Volksbeauftragten'') was created, consisting of three MSPD and three USPD members, led by Ebert for the MSPD and [[Hugo Haase]] for the USPD. Although the new government was confirmed by the Berlin worker and soldier council, it was opposed by the [[Spartacist League]] led by [[Rosa Luxemburg]] and Karl Liebknecht. Ebert called for a National Congress of Councils, which took place from December 16 to 20, 1918, and in which the MSPD had the majority. Ebert thus managed to enforce quick elections for a National Assembly to produce a constitution for a parliamentary system, marginalizing the movement that called for a socialist republic (see below). |
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===The ''Reichswehr'' and the Revolution=== |
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To ensure that his fledgling government was able to maintain control over the country, Ebert made a pact with the OHL, now led by Ludendorff's successor General [[Wilhelm Groener]]. This [[Ebert-Groener pact]] stipulated that the government would not attempt to reform the Army so long as the army swore to protect the government. On the one hand, this agreement symbolised the acceptance of the new government by the military, assuaging concern among the middle classes; on the other hand, it was considered a betrayal of worker interests by the left wing. The new model ''Reichswehr'' army, limited by the [[Treaty of Versailles]] to 100,000 men, remained fully under the control of the Imperial military caste despite its nominal re-organisation. As an independent and conservative group in Weimar, it wielded a large amount of influence over the fate of the republic. Unlike all other revolutions, the men of the German Revolution, asked the High Command how to bring the army home. |
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This pact also marked one of several steps that caused the permanent split in the working class's political representation into the SPD and communists. The eventual fate of the Weimar Republic in no small part derives from the general political backwardness of the German labour movement. The several strands within the central mass of the socialist movement adhered more to sentimental loyalty to alliances arising from chance than to any recognition of political necessity. Combined action on the part of the socialists was impossible without action from the millions of workers who stood midway between the [[parliament]]arians and the ultra-leftists who supported the workers councils. Confusion through Weimar as a whole made acute the danger of extreme right and extreme left engaging in virulent conflict. |
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The split became final after Ebert called upon the OHL for troops to put down another Berlin soldier mutiny on [[November 23]], [[1918]], in which soldiers had captured the city commandant and closed off the ''Reichskanzlei'' where the Council of People's Deputies was situated. The suppression was brutal with several dead and injured. This caused the left wing to call for a split with the MSPD, which, in their view, had joined with the counter-revolutionary military to suppress the Revolution. The USPD thus left the Council of People's Deputies after only seven weeks. The split deepened when, in December, the [[Communist Party of Germany|Kommunistische Partei Deutschlands]] (KPD) was formed out of a number of left-wing groups, including the left wing of the USPD and the ''[[Spartacist League|Spartakus]]'' group. |
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In January, more bloody attempts at establishing [[council communism]] by workers in the streets of Berlin were put down by paramilitary ''[[Freikorps]]'' units consisting of volunteer soldiers, culminating in the beating to death of [[Rosa Luxemburg]] and [[Karl Liebknecht|Liebknecht]] on [[January 15]]. With the affirmation of Ebert, the murderers were tried not before a civil court, but a military court, leading to very lenient sentences, which did not exactly lead to more acceptance for Ebert on the left wing either. |
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The National Assembly elections took place [[January 19]], 1919. In this time, the new left-wing parties, including the USPD and KPD, were barely able to get themselves organized, leading to a solid majority of seats for the moderate forces. To avoid the ongoing fights in Berlin, the National Assembly convened in the city of [[Weimar, Germany|Weimar]], giving the future Republic its unofficial name. The [[Weimar Constitution]] created a republic under a [[semi-presidential system]] with the ''Reichstag'' elected by [[proportional representation]]. The Socialist and Democratic parties obtained a solid 80 per cent of the vote. |
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During the debates in Weimar, fights continued. A [[Bavarian Soviet Republic|Soviet republic]] was declared in [[Munich]], but was quickly put down by ''Freikorps'' and regular army units. Sporadic fighting continued to flare up around the country. In eastern territories, forces loyal to the Kaiser fought the republic, while the Polish population fought for independence: [[Great Poland Uprising]] in [[Provinz Posen]] and three [[Silesian Uprisings]] in [[Upper Silesia]]. |
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===The socialist roots of Weimar=== |
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The carefully thought-out social and political legislation introduced during the revolution was generally unappreciated by the German working-class. The two goals sought by the government, democratisation and social protection of the working class, were never achieved. This has been attributed to a lack of pre-war political experience on the part of the Social Democrats. The government had little success in confronting the twin economic crises following the war. |
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The permanent economic crisis was a result of lost pre-war industrial exports, the loss of supplies in raw materials and food stuffs from [[Alsace-Lorraine]], Polish districts and the colonies along with worsening debt balances and reparations payments. Military-industrial activity had almost ceased, although controlled demobilisation kept unemployment at around one million. |
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The [[Entente]] permitted only low import levels of goods that most Germans could not afford. After four years of war and famine, many German workers were exhausted, physically impaired and discouraged. Millions were disenchanted with capitalism and hoping for a new era. Meanwhile the currency devalued. |
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The German peace delegation in [[France]] signed the [[Treaty of Versailles]], accepting mass reductions of the German military, heavy reparations payments and the controversial "[[War Guilt Clause]]". [[Adolf Hitler]] later blamed the republic and its democracy for the oppressive terms of this treaty. |
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The Republic's first ''[[Reichspräsident]]'' ("Reich President"), [[Friedrich Ebert]] of the MSPD, signed the new German constitution into law on [[August 11]], [[1919]]. |
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== The early years: internal conflict (1919-1923) == |
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The Republic was under great pressure from both left and right-wing extremists. The left accused the ruling Social Democrats of having betrayed the ideals of the workers' movement by avoiding a communist revolution. The right was opposed to any democratic system, preferring an authoritarian state like the 1871 Empire. To further undermine the Republic's credibility the right (especially the military) blamed it for Germany's defeat in World War I (see ''[[Dolchstoßlegende]]''). |
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The [[Kapp Putsch]] took place on [[March 13]], [[1920]], involving a group of ''[[Freikorps]]'' troops who captured [[Berlin]] and installed [[Wolfgang Kapp]] (a right wing journalist) as chancellor. The national government fled to [[Stuttgart]] and called for a [[general strike]]. This completely halted the economy and the Kapp government had collapsed by [[March 17]]. |
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Inspired by the general strikes, a communist uprising began in the [[Ruhr area|Ruhr region]] when 50,000 people formed a "Red Army" and took control of the province. The regular army and the ''[[Freikorps]]'' ended the uprising without orders from the government. Other communist rebellions were put down in March [[1921]] in [[Saxony]] and [[Hamburg]]. |
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By [[1923]], the Republic could no longer afford the reparations payments required by the Versailles treaty, and the government defaulted. In response, [[France|French]] and [[Belgium|Belgian]] troops [[Occupation of the Ruhr|occupied the Ruhr region]], Germany's most productive industrial region at the time, taking control of most mining and manufacturing companies in January of [[1923]]. Strikes were called, and passive resistance was encouraged. These strikes lasted eight months, further damaging the economy and raising expensive imports. |
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[[Image:Inflation-1923.jpg|200px|thumb|right|Inflation 1923-24: a woman feeds her tiled stove with money]] |
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Since striking workers were paid benefits by the state, much additional currency was printed, fueling a period of [[hyperinflation]]. The value of the Mark had declined from 4.2 per US dollar to 1,000,000 per dollar by August 1923 and 4,200,000,000,000 per dollar on November 20. On December 1, a new currency, the [[Rentenmark]], was introduced at the rate of 1,000,000,000,000 old marks for 1 new mark. Reparation payments resumed, and the Ruhr was returned to Germany. |
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Further pressure from the right came in 1923 with the [[Beer Hall Putsch]], staged by [[Adolf Hitler]] in [[Munich]]. In [[1920]], the [[German Workers' Party]] had become the [[Nazi Party]] (NSDAP), and would become a driving force in the collapse of Weimar. Hitler was named chairman of the party in July [[1921]]. The [[Sturmabteilung|SA]] was established in November 1921 and acted as Hitler's personal army. On [[November 8]], [[1923]], the ''[[Kampfbund]]'', in a pact with [[Erich Ludendorff]], took over a meeting by Bavarian prime minister [[Gustav Ritter von Kahr|Gustav von Kahr]] at a beer hall in Munich. Ludendorff and Hitler declared a new government, planning to take control of Munich the following day. The 3,000 rebels were thwarted by 100 policemen. Hitler was arrested and sentenced to five years in prison, a minimum sentence for the charge and he served only nine months before his release. Following the failure of the Beer Hall Putsch, his imprisonment and subsequent release, Hitler focused on legal methods of gaining power. |
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==Stresemann's Golden Era (1923-1929)== |
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[[Gustav Stresemann]] was ''[[Chancellor of Germany|Reichskanzler]]'' for a brief period in [[1923]], and served as Foreign Minister from [[1923]]-[[1929]], a period of relative stability for the Weimar Republic when there were fewer uprisings and seemingly the beginnings of an economic recovery. |
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Stresemann's first move was to issue a new currency, the ''[[Rentenmark]]'', to halt the extreme [[hyperinflation]] crippling German society and the economy. It was successful because Stresemann repeatedly refused to issue more currency, the initial cause of the inflationary spiral. To further stabilise the economy, he reduced spending and [[bureaucracy]] while increasing [[taxes]]. He signed the [[Locarno Treaties]] with the Allied countries in 1925 as a means of restoring Germany's diplomatic status in Europe. |
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During this period, the [[Dawes Plan]] was also created, tying reparations payments to Germany's ability to pay. Germany was admitted into the [[League of Nations]], made agreements over her western border, signed a neutrality pact with [[Russia]], and [[disarmament]] was brought to a halt. However, this progress was funded by overseas loans, increasing the nation's debts, while overall trade decreased and unemployment rose. Stresemann's reforms did not relieve the underlying weaknesses of Weimar but merely gave the appearance of a stable democracy. |
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Despite the progress made during these years, Stresemann was criticized by his opponents for his policy of "fulfillment", or compliance with the terms of the [[Versailles Treaty]]. |
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In 1929, Stresemann's death marked the end of the "Golden Era" of the Weimar Republic. |
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==Collapse and the rise of Hitler== |
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===Loss of credibility=== |
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The last years of the Weimar republic were stamped by even more political instability than in the previous years. On [[March 29]], [[1930]], the finance expert [[Heinrich Brüning]] had been appointed the successor of Chancellor Müller by [[Paul von Hindenburg]] after months of political lobbying by General [[Kurt von Schleicher]] on behalf of the military. The new government was expected to lead a political shift towards conservatism, based on the emergency powers granted to the ''Reichspräsident'' by the constitution, since it had no majority support in the ''[[Reichstag (institution)|Reichstag]]''. |
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After an unpopular bill to reform the Reich's finances was left unsupported by the ''Reichstag'', Hindenburg established the bill as an emergency decree based on [[Article 48]] of the constitution. On July 18, 1930, the bill was again invalidated by a slim majority in the ''Reichstag'' with the support of the SPD, [[Communist Party of Germany|KPD]], the (then small) Nazi Party (NSDAP) and [[DNVP]]. Immediately afterwards, Brüning submitted to the ''Reichstag'' the president's decree that it would be dissolved. |
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The ''Reichstag'' general elections on [[September 14]], [[1930]], resulted in an enormous political shift: 18.3% of the vote went to the NSDAP, five times the percentage compared to 1928. This had devastating consequences for the Republic. There was no longer a majority in the ''Reichstag'' even for a Great Coalition of moderate parties, and it encouraged the supporters of the NSDAP to bring out their claim to power with increasing violence and terror. After 1930, the Republic slid more and more into a state of civil war. |
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From 1930 to 1932, Brüning attempted to reform the devastated state without a majority in Parliament, governing with the help of the President's emergency decrees. During that time, the [[Great Depression]] reached its highpoint. In line with liberal economic theory that less public spending would spur economic growth, Brüning drastically cut state expenditures, including in the social sector. He expected and accepted that the economic crisis would, for a while, deteriorate before things would improve. Among others, the ''Reich'' completely halted all public grants to the obligatory unemployment insurance (which had been introduced only in 1927), which resulted in higher contributions by the workers and less benefits for the unemployed -- not exactly a popular measure to adopt. |
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The economic downturn lasted until the second half of 1932, when there were first indices of a rebound. By this time though, the Weimar Republic had lost all credibility with the majority of Germans. While scholars greatly disagree about how Brüning's policy should be evaluated, it can safely be said that it contributed to the decline of the Republic. Whether there were alternatives at the time remains the subject of much debate. |
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On [[May 30]], 1932, Brüning resigned after no longer having Hindenburg's support. Five weeks earlier, Hindenburg had been reelected ''Reichspräsident'' with Brüning's active support, running against Hitler (the president was directly elected by the people while the ''Reichskanzler'' was not). |
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===Franz von Papen calls for elections=== |
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Hindenburg then appointed [[Franz von Papen]] as new ''Reichskanzler''. Von Papen lifted the ban on the [[Sturmabteilung|SA]], imposed after the street riots, in an unsuccessful attempt to secure the backing of Hitler. |
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[[image:Spd-poster-1932.jpg|thumb|200px|[[Social Democratic Party of Germany|SPD]] election poster, 1932. Translation: "Against [[Franz von Papen|Papen]], [[Hitler]], [[Ernst Thälmann|Thälmann]]; List 2, Social Democrats". The poster shows the Social Democrats crushing their three ideological enemies, [[Monarchism]], [[Nazism]] and [[Communism]]. ]] |
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Since most parties opposed the new government, von Papen had the ''[[Reichstag (institution)|Reichstag]]'' dissolved and called for new elections. The general elections on [[July 31]], [[1932]] yielded major gains for the [[Communist Party of Germany|KPD]] and the [[National Socialist German Workers Party|NSDAP]]. The latter won 37.2% of the vote for the NSDAP, supplanting the [[Social Democratic Party of Germany|Social Democrats]] as the largest party in the ''Reichstag''. Hitler now demanded to be appointed Chancellor, but was rejected by Hindenburg on August 13, 1932. There was still no majority in the ''Reichstag'' for any government; as a result, the Reichstag was dissolved and elections took place once more in the hope that a stable majority would result. |
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This was not the case. The [[November 6]], [[1932]] elections yielded 33.0% for the NSDAP: it lost over four percent. Franz von Papen stepped down, and was succeeded by General von Schleicher as ''Reichskanzler'' on [[December 3]]. Von Schleicher's audacious plan was to build a majority in the Reichstag by uniting the trade unionist left wings in the various parties, including that of the NSDAP led by Gregor Strasser. This did not prove successful either. |
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On [[January 4]], [[1933]], Hitler met secretly with von Papen at the house of the [[Cologne]] banker [[Kurt von Schroeder]]. They agreed on forming a joint government. Besides Hitler, only two other NSDAP members would be part of the Reich government: ([[Wilhelm Frick]] as Minister of the Interior and [[Hermann Göring]] as Commissary for Prussia), with von Papen being Hitler's Vice Chancellor. The new cabinet included the influential media mogul [[Alfred Hugenberg]], who was chairman of the (also right-wing) [[DNVP]] party at the time. Hitler had outwitted von Papen. The three posts held by the NSDAP were the most influential. |
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From November 6, [[1932]] to January 31, [[1933]] the [[Nazi]]s were a barely restrained [[minority]] excluded from an Army ''[[Reichswehr]]'' [[General]]-anchored [[Cabinet]] led by general [[Kurt von Schleicher]] and ruling under [[Article 48]] of the [[Weimar Constitution]]. From January 4th Hitler and the ex-Chancellor, non-Party member Franz von Papen, planned between themselves to replace the cabinet. |
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Hitler learned from von Papen that the general had no authority to abolish the ''Reichstag'' parliament, whereas any majority of seats did. The cabinet (under a previous interpretation of Article 48) ruled without a sitting Reichstag, which could vote only for its own dissolution. Hitler also learned that all past crippling Nazi debts were to be relieved by German big business. |
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On January 22, Hitler's efforts to persuade Oskar von Hindenburg (the President's son) included threats to bring criminal charges over estate taxation irregularities at the President's [[Neudeck]] estate (although 5000 extra acres were soon alloted to Hindenburg's property). Out maneuvered by von Papen and Hitler on plans for the new cabinet, and having lost Hindenburg's confidence, Schleicher asked for new elections. On January 28th von Papen described Hitler to [[Paul von Hindenburg]] as only a minority part of an alternative, von Papen-arranged government. |
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The next day Hitler and von Papen thwarted a last-minute threat of an officially-sanctioned ''Reichswehr'' takeover, and on 30 January [[1933]] Hindenburg accepted the new Papen-Nationalist-Hitler coalition with the Nazis holding only three of eleven Cabinet seats. Later that day, the first cabinet meeting was attended by only two political parties, representing a minority in the Reichstag: The Nazis and the [[Alfred Hugenberg]]-led DNVP (Nationalists) (196 + 52 seats). Eyeing the Catholic [[Centre Party Germany]]'s 70 (+ 20 [[BVP]]) seats, Hitler refused their leader's demands for constitutional "concessions" (amounting to protection) and planned for dissolution of the Reichstag. |
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Nationalist suggestions to "balance" the majority through further arrests were rejected by Hitler at that first meeting, although the Nationalists were assured arrests would resume after the elections. Following a meeting with centre leader Monsignor [[Ludwig Kaas]], Hitler called for fresh elections to be held on 5 March. |
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Although he was fiercely anti-Nazi and had defeated Hitler in the 1932 presidential election, Hindenburg reluctantly agreed to von Papen's theory that, with Nazi popular support on the wane, Hitler could now be controlled as chancellor. The date dubbed ''[[Machtergreifung]]'' (seizure of power) by the Nazi propaganda is commonly seen as the beginning of [[Nazi Germany]]. |
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===Hitler's seizure of power=== |
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[[Hitler]] was sworn in as [[Chancellor]] on the morning of [[January 30]], [[1933]] during what some observers later described as a brief and indifferent ceremony. By early February, a mere week after Hitler's assumption of the chancellorship, the government had begun to clamp down on the opposition. Meetings of the left-wing parties were banned, and even some of the moderate parties found their members threatened and assaulted. Measures with an appearance of legality suppressed the Communist Party in mid-February and included the plainly illegal arrests of ''Reichstag'' deputies. |
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====Reichstag Fire==== |
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The [[Reichstag Fire]] on [[February 27]] was blamed by Hitler's government on the Communists, and Hitler used the emergency to obtain President von Hindenburg's assent to the [[Reichstag Fire Decree]] the following day. The decree invoked [[Article 48]] of the [[Weimar Constitution]] and suspended a number of constitutional protections of civil liberties, allowing the Nazi government to take swift and harsh action against the Nazis' opponents. |
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====March 5 General Election==== |
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Hitler and the Nazis used state broadcasting and aviation facilities in a massive attempt to sway the electorate, but this last democratic election of the [[Third Reich]] yielded a bare majority of 16 seats for the coalition. Hitler addressed many disparate interest groups, stressing the necessity for a definitive solution to the perpetual instability of the Weimar Republic. He now blamed Germany's problems on communists, even threatening their lives on [[March 3]]. Former Chancellor [[Heinrich Bruning]] proclaimed that his Centre Party would resist any constitutional change and appealed to the president for an investigation of the Reichstag Fire. |
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====15 March Hitler Cabinet meeting==== |
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At the meeting of the new cabinet on [[March 15]], Hitler introduced the [[Enabling Act]], which would have authorized the cabinet to enact legislation without the approval of the Reichstag. Meanwhile, the only remaining question for the Nazis was whether the Catholic [[Centre Party (Germany)|Centre Party]] (''Zentrum'') would support the Enabling Act in the Reichstag, thereby providing the two-thirds majority required to ratify a law that amended the constitution. Hitler expressed his confidence to win over the Centre's votes. Monsignor [[Ludwig Kaas]], the party's chairman since [[1928]], had strong non-political connections to the [[Vatican City|Vatican]] Secretary of State. At the last internal Centre meeting prior to the debate on the ''Enabling Act'', Kaas expressed no preference or suggestion on the vote, but as a way of mollifying opposition by Centre members to the granting of further powers to Hitler, Kaas arranged for a letter of constitutional guarantee from the Nazi leader prior to Centre voting in favor of the Enabling Act. |
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==21 March Reichstag Opening Ceremony== |
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The ceremonial opening of the Reichstag on [[March 21]] was held at the [[Garrison Church]] in [[Potsdam]], a shrine of [[Prussianism]], in the presence of many [[Junker]] landowners and representatives of the imperial military caste. This impressive and often emotional spectacle — orchestrated by [[Joseph Goebbels]] — aimed to link Hitler's government with Germany's imperial past and portray National Socialism as a guarantor of the nation's future. The ceremony helped convince the "old guard" Prussian military elite of Hitler's homage to their long tradition and, in turn, produced the relatively convincing view that Hitler's government had the support of Germany's traditional protector — the Army. Such support would announce to the population a return to conservatism to curb the problems affecting the Weimar Republic, and that stability might be at hand. In a politically adroit move, Hitler bowed in respectful humility before President and Field Marshal [[Paul von Hindenburg|von Hindenburg]]. |
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====20-22 March 1933 Reichstag Negotiations==== |
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On 20 March 'Working Party' negotiation began between Hitler and Frick on one side and the Catholic Center Party leaders, Kaas, Stegerwald and Hackelsburger, on the other. The esolution sought was under what conditions would the Center Party vote for the Enabling Act . (The consent of the Catholic parties was necessary if this act was to receive the required two-thirds majority vote.) On 22 March the negotiation between Hitler, Frick and the Center Party concluded. Hitler promised to continue the existence of the German states, not to use the new grant of power to change the constitution, and to retain civil servants belonging to the Catholic Center Party. Hitler also pledged to protect the Catholic confessional schools and to respect the concordats signed between the Holy See and Bavaria (1924), Prussia (1929) and Baden (1931). Hitler also agreed to mention these promises in his speech to the Reichstag before the vote on the Enabling Act. |
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====21 March Reichstag Opening Ceremony==== |
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The ceremonial opening of the Reichstag on [[March 21]] was held at the [[Garrison Church]] in [[Potsdam]], a shrine of [[Prussianism]], in the presence of many [[Junker]] landowners and representatives of the imperial military caste. This impressive and often emotional spectacle — orchestrated by [[Joseph Goebbels]] — aimed to link Hitler's government with Germany's imperial past and portray National Socialism as a guarantor of the nation's future. The ceremony helped convince the "old guard" Prussian military elite of Hitler's homage to their long tradition and, in turn, produced the relatively convincing view that Hitler's government had the support of Germany's traditional protector — the Army. Such support would announce to the population a return to conservatism to curb the problems affecting the Weimar Republic, and that stability might be at hand. In a politically adroit move, Hitler bowed in respectful humility before President and Field Marshal [[Paul von Hindenburg|von Hindenburg]]. |
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====23 March Reichstag assembly & the Enabling Act==== |
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The Reichstag convened on [[March 23]], [[1933]], and in the midday opening Hitler made a historic speech , using a front of calm and conciliation . It is most noticeable for its abrupt reversal of the Nazi Party's hardline censure of christianity , particularly Catholicism . Hitler presented an appealing prospect of respect towards christianity by paying tribute to the Christian faiths as "essential elements for safeguarding the soul of the German people". He promised to respect their rights and declared his government's "ambition is a peaceful accord between [[Church and State]]," and with an eye to the votes of the Catholic Centre party, which he got, added "we hope to improve our friendly relations with the [[Holy See]]." Their leader Ludwig Kaas had a hand in formulating this speech. ( ''German Resistance Against Hitler'' |
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Klemens von Klemperer , OUP, 1992 ) |
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In the later 23 March sitting , for the actual vote , Hitler orchestrated the full political menace of his [[paramilitary]] forces like the [[SA]] in the streets to intimidate reluctant Reichstag deputies into approving the Enabling Act. The Communists' 81 seats had been empty since the Reichstag Fire Decree and other lesser known procedural measures,thus excluding their anticipated "No" votes from the balloting. [[Otto Wels]], the leader of the Social Democrats , whose seats were similarly depleted from 120 to below 100 , was the only speaker to defend democracy and in a futile effort to deny the two-thirds majority, he made a speech that categorised the shocking abandonment of democracy to dictatorship in the bravest manner . At this Hitler could no longer contain his true violence of character and Wels' reference to the resulting national loss of soul provoked Hitler's immediate and uncontrolled wrath. (''Rise and Fall of the Third Reich'', [[William L. Shirer]] [[1959]]). |
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In his anger to Wels, Hitler delivered a characteristic screaming diatribe , promising to exterminate all communists in Germany and making it clear that [[Otto Wels']] Socialists should be no more tolerated . Meanwhile Hitler's promised written guarantee to Monsignor Kaas, was being typed up , it was asserted to Kaas, amd thereby Kaas was persuaded against [[Heinrich Brüning]]'s prior advice to deliver the Catholic Centre or ''Zentrumspartei'' , bloc votes for the Enabling Act anyway ( some 92 seats with the sub-shoot BVP or Bavarian people's Party).( Several days later a weak and insufficiently safeguarding letter of reassurance was supplied to Kaas from President [[Hindenburg]]. Kaas himself left for Rome however, on the following day , 24 March |
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====Aftermath==== |
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The passing of the Enabling Act gave Hitler and his government sweeping powers to legislate without the Reichstag's approval, and to make foreign policy decisions and deviate from the constitution where they saw fit. Hitler would use these powers to remove all opposition to the dictatorship he wished to create. The decrees issueed by Hitler's cabinet within succeeding weeks rapidly stripped Germans of their rights, removed all non-Nazi members of the Civil Service, and banned all other political parties and unions, ushering in the [[Third Reich]]. |
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== Reasons for the Republic's failure == |
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The Weimar Republic's catastrophic collapse is the subject of continued debate. Although Hitler became ''Reichskanzler'' legally through mechanisms set forth in the constitution and the NSDAP gained a relative majority of the seats in Parliament in two 1932 elections, he was appointed chancellor at a time when support for the NSDAP was not considered sufficient to gain power. Scholars have expressed divided opinions on the reasons and historical analysis this was complicated by the [[Cold War]], when historians often attempted to justify ideologies. One [[Alternate history|speculation]] involves how the NSDAP might have fared in the 1933 elections if Hitler didn't have the political and logistical advantages of being chancellor. |
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No single reason can explain the rise of Nazism. The most commonly asserted causes might be grouped into three categaories. |
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=== Economic problems === |
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The Weimar Republic had some of the most serious economic problems ever experienced by any western democracy in history. Rampant [[hyperinflation]], massive unemployment and a large drop in living standards were primary factors. In 1923-29 there was a short period of economic recovery, but the [[Great Depression]] of the 1930s, led to a worldwide recession. Germany was particularly affected because she depended heavily on American loans. In 1932, about 5 million Germans were unemployed. The Republic was blamed by many. This was made apparent when political parties wanting to disband the Republic altogether on both right and left made any democratic majority in Parliament impossible. |
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The [[Treaty of Versailles|Versailles treaty]] was considered by most Germans as a punishing and degrading document which forced them to surrender resource-rich areas and pay massive amounts of compensation. These punitive reparations caused consternation and resentment, although the actual economic damage resulting from the Treaty of Versailles is difficult to determine. While the official reparations were considerable, Germany ended up paying only fraction of them. However, the reparations did damage Germany's economy by discouraging market loans, forcing the Weimar government to finance its deficit by printing more money which caused rampant hyperinflation. |
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Most historians agree that many industrial leaders identified the Republic with labour unions and the Social Democrats who had established the concessions of 1918/1919. Although some did see Hítler as a means to abolish these, the Republic was already unstable before any industry leaders were supporting Hitler. Even those who supported Hitler's appointment did not want Nazism in its entirety and considered Hitler a temporary solution in their efforts to abolish the Republic. Industry support alone cannot explain Hitler's enthusiastic support by large segments of the population, including many workers who had turned away from the left. |
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=== Institutional problems === |
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It is widely agreed that the 1919 constitution had several weaknesses, making the eventual establishment of a dictatorship likely but it is unknown whether a different constitution could have prevented the Third Reich. However, the 1949 West German constitution (the ''[[Basic Law of the Federal Republic of Germany|Grundgesetz]])'' is generally viewed as a strong response to these flaws. |
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* The institution of the ''Reichspräsident'' was frequently considered as an ''Ersatzkaiser'' ("substitute emperor"), an attempt to replace the Kaiser (who resigned and fled in 1918) with a similarly strong institution meant to diminish party politics. Article 48 of the constitution gave the President power to "take all necessary steps" if "public order and security are seriously disturbed or endangered". Although this was intended as an emergency clause, it was often used before 1933 to issue decrees without the support of Parliament (see above) and also made ''[[Gleichschaltung]]'' easier. For example, the [[Reichstag Fire Decree]] was issued on the basis of Article 48. |
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* The use of almost pure [[proportional representation]] meant any party with a small amount of support could gain entry into the ''[[Reichstag (institution)|Reichstag]]''. This led to many small parties, some extremist, building political bases within the system (after the war only parties with 5% or more of the total vote would be allowed to enter the [[Bundestag]]). Yet, it has to be noted that the Reichstag of the monarchy was fractioned to a similar degree although being elected by [[ majoritarian system|majority vote]] under a [[first-past-the-post]] system. |
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* The ''Reichstag'' could remove the ''Reichskanzler'' from office even if it was unable to agree on a successor. This "[[Motion of No Confidence]]" led to many chancellors in quick succession, adding to the Republic's instability (see [[Chancellor of Germany]] for a list). As a result, the 1949 ''Grundgesetz'' stipulates that a chancellor may only be voted down by Parliament if a successor is elected at the same time (see [[Constructive Vote of No Confidence]]). |
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* The constitution provided that in the event of the president's death or resignation, the ''[[Chancellor of Germany|Reichskanzler]]'' would assume that office (and crucially possess its powers) pending election of a new president. This allowed Hitler to easily unite the offices of ''Reichskanzler'' and ''Reichspräsident'' after Hindenburg's death in 1934. However, by this time the dictatorship was already firmly installed and this clause alone cannot be blamed for Nazism. |
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===Individual roles=== |
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Some historians prefer to consider individuals and the decisions they made. This brings up the problematic question of what alternatives were available at the time and leads to speculation and hypothesis. |
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Brüning's economic policy from 1930-1933 has been the subject of much debate. It caused many Germans to identify the Republic with cuts in social spending and extremely liberal economics. Whether there were alternatives to this policy during [[Great Depression]] is an open question. |
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[[Paul von Hindenburg]] became ''Reichspräsident'' in [[1925]]. He represented the older authoritarian 1871 Empire, and it is hard to label him as a democrat in support of the 1919 Republic. During his later years (at well over 80 years old), he was [[senile]], but no Nazi. A president with solid democratic beliefs may not have allowed Parliament to be circumvented with the use of Article 48 decrees and might have avoided signing the [[Reichstag Fire Decree]]. Hindenburg waited one and a half days before he appointed Hitler as ''Reichskanzler'' on [[January 30]], [[1933]], which indicates some hesitance. Some claim Nazism would have lost much public support if Hitler had not been named chancellor. |
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==Later reaction== |
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The fall of the Weimar Republic was closely analysed thirteen years later during the [[Nuremburg Trials]] when it was decided that in the case of the [[aristocratic]] Catholic [[Franz von Papen]], along with the [[Rhenish-Westphalian Industrial Magnates]], conspiracy to assist [[Adolf Hitler]] to power was not an indictable offence. |
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So far history has left a question mark over the effects of Nazi coordination with the [[Roman Catholic Church]] and its desire for the "July 20" [[Reichskonkordat]]. The Church in Rome seemed to answer any accusations against the papal secretary at state and later wartime [[Pope Pius XII]] by nominating him for Sainthood. |
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==Reference== |
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*[[William Sheridan Allen|Allen, William Sheridan]] ''The Nazi seizure of Power : the experience of a single German town, 1922-1945'' New York ; Toronto : F. Watts, 1984 ISBN 0531099350. |
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*V.R. Berghahn, ''Modern Germany'', Cambridge, UK ; Cambridge University Press, 1982 ISBN 0-521-34748-3 |
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*Bookbinder, Paul ''Weimar Germany : the Republic of the Reasonable'', Manchester, UK ; New York : Manchester University Press ; New York : Distributed exclusively in the USA by St. Martin's Press, 1996 ISBN 0719042860. |
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*[[Karl Dietrich Bracher|Bracher, Karl Dietrich]] ''Die Aufloesung der Weimarer Republik; eine Studie zum Problem des Machtverfalls in der Demokratie'' Villingen: Schwarzwald,Ring-Verlag, 1971. |
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*[[Martin Broszat|Broszat, Martin]] ''Hitler and the collapse of Weimar Germany'', Leamington Spa ; New York : Berg : Distributed exclusively in the US by St. Martin's Press, 1987 ISBN 0854965092. |
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*Childers, Thomas ''The Nazi voter : the social foundations of fascism in Germany, 1919-1933'', Chapel Hill : University of North Carolina Press, 1983 ISBN 0807815705. |
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*Dorpalen, Andreas ''Hindenburg and the Weimar Republic'', Princeton, N.J. : Princeton University Press, 1964. |
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*Feuchtwanger, Edgar ''From Weimar to Hitler : Germany, 1918-33'' London : Macmillan, 1994, 1993 ISBN 0333274660 . |
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*[[Peter Gay|Gay, Peter]] ''Weimar Culture: The Outsider as Insider'', New York, Harper & Row 1968. |
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*Hamilton, Richard F. ''Who voted for Hitler?'', Princeton, N.J. : Princeton University Press, 1982 ISBN 0691093954 |
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*James, Harold ''The German slump : politics and economics, 1924-1936'', Oxford, Oxfordshire : Clarendon Press, 1986 ISBN 0198219725. |
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*Kaes, Anton Kaes; Jay, Martin; Dimendberg, Edward (editors) ''The Weimar Republic Sourcebook'', Berkeley : University of California Press, 1994 ISBN 0520067746. |
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*Kolb, Eberhard ''The Weimar Republic'' translated from the German by P.S. Falla London : Unwin Hyman, 1988 ISBN 0049430491. |
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*[[Hans Mommsen|Mommsen, Hans]] ''From Weimar to Auschwitz'' translated by Philip O'Connor Princeton, N.J. : Princeton University Press, 1991 ISBN 0691031983. |
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*Nicholls, Anthony James ''Weimar and the rise of Hitler'', New York : St. Martin's Press, 2000 ISBN 0312233507 . |
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*[[Detlev Peukert|Peukert, Detlev]] ''The Weimar Republic : the crisis of classical modernity'', New York : Hill and Wang, 1992. ISBN 0809096749. |
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*[[Henry Ashby Turner|Turner, Henry Ashby]] ''Hitler's thirty days to power : January 1933'', Reading, Mass. : Addison-Wesley, 1996 ISBN 0201407140. |
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*[[Henry Ashby Turner|Turner, Henry Ashby]] ''German big business and the rise of Hitler'', New York : Oxford University Press, 1985 ISBN 0195034929. |
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*[[John Wheeler-Bennett|Wheeler-Bennett, Sir John]] ''The Nemesis of Power: German Army in Politics, 1918-1945'' New York: Palgrave Macmillan Publishing Company, 2005 ISBN 1403918120. |
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==See also== |
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* [[List of Weimar states]] |
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* [[List of German presidents since 1919]] |
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* [[Chancellor of Germany]] |
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* [[Union of Poles in Germany]] |
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* [[1920s Berlin]] |
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[[Category:Weimar Republic| ]] |
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[[Category:Weimar Culture]] |
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[[Category:History of Germany]] |
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[[el:Δημοκρατία της Βαϊμάρης]] |
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[[es:República de Weimar]] |
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[[fr:République de Weimar]] |
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[[ko:바이마르 공화국]] |
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[[he:רפובליקת ויימאר]]{{Link FA|he}} |
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Revision as of 22:02, 17 November 2005
History of Germany |
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The period of German history from 1919 to 1933 is known as the Weimar Republic (IPA /ˈvaɪmar/, German Weimarer Republik). It is named after the city of Weimar where a national assembly convened to produce a new constitution after the German Monarchy and German Empire were abolished following the nation's defeat in World War I.
This first attempt to establish a liberal democracy in Germany happened during a time of civil conflict, and failed with the ascent of Adolf Hitler and the Nazi Party in 1933. Although technically the 1919 constitution was not invalidated until after World War II, the legal measures taken by the Nazi government in 1933 (commonly known as Gleichschaltung) destroyed the mechanisms of a typical democratic system, so 1933 is cited as the end of the Weimar Republic.
The phrase Weimar Republic is an invention of historians, and was not used during its existence. Germany's legal name was still the "German Empire" (Deutsches Reich), the same name used by the German monarchy before 1919. The use of the English word empire and its adjective imperial may be confusing because the Weimar Republic was a republic; empire is an imprecise translation of the German word Reich (which does not have a specific monarchic connotation) and is increasingly translated as commonwealth or realm.
This article outlines political events from 1918 until the collapse of the Republic in 1933. The Nazi Germany article describes what came after (see also Gleichschaltung for details on how the Nazi dictatorship was installed). For discussion of the cultural climate in Germany between the wars see Weimar culture
Controlled revolution: the establishment of the Republic (1918-1919)
![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/21/Flag_of_Germany_%283-2%29.svg/220px-Flag_of_Germany_%283-2%29.svg.png)
From 1916 onwards, the 1871 German Empire had effectively been governed by the military, led by the Oberste Heeresleitung (OHL, Supreme Army Command) with the Chief of Staff Paul von Hindenburg. When it became apparent that World War I was lost, the OHL demanded that a civil government be installed in order to meet a key peace talk condition from United States President Woodrow Wilson. Any attempt to continue the war after Bulgaria had left the Central Powers would only have caused German territories to be occupied. The new Reichskanzler Prince Max von Baden thus offered a cease-fire to President Wilson on October 3, 1918. On October 28, 1918, the 1871 constitution was finally amended to make the Reich a parliamentary democracy, which the government had refused for half a century: the Chancellor was henceforth responsible to Parliament, the Reichstag, and no longer to the Kaiser.
The plan to transform Germany into a constitutional monarchy similar to Britain quickly became obsolete as the country slid into a state of near-total chaos. Germany was flooded with soldiers returning from the front, many of whom were wounded physically, psychologically, or both. Violence was rampant, with fights breaking out even between rival leftist groups at funerals for leaders assassinated by right-wing adversaries.
Rebellion broke out when, on October 29, the military command, without consultation with the government, ordered the German High Seas Fleet to sortie. This was not only entirely hopeless from a military standpoint, but was also certain to bring the peace negotiations to a halt. The crews of two ships in Wilhelmshaven mutinied. When the military arrested about 1,000 seamen and had them transported to Kiel, the local revolt turned into a general rebellion that quickly swept over most of Germany. Other seamen, soldiers and workers, in solidarity with the arrested, began electing worker and soldier councils modelled after the soviets of the Russian Revolution of 1917, and took over military and civil powers in many cities. On November 7, the revolution had reached Munich, causing Ludwig III of Bavaria to flee.
Initially, the demands of the councils were modest: they wanted the arrested seamen to be freed. In contrast to Russia one year earlier, the councils were not controlled by a communist party. Still, with the emergence of the Soviet Union, the rebellion caused great fear in the establishment down to the middle classes. The country was on the verge of becoming a socialist republic.
From November 1918 though to January 1919, Germany was governed dictatorially by the Council of People's Representatives composed of three representatives each from the Social Democratic Party (SPD) and of the "Independent Social Democrats" (USPD, for Unabhängige Sozialdemokratische Partei Deutschlands), until withdawal of the USPD left the SPD to rule alone. In these three months, the government was extraordinarily active, and issued a large number of decrees. At the same time, its main activities were confined to certain spheres: the 8 hour day, domestic labour reform, agricultural labour reform, right of civil-service associations, local municipality social welfare relief (split between Reich and individual states) and important national health insurance, re-instatement of demobilised workers, protection arbitrary dismissal with appeal as right, regulated wage agreement, and Universal suffrage from 20 years of age in all classes of elections - local and national. Occasionally one will find the name "Die Deutsche sozialdemokratische Republik" (The German Social-Democratic Republic) in leaflets and on posters from this era.
At the time, the political representation of the working class was divided: a faction had separated from the Social Democratic Party, calling themselves "Independent Social Democrats" (USPD) and leaning towards a socialist system. In order not to lose their influence, the remaining "Majority Social Democrats" (MSPD, who supported a parliamentary system) decided to put themselves at the front of the movement, and on November 7, demanded that Emperor Wilhelm II abdicate. On November 9, 1918, the Republic was proclaimed by Philipp Scheidemann at the Reichstag building in Berlin, two hours after a socialist republic was proclaimed around the corner at the Berlin Castle by Karl Liebknecht.
On November 9, in a legally questionable act, Reichskanzler Prince Max von Baden transferred his powers to Friedrich Ebert, the leader of the MSPD. It was apparent that this act would not be sufficient to satisfy the masses, so a day later, a revolutionary government called "Council of People's Deputies" (Rat der Volksbeauftragten) was created, consisting of three MSPD and three USPD members, led by Ebert for the MSPD and Hugo Haase for the USPD. Although the new government was confirmed by the Berlin worker and soldier council, it was opposed by the Spartacist League led by Rosa Luxemburg and Karl Liebknecht. Ebert called for a National Congress of Councils, which took place from December 16 to 20, 1918, and in which the MSPD had the majority. Ebert thus managed to enforce quick elections for a National Assembly to produce a constitution for a parliamentary system, marginalizing the movement that called for a socialist republic (see below).
The Reichswehr and the Revolution
To ensure that his fledgling government was able to maintain control over the country, Ebert made a pact with the OHL, now led by Ludendorff's successor General Wilhelm Groener. This Ebert-Groener pact stipulated that the government would not attempt to reform the Army so long as the army swore to protect the government. On the one hand, this agreement symbolised the acceptance of the new government by the military, assuaging concern among the middle classes; on the other hand, it was considered a betrayal of worker interests by the left wing. The new model Reichswehr army, limited by the Treaty of Versailles to 100,000 men, remained fully under the control of the Imperial military caste despite its nominal re-organisation. As an independent and conservative group in Weimar, it wielded a large amount of influence over the fate of the republic. Unlike all other revolutions, the men of the German Revolution, asked the High Command how to bring the army home.
This pact also marked one of several steps that caused the permanent split in the working class's political representation into the SPD and communists. The eventual fate of the Weimar Republic in no small part derives from the general political backwardness of the German labour movement. The several strands within the central mass of the socialist movement adhered more to sentimental loyalty to alliances arising from chance than to any recognition of political necessity. Combined action on the part of the socialists was impossible without action from the millions of workers who stood midway between the parliamentarians and the ultra-leftists who supported the workers councils. Confusion through Weimar as a whole made acute the danger of extreme right and extreme left engaging in virulent conflict.
The split became final after Ebert called upon the OHL for troops to put down another Berlin soldier mutiny on November 23, 1918, in which soldiers had captured the city commandant and closed off the Reichskanzlei where the Council of People's Deputies was situated. The suppression was brutal with several dead and injured. This caused the left wing to call for a split with the MSPD, which, in their view, had joined with the counter-revolutionary military to suppress the Revolution. The USPD thus left the Council of People's Deputies after only seven weeks. The split deepened when, in December, the Kommunistische Partei Deutschlands (KPD) was formed out of a number of left-wing groups, including the left wing of the USPD and the Spartakus group.
In January, more bloody attempts at establishing council communism by workers in the streets of Berlin were put down by paramilitary Freikorps units consisting of volunteer soldiers, culminating in the beating to death of Rosa Luxemburg and Liebknecht on January 15. With the affirmation of Ebert, the murderers were tried not before a civil court, but a military court, leading to very lenient sentences, which did not exactly lead to more acceptance for Ebert on the left wing either.
The National Assembly elections took place January 19, 1919. In this time, the new left-wing parties, including the USPD and KPD, were barely able to get themselves organized, leading to a solid majority of seats for the moderate forces. To avoid the ongoing fights in Berlin, the National Assembly convened in the city of Weimar, giving the future Republic its unofficial name. The Weimar Constitution created a republic under a semi-presidential system with the Reichstag elected by proportional representation. The Socialist and Democratic parties obtained a solid 80 per cent of the vote.
During the debates in Weimar, fights continued. A Soviet republic was declared in Munich, but was quickly put down by Freikorps and regular army units. Sporadic fighting continued to flare up around the country. In eastern territories, forces loyal to the Kaiser fought the republic, while the Polish population fought for independence: Great Poland Uprising in Provinz Posen and three Silesian Uprisings in Upper Silesia.
The socialist roots of Weimar
The carefully thought-out social and political legislation introduced during the revolution was generally unappreciated by the German working-class. The two goals sought by the government, democratisation and social protection of the working class, were never achieved. This has been attributed to a lack of pre-war political experience on the part of the Social Democrats. The government had little success in confronting the twin economic crises following the war.
The permanent economic crisis was a result of lost pre-war industrial exports, the loss of supplies in raw materials and food stuffs from Alsace-Lorraine, Polish districts and the colonies along with worsening debt balances and reparations payments. Military-industrial activity had almost ceased, although controlled demobilisation kept unemployment at around one million.
The Entente permitted only low import levels of goods that most Germans could not afford. After four years of war and famine, many German workers were exhausted, physically impaired and discouraged. Millions were disenchanted with capitalism and hoping for a new era. Meanwhile the currency devalued.
The German peace delegation in France signed the Treaty of Versailles, accepting mass reductions of the German military, heavy reparations payments and the controversial "War Guilt Clause". Adolf Hitler later blamed the republic and its democracy for the oppressive terms of this treaty.
The Republic's first Reichspräsident ("Reich President"), Friedrich Ebert of the MSPD, signed the new German constitution into law on August 11, 1919.
The early years: internal conflict (1919-1923)
The Republic was under great pressure from both left and right-wing extremists. The left accused the ruling Social Democrats of having betrayed the ideals of the workers' movement by avoiding a communist revolution. The right was opposed to any democratic system, preferring an authoritarian state like the 1871 Empire. To further undermine the Republic's credibility the right (especially the military) blamed it for Germany's defeat in World War I (see Dolchstoßlegende).
The Kapp Putsch took place on March 13, 1920, involving a group of Freikorps troops who captured Berlin and installed Wolfgang Kapp (a right wing journalist) as chancellor. The national government fled to Stuttgart and called for a general strike. This completely halted the economy and the Kapp government had collapsed by March 17.
Inspired by the general strikes, a communist uprising began in the Ruhr region when 50,000 people formed a "Red Army" and took control of the province. The regular army and the Freikorps ended the uprising without orders from the government. Other communist rebellions were put down in March 1921 in Saxony and Hamburg.
By 1923, the Republic could no longer afford the reparations payments required by the Versailles treaty, and the government defaulted. In response, French and Belgian troops occupied the Ruhr region, Germany's most productive industrial region at the time, taking control of most mining and manufacturing companies in January of 1923. Strikes were called, and passive resistance was encouraged. These strikes lasted eight months, further damaging the economy and raising expensive imports.
Since striking workers were paid benefits by the state, much additional currency was printed, fueling a period of hyperinflation. The value of the Mark had declined from 4.2 per US dollar to 1,000,000 per dollar by August 1923 and 4,200,000,000,000 per dollar on November 20. On December 1, a new currency, the Rentenmark, was introduced at the rate of 1,000,000,000,000 old marks for 1 new mark. Reparation payments resumed, and the Ruhr was returned to Germany.
Further pressure from the right came in 1923 with the Beer Hall Putsch, staged by Adolf Hitler in Munich. In 1920, the German Workers' Party had become the Nazi Party (NSDAP), and would become a driving force in the collapse of Weimar. Hitler was named chairman of the party in July 1921. The SA was established in November 1921 and acted as Hitler's personal army. On November 8, 1923, the Kampfbund, in a pact with Erich Ludendorff, took over a meeting by Bavarian prime minister Gustav von Kahr at a beer hall in Munich. Ludendorff and Hitler declared a new government, planning to take control of Munich the following day. The 3,000 rebels were thwarted by 100 policemen. Hitler was arrested and sentenced to five years in prison, a minimum sentence for the charge and he served only nine months before his release. Following the failure of the Beer Hall Putsch, his imprisonment and subsequent release, Hitler focused on legal methods of gaining power.
Stresemann's Golden Era (1923-1929)
Gustav Stresemann was Reichskanzler for a brief period in 1923, and served as Foreign Minister from 1923-1929, a period of relative stability for the Weimar Republic when there were fewer uprisings and seemingly the beginnings of an economic recovery.
Stresemann's first move was to issue a new currency, the Rentenmark, to halt the extreme hyperinflation crippling German society and the economy. It was successful because Stresemann repeatedly refused to issue more currency, the initial cause of the inflationary spiral. To further stabilise the economy, he reduced spending and bureaucracy while increasing taxes. He signed the Locarno Treaties with the Allied countries in 1925 as a means of restoring Germany's diplomatic status in Europe.
During this period, the Dawes Plan was also created, tying reparations payments to Germany's ability to pay. Germany was admitted into the League of Nations, made agreements over her western border, signed a neutrality pact with Russia, and disarmament was brought to a halt. However, this progress was funded by overseas loans, increasing the nation's debts, while overall trade decreased and unemployment rose. Stresemann's reforms did not relieve the underlying weaknesses of Weimar but merely gave the appearance of a stable democracy.
Despite the progress made during these years, Stresemann was criticized by his opponents for his policy of "fulfillment", or compliance with the terms of the Versailles Treaty.
In 1929, Stresemann's death marked the end of the "Golden Era" of the Weimar Republic.
Collapse and the rise of Hitler
Loss of credibility
The last years of the Weimar republic were stamped by even more political instability than in the previous years. On March 29, 1930, the finance expert Heinrich Brüning had been appointed the successor of Chancellor Müller by Paul von Hindenburg after months of political lobbying by General Kurt von Schleicher on behalf of the military. The new government was expected to lead a political shift towards conservatism, based on the emergency powers granted to the Reichspräsident by the constitution, since it had no majority support in the Reichstag.
After an unpopular bill to reform the Reich's finances was left unsupported by the Reichstag, Hindenburg established the bill as an emergency decree based on Article 48 of the constitution. On July 18, 1930, the bill was again invalidated by a slim majority in the Reichstag with the support of the SPD, KPD, the (then small) Nazi Party (NSDAP) and DNVP. Immediately afterwards, Brüning submitted to the Reichstag the president's decree that it would be dissolved.
The Reichstag general elections on September 14, 1930, resulted in an enormous political shift: 18.3% of the vote went to the NSDAP, five times the percentage compared to 1928. This had devastating consequences for the Republic. There was no longer a majority in the Reichstag even for a Great Coalition of moderate parties, and it encouraged the supporters of the NSDAP to bring out their claim to power with increasing violence and terror. After 1930, the Republic slid more and more into a state of civil war.
From 1930 to 1932, Brüning attempted to reform the devastated state without a majority in Parliament, governing with the help of the President's emergency decrees. During that time, the Great Depression reached its highpoint. In line with liberal economic theory that less public spending would spur economic growth, Brüning drastically cut state expenditures, including in the social sector. He expected and accepted that the economic crisis would, for a while, deteriorate before things would improve. Among others, the Reich completely halted all public grants to the obligatory unemployment insurance (which had been introduced only in 1927), which resulted in higher contributions by the workers and less benefits for the unemployed -- not exactly a popular measure to adopt.
The economic downturn lasted until the second half of 1932, when there were first indices of a rebound. By this time though, the Weimar Republic had lost all credibility with the majority of Germans. While scholars greatly disagree about how Brüning's policy should be evaluated, it can safely be said that it contributed to the decline of the Republic. Whether there were alternatives at the time remains the subject of much debate.
On May 30, 1932, Brüning resigned after no longer having Hindenburg's support. Five weeks earlier, Hindenburg had been reelected Reichspräsident with Brüning's active support, running against Hitler (the president was directly elected by the people while the Reichskanzler was not).
Franz von Papen calls for elections
Hindenburg then appointed Franz von Papen as new Reichskanzler. Von Papen lifted the ban on the SA, imposed after the street riots, in an unsuccessful attempt to secure the backing of Hitler.
Since most parties opposed the new government, von Papen had the Reichstag dissolved and called for new elections. The general elections on July 31, 1932 yielded major gains for the KPD and the NSDAP. The latter won 37.2% of the vote for the NSDAP, supplanting the Social Democrats as the largest party in the Reichstag. Hitler now demanded to be appointed Chancellor, but was rejected by Hindenburg on August 13, 1932. There was still no majority in the Reichstag for any government; as a result, the Reichstag was dissolved and elections took place once more in the hope that a stable majority would result.
This was not the case. The November 6, 1932 elections yielded 33.0% for the NSDAP: it lost over four percent. Franz von Papen stepped down, and was succeeded by General von Schleicher as Reichskanzler on December 3. Von Schleicher's audacious plan was to build a majority in the Reichstag by uniting the trade unionist left wings in the various parties, including that of the NSDAP led by Gregor Strasser. This did not prove successful either.
On January 4, 1933, Hitler met secretly with von Papen at the house of the Cologne banker Kurt von Schroeder. They agreed on forming a joint government. Besides Hitler, only two other NSDAP members would be part of the Reich government: (Wilhelm Frick as Minister of the Interior and Hermann Göring as Commissary for Prussia), with von Papen being Hitler's Vice Chancellor. The new cabinet included the influential media mogul Alfred Hugenberg, who was chairman of the (also right-wing) DNVP party at the time. Hitler had outwitted von Papen. The three posts held by the NSDAP were the most influential.
From November 6, 1932 to January 31, 1933 the Nazis were a barely restrained minority excluded from an Army Reichswehr General-anchored Cabinet led by general Kurt von Schleicher and ruling under Article 48 of the Weimar Constitution. From January 4th Hitler and the ex-Chancellor, non-Party member Franz von Papen, planned between themselves to replace the cabinet.
Hitler learned from von Papen that the general had no authority to abolish the Reichstag parliament, whereas any majority of seats did. The cabinet (under a previous interpretation of Article 48) ruled without a sitting Reichstag, which could vote only for its own dissolution. Hitler also learned that all past crippling Nazi debts were to be relieved by German big business.
On January 22, Hitler's efforts to persuade Oskar von Hindenburg (the President's son) included threats to bring criminal charges over estate taxation irregularities at the President's Neudeck estate (although 5000 extra acres were soon alloted to Hindenburg's property). Out maneuvered by von Papen and Hitler on plans for the new cabinet, and having lost Hindenburg's confidence, Schleicher asked for new elections. On January 28th von Papen described Hitler to Paul von Hindenburg as only a minority part of an alternative, von Papen-arranged government.
The next day Hitler and von Papen thwarted a last-minute threat of an officially-sanctioned Reichswehr takeover, and on 30 January 1933 Hindenburg accepted the new Papen-Nationalist-Hitler coalition with the Nazis holding only three of eleven Cabinet seats. Later that day, the first cabinet meeting was attended by only two political parties, representing a minority in the Reichstag: The Nazis and the Alfred Hugenberg-led DNVP (Nationalists) (196 + 52 seats). Eyeing the Catholic Centre Party Germany's 70 (+ 20 BVP) seats, Hitler refused their leader's demands for constitutional "concessions" (amounting to protection) and planned for dissolution of the Reichstag.
Nationalist suggestions to "balance" the majority through further arrests were rejected by Hitler at that first meeting, although the Nationalists were assured arrests would resume after the elections. Following a meeting with centre leader Monsignor Ludwig Kaas, Hitler called for fresh elections to be held on 5 March.
Although he was fiercely anti-Nazi and had defeated Hitler in the 1932 presidential election, Hindenburg reluctantly agreed to von Papen's theory that, with Nazi popular support on the wane, Hitler could now be controlled as chancellor. The date dubbed Machtergreifung (seizure of power) by the Nazi propaganda is commonly seen as the beginning of Nazi Germany.
Hitler's seizure of power
Hitler was sworn in as Chancellor on the morning of January 30, 1933 during what some observers later described as a brief and indifferent ceremony. By early February, a mere week after Hitler's assumption of the chancellorship, the government had begun to clamp down on the opposition. Meetings of the left-wing parties were banned, and even some of the moderate parties found their members threatened and assaulted. Measures with an appearance of legality suppressed the Communist Party in mid-February and included the plainly illegal arrests of Reichstag deputies.
Reichstag Fire
The Reichstag Fire on February 27 was blamed by Hitler's government on the Communists, and Hitler used the emergency to obtain President von Hindenburg's assent to the Reichstag Fire Decree the following day. The decree invoked Article 48 of the Weimar Constitution and suspended a number of constitutional protections of civil liberties, allowing the Nazi government to take swift and harsh action against the Nazis' opponents.
March 5 General Election
Hitler and the Nazis used state broadcasting and aviation facilities in a massive attempt to sway the electorate, but this last democratic election of the Third Reich yielded a bare majority of 16 seats for the coalition. Hitler addressed many disparate interest groups, stressing the necessity for a definitive solution to the perpetual instability of the Weimar Republic. He now blamed Germany's problems on communists, even threatening their lives on March 3. Former Chancellor Heinrich Bruning proclaimed that his Centre Party would resist any constitutional change and appealed to the president for an investigation of the Reichstag Fire.
15 March Hitler Cabinet meeting
At the meeting of the new cabinet on March 15, Hitler introduced the Enabling Act, which would have authorized the cabinet to enact legislation without the approval of the Reichstag. Meanwhile, the only remaining question for the Nazis was whether the Catholic Centre Party (Zentrum) would support the Enabling Act in the Reichstag, thereby providing the two-thirds majority required to ratify a law that amended the constitution. Hitler expressed his confidence to win over the Centre's votes. Monsignor Ludwig Kaas, the party's chairman since 1928, had strong non-political connections to the Vatican Secretary of State. At the last internal Centre meeting prior to the debate on the Enabling Act, Kaas expressed no preference or suggestion on the vote, but as a way of mollifying opposition by Centre members to the granting of further powers to Hitler, Kaas arranged for a letter of constitutional guarantee from the Nazi leader prior to Centre voting in favor of the Enabling Act.
21 March Reichstag Opening Ceremony
The ceremonial opening of the Reichstag on March 21 was held at the Garrison Church in Potsdam, a shrine of Prussianism, in the presence of many Junker landowners and representatives of the imperial military caste. This impressive and often emotional spectacle — orchestrated by Joseph Goebbels — aimed to link Hitler's government with Germany's imperial past and portray National Socialism as a guarantor of the nation's future. The ceremony helped convince the "old guard" Prussian military elite of Hitler's homage to their long tradition and, in turn, produced the relatively convincing view that Hitler's government had the support of Germany's traditional protector — the Army. Such support would announce to the population a return to conservatism to curb the problems affecting the Weimar Republic, and that stability might be at hand. In a politically adroit move, Hitler bowed in respectful humility before President and Field Marshal von Hindenburg.
20-22 March 1933 Reichstag Negotiations
On 20 March 'Working Party' negotiation began between Hitler and Frick on one side and the Catholic Center Party leaders, Kaas, Stegerwald and Hackelsburger, on the other. The esolution sought was under what conditions would the Center Party vote for the Enabling Act . (The consent of the Catholic parties was necessary if this act was to receive the required two-thirds majority vote.) On 22 March the negotiation between Hitler, Frick and the Center Party concluded. Hitler promised to continue the existence of the German states, not to use the new grant of power to change the constitution, and to retain civil servants belonging to the Catholic Center Party. Hitler also pledged to protect the Catholic confessional schools and to respect the concordats signed between the Holy See and Bavaria (1924), Prussia (1929) and Baden (1931). Hitler also agreed to mention these promises in his speech to the Reichstag before the vote on the Enabling Act.
21 March Reichstag Opening Ceremony
The ceremonial opening of the Reichstag on March 21 was held at the Garrison Church in Potsdam, a shrine of Prussianism, in the presence of many Junker landowners and representatives of the imperial military caste. This impressive and often emotional spectacle — orchestrated by Joseph Goebbels — aimed to link Hitler's government with Germany's imperial past and portray National Socialism as a guarantor of the nation's future. The ceremony helped convince the "old guard" Prussian military elite of Hitler's homage to their long tradition and, in turn, produced the relatively convincing view that Hitler's government had the support of Germany's traditional protector — the Army. Such support would announce to the population a return to conservatism to curb the problems affecting the Weimar Republic, and that stability might be at hand. In a politically adroit move, Hitler bowed in respectful humility before President and Field Marshal von Hindenburg.
23 March Reichstag assembly & the Enabling Act
The Reichstag convened on March 23, 1933, and in the midday opening Hitler made a historic speech , using a front of calm and conciliation . It is most noticeable for its abrupt reversal of the Nazi Party's hardline censure of christianity , particularly Catholicism . Hitler presented an appealing prospect of respect towards christianity by paying tribute to the Christian faiths as "essential elements for safeguarding the soul of the German people". He promised to respect their rights and declared his government's "ambition is a peaceful accord between Church and State," and with an eye to the votes of the Catholic Centre party, which he got, added "we hope to improve our friendly relations with the Holy See." Their leader Ludwig Kaas had a hand in formulating this speech. ( German Resistance Against Hitler Klemens von Klemperer , OUP, 1992 )
In the later 23 March sitting , for the actual vote , Hitler orchestrated the full political menace of his paramilitary forces like the SA in the streets to intimidate reluctant Reichstag deputies into approving the Enabling Act. The Communists' 81 seats had been empty since the Reichstag Fire Decree and other lesser known procedural measures,thus excluding their anticipated "No" votes from the balloting. Otto Wels, the leader of the Social Democrats , whose seats were similarly depleted from 120 to below 100 , was the only speaker to defend democracy and in a futile effort to deny the two-thirds majority, he made a speech that categorised the shocking abandonment of democracy to dictatorship in the bravest manner . At this Hitler could no longer contain his true violence of character and Wels' reference to the resulting national loss of soul provoked Hitler's immediate and uncontrolled wrath. (Rise and Fall of the Third Reich, William L. Shirer 1959).
In his anger to Wels, Hitler delivered a characteristic screaming diatribe , promising to exterminate all communists in Germany and making it clear that Otto Wels' Socialists should be no more tolerated . Meanwhile Hitler's promised written guarantee to Monsignor Kaas, was being typed up , it was asserted to Kaas, amd thereby Kaas was persuaded against Heinrich Brüning's prior advice to deliver the Catholic Centre or Zentrumspartei , bloc votes for the Enabling Act anyway ( some 92 seats with the sub-shoot BVP or Bavarian people's Party).( Several days later a weak and insufficiently safeguarding letter of reassurance was supplied to Kaas from President Hindenburg. Kaas himself left for Rome however, on the following day , 24 March
Aftermath
The passing of the Enabling Act gave Hitler and his government sweeping powers to legislate without the Reichstag's approval, and to make foreign policy decisions and deviate from the constitution where they saw fit. Hitler would use these powers to remove all opposition to the dictatorship he wished to create. The decrees issueed by Hitler's cabinet within succeeding weeks rapidly stripped Germans of their rights, removed all non-Nazi members of the Civil Service, and banned all other political parties and unions, ushering in the Third Reich.
Reasons for the Republic's failure
The Weimar Republic's catastrophic collapse is the subject of continued debate. Although Hitler became Reichskanzler legally through mechanisms set forth in the constitution and the NSDAP gained a relative majority of the seats in Parliament in two 1932 elections, he was appointed chancellor at a time when support for the NSDAP was not considered sufficient to gain power. Scholars have expressed divided opinions on the reasons and historical analysis this was complicated by the Cold War, when historians often attempted to justify ideologies. One speculation involves how the NSDAP might have fared in the 1933 elections if Hitler didn't have the political and logistical advantages of being chancellor.
No single reason can explain the rise of Nazism. The most commonly asserted causes might be grouped into three categaories.
Economic problems
The Weimar Republic had some of the most serious economic problems ever experienced by any western democracy in history. Rampant hyperinflation, massive unemployment and a large drop in living standards were primary factors. In 1923-29 there was a short period of economic recovery, but the Great Depression of the 1930s, led to a worldwide recession. Germany was particularly affected because she depended heavily on American loans. In 1932, about 5 million Germans were unemployed. The Republic was blamed by many. This was made apparent when political parties wanting to disband the Republic altogether on both right and left made any democratic majority in Parliament impossible.
The Versailles treaty was considered by most Germans as a punishing and degrading document which forced them to surrender resource-rich areas and pay massive amounts of compensation. These punitive reparations caused consternation and resentment, although the actual economic damage resulting from the Treaty of Versailles is difficult to determine. While the official reparations were considerable, Germany ended up paying only fraction of them. However, the reparations did damage Germany's economy by discouraging market loans, forcing the Weimar government to finance its deficit by printing more money which caused rampant hyperinflation.
Most historians agree that many industrial leaders identified the Republic with labour unions and the Social Democrats who had established the concessions of 1918/1919. Although some did see Hítler as a means to abolish these, the Republic was already unstable before any industry leaders were supporting Hitler. Even those who supported Hitler's appointment did not want Nazism in its entirety and considered Hitler a temporary solution in their efforts to abolish the Republic. Industry support alone cannot explain Hitler's enthusiastic support by large segments of the population, including many workers who had turned away from the left.
Institutional problems
It is widely agreed that the 1919 constitution had several weaknesses, making the eventual establishment of a dictatorship likely but it is unknown whether a different constitution could have prevented the Third Reich. However, the 1949 West German constitution (the Grundgesetz) is generally viewed as a strong response to these flaws.
- The institution of the Reichspräsident was frequently considered as an Ersatzkaiser ("substitute emperor"), an attempt to replace the Kaiser (who resigned and fled in 1918) with a similarly strong institution meant to diminish party politics. Article 48 of the constitution gave the President power to "take all necessary steps" if "public order and security are seriously disturbed or endangered". Although this was intended as an emergency clause, it was often used before 1933 to issue decrees without the support of Parliament (see above) and also made Gleichschaltung easier. For example, the Reichstag Fire Decree was issued on the basis of Article 48.
- The use of almost pure proportional representation meant any party with a small amount of support could gain entry into the Reichstag. This led to many small parties, some extremist, building political bases within the system (after the war only parties with 5% or more of the total vote would be allowed to enter the Bundestag). Yet, it has to be noted that the Reichstag of the monarchy was fractioned to a similar degree although being elected by majority vote under a first-past-the-post system.
- The Reichstag could remove the Reichskanzler from office even if it was unable to agree on a successor. This "Motion of No Confidence" led to many chancellors in quick succession, adding to the Republic's instability (see Chancellor of Germany for a list). As a result, the 1949 Grundgesetz stipulates that a chancellor may only be voted down by Parliament if a successor is elected at the same time (see Constructive Vote of No Confidence).
- The constitution provided that in the event of the president's death or resignation, the Reichskanzler would assume that office (and crucially possess its powers) pending election of a new president. This allowed Hitler to easily unite the offices of Reichskanzler and Reichspräsident after Hindenburg's death in 1934. However, by this time the dictatorship was already firmly installed and this clause alone cannot be blamed for Nazism.
Individual roles
Some historians prefer to consider individuals and the decisions they made. This brings up the problematic question of what alternatives were available at the time and leads to speculation and hypothesis.
Brüning's economic policy from 1930-1933 has been the subject of much debate. It caused many Germans to identify the Republic with cuts in social spending and extremely liberal economics. Whether there were alternatives to this policy during Great Depression is an open question.
Paul von Hindenburg became Reichspräsident in 1925. He represented the older authoritarian 1871 Empire, and it is hard to label him as a democrat in support of the 1919 Republic. During his later years (at well over 80 years old), he was senile, but no Nazi. A president with solid democratic beliefs may not have allowed Parliament to be circumvented with the use of Article 48 decrees and might have avoided signing the Reichstag Fire Decree. Hindenburg waited one and a half days before he appointed Hitler as Reichskanzler on January 30, 1933, which indicates some hesitance. Some claim Nazism would have lost much public support if Hitler had not been named chancellor.
Later reaction
The fall of the Weimar Republic was closely analysed thirteen years later during the Nuremburg Trials when it was decided that in the case of the aristocratic Catholic Franz von Papen, along with the Rhenish-Westphalian Industrial Magnates, conspiracy to assist Adolf Hitler to power was not an indictable offence.
So far history has left a question mark over the effects of Nazi coordination with the Roman Catholic Church and its desire for the "July 20" Reichskonkordat. The Church in Rome seemed to answer any accusations against the papal secretary at state and later wartime Pope Pius XII by nominating him for Sainthood.
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