Maus

This article is about the graphic novel. For other uses, see Maus (disambiguation).

Maus
Cover of the first volume of Maus
Date	1991
Page count	296 pages
Publisher	Pantheon Books
Creative team
Creators	Art Spiegelman
Original publication
Published in	RAW
Issues	Vol. 1 No. 2–Vol. 2 No. 3
Date of publication	1980–91
ISBN	0-394-54155-3 (Vol. I) 0-394-55655-0 (Vol. II)
Chronology
Preceded by	Breakdowns
Followed by	In the Shadow of No Towers

Maus is a graphic novel completed in 1991 by American cartoonist Art Spiegelman. In it, Spiegelman interviews his father about his experiences as a Polish Jew and Holocaust survivor. The book makes use of postmodern techniques—most strikingly in its depiction of races of humans as different kinds of animals, with Jews as mice, Germans as cats and Poles as pigs. Maus has been labeled as memoir, biography, history, fiction, autobiography, or a mix of genres. In 1992, it became the first graphic novel to win a Pulitzer Prize.

In the "present" frame tale timeline, beginning in 1978 in Rego Park, New York, Spiegelman talks with his father about his Holocaust experiences, gathering material for the Maus project he is preparing. In the "past", Spiegelman depicts his father's experiences, starting in the years leading up to World War II. Much of the story revolves around Spiegelman's troubled relationship with his father, and the absence of his mother who committed suicide when he was 20. Her grief-stricken husband destroyed her written accounts of Auschwitz. Formally, Spiegelman struggles with problems of presentation, working with a strained animal metaphor that is intended to self-destruct. The book uses a minimalist drawing style while displaying innovation in its page and panel layouts, pacing, and structure.

A three-page 1972 strip by Spiegelman, also called "Maus", was the impetus for Spiegelman to interview his father about his war experiences. The recorded interviews became the basis for the graphic novel, which Spiegelman began in 1978. Maus was serialized from 1980 until 1991 as an insert in Raw, an avant-garde comics and graphics magazine published by Spiegelman and his wife, Françoise Mouly. Maus has been published in dozens of languages, and has won numerous awards. In the English-speaking world, it was one of the first works of comics to receive academic attention. It is credited with helping the comics medium gain greater respect among the public, and helped establish and popularize the graphic novel form.

Overview

The book is generally divided between the "present" frame tale, in 1978–79 in Rego Park, New York, in which Spiegelman interviews his father, Vladek, and the "past", the story that Vladek tells, beginning in the mid-1930s and continuing through the end of the Holocaust in 1945, when Vladek and his wife Anja emigrate to the US. Spiegelman has a strained relationship with his father, who harasses and infuriates his neighbors and loved ones.

Synopsis

In Rego Park in 1958, a young Art Spiegelman runs to his father, complaining of being left behind by his friends. His father, Vladek, responds in broken English, "Friends? Your friends? If you lock them together in a room with no food for a week, then you could see what it is, friends!"

As an adult, Art visits his father, from whom he has become estranged. Vladek has remarried to a woman called Mala since the 1968 suicide of Art's mother, Anja. Art wants Vladek to recount his Holocaust experience. Vladek tells of his time in Częstochowa, describing how he came to marry into Anja's wealthy family in 1937 and move to Sosnowiec to become a manufacturer. Vladek begs Art not to include this part of the story in the book, and Art reluctantly agrees. Anja suffers a mental breakdown after giving birth to their first son, Richieu, and the couple go to a sanitarium in Nazi-occupied Czechoslovakia for her to recover. After they return, political and antisemitic tensions build until Vladek is drafted just in time for the Nazi invasion. Vladek is captured at the front and put to labor as a prisoner of war. After he is let out, he finds Sosnowiec has been annexed by Germany, and he is released on the other side of the border in the Polish protectorate. He sneaks across the border and reunites with his family.

Comics panel. Drawing of Art's mother dead in a bathtub and Art in prison uniform. "Menopausal depression", "Hitler did it!", "Mommy!" and "Bitch" are written across the panel.

"Prisoner on the Hell Planet" (1973), an early, expressionistic strip about Spiegelman's mother's suicide, reprinted in Maus

During one of Art's visits, he finds that a friend of Mala's has sent the couple one of the underground comix magazines Art had contributed to. Mala had tried to hide it, but Vladek finds and reads it. In "Prisoner on the Hell Planet", Art is traumatized by his mother's suicide three months after his release from the state mental hospital, and in the end depicts himself behind bars, saying "You murdered me, Mommy, and left me here to take the rap!" Though it brings back painful memories to Vladek, he admits that dealing with the issue in such a way was for the best.

In 1943, Sosnowiec Ghetto's Jews are moved to Srodula, from where they are marched to Sosnowiec to work. The family splits up—Vladek and Anja send Richieu to Zawiercie to be with his aunt, where they believe he will be safe. As the roundups increase, and more Jews are sent from the ghettos to Auschwitz, the aunt poisons herself, her children, and Richieu to escape the Gestapo. In Srodula, many Jews, including Vladek, build bunkers to hide from the German roundups. Vladek's bunker is discovered and he is placed into a "ghetto inside the ghetto", surrounded by barbed wire. The remnants of Vladek and Anja's family are taken away. Srodula is cleared of its Jews, except for a group Vladek hides with in another bunker. When the Germans depart, the group splits up and leaves the ghetto.

In Sosnowiec, Vladek and Anja move from one hiding place to the next, making occasional contact with other Jews in hiding. Vladek hunts for provisions disguised as an ethnic Pole. They arrange with smugglers to escape to Hungary, but it is a trick—the Gestapo arrest them on the train and take them to Auschwitz, where they are separated until after the war.

Art asks after Anja's diaries, which Vladek tells him were her account of her Holocaust experiences. They are the only way to find out what happened to her after her separation from Vladek at Auschwitz. Vladek tells Art she had said, "I wish my son, when he grows up, he will be interested in this." Vladek comes to admit that he burned them after she killed herself. Art is enraged, and calls Vladek a "murderer".

The story jumps to 1986, after the first six chapters of Maus had been collected into a single volume. Art is overcome with the unexpected attention the book receives, finding himself "totally blocked". Art talks with his psychiatrist, Paul Pavel, a Czech Holocaust survivor, about the book. Pavel suggests that, as those who perished in the camps can never tell their stories, "maybe it's better not to have any more stories". Art replies with a quote from Samuel Beckett: "Every word is like an unnecessary stain on silence and nothingness", but then realizes, "on the other hand, he said it".

Vladek tells of his hardship in the camps, of starvation and abuse, of his resourcefulness, of avoiding the selektionen—the selection process by which prisoners were selected either for further labor, or execution in the crematoria. Though it is dangerous, Anja and Vladek occasionally are able to exchange messages. As the war progresses and the German front is pushed back, the prisoners are marched from Auschwitz in Poland to Gross-Rosen within the Reich, and then to Dachau, where the hardships only increase and Vladek catches typhus.

The war ends, the camp survivors are freed, and Vladek and Anja reunite. The book closes with Vladek turning over in his bed and telling Art, "I'm tired from talking, Richieu, and it's enough stories for now." The final image is of Vladek and Anja's tombstone—Vladek died in 1982, long before the book was completed.

Primary characters

Art Spiegelman (born 1948)

Art is a cartoonist and intellectual who has a strained relationship with his father, Vladek, who calls him "Artie". Art is presented as neurotic and obsessive, angry and full of self-pity, and feels dominated by his father. Art deals with his own traumas and those inherited from his parents by seeking psychiatric help, which continued after the book was completed.

Vladek Spiegelman (1906–1982)

Vladek is a Polish Jew who survived the Holocaust, then moved to New York in the early 1950s. Speaking broken English, he is presented as miserly, anal retentive, anxious and obstinate—traits that may have helped him survive the camps, but which drive his family mad. He displays racist attitudes, as when Françoise picks up an African American hitchhiker, whom he fears will rob them. He shows little insight into his own racist comments about others.

Mala Spiegelman (1917–2007)

Mala is Vladek's second wife. Vladek makes her feel she can never live up to Anja. Though she too is a survivor and speaks with Art throughout the book, Art makes no attempt to learn of her Holocaust experience.

Anja Spiegelman (1912–1968)

Also a Polish Jew who has survived the Holocaust, Anja is Art's mother and Vladek's first wife. Nervous, compliant, and clinging, she has her first nervous breakdown after giving birth to her first son. She sometimes told Art about the Holocaust while he was growing up, although his father did not want him to know about it. She committed suicide by slashing her wrists in a bathtub in May 1968, leaving no note.

Françoise Mouly (born 1955)

Françoise is married to Art. She is French but converted to Judaism to please Art's father. It is unclear to Spiegelman whether she should be represented as a Jewish mouse, a French frog or some other animal.

Background

Art Spiegelman was born on 15 February 1948 in Sweden to Polish Jews and Holocaust survivors Vladek and Anja Spiegelman. His brother Richieu was poisoned by an aunt in order to avoid capture by the Nazis four years before Art's birth. He immigrated with his parents to the United States in 1951. Growing up, his mother would occasionally talk about Auschwitz, but his father did not want him to know about it.

Spiegelman developed an early interest in comics and began drawing professionally at 16. He spent a month in Binghamton State Mental Hospital in 1968 after a nervous breakdown. Shortly after getting out, his mother committed suicide. The elder Spiegelman was not happy with his son's involvement in the hippie movement. Spiegelman said that when he bought himself a German Volkswagen, it damaged their already-strained relationship "beyond repair". Around this time Spiegelman had been reading in fanzines about graphic artists such as Frans Masereel, who had made wordless novels. The discussions in those fanzines about making the great American novel in comics inspired him.

Cartoon image of a Nazi cat holding a gun to a Jewish mouse's head

From the original, less subtle 1972 "Maus" strip

Spiegelman became a key figure in the underground comix movement of the 1970s, both as cartoonist and editor. Justin Green was a cartoonist who had produced the semi-autobiographical Binky Brown Meets the Holy Virgin Mary in 1972, an influential work which inspired other underground cartoonists to open themselves up and produce more personal, revealing work. The same year, Green asked Speigelman to contribute a three-page strip for the first issue of Funny Aminals [sic], which Green edited. Spiegelman wanted to do a strip about racism, and at first considered focusing on African Americans, with cats taking on the role of the Ku Klux Klan chasing African-American mice. Instead, he turned to the Holocaust. The strip was called "Maus" and depicted Nazi cats, called die Katzen, persecuting Jewish mice. The tale was narrated to a mouse named "Mickey". After finishing the strip, Spiegelman visited his father to show him the finished work, which had been partially based an an anecdote he had heard about his father's Auschwitz experience. His father gave him further background on the story, which piqued Spiegelman's interest to learn more. Spiegelman did a series of taped interviews over four days with his father, which provided the basis of the longer Maus. Spiegelman followed up with extensive research, reading survivors' accounts and talking to friends and family who had also survived. One "really important" source for him was a series of Polish pamphlets published after the war which detailed what happened to the Jews by region. From this he was able to get very detailed information about Sosnowiec.

In 1973, he produced a strip for Short Order Comix #1 about his mother's suicide called "Prisoner on the Hell Planet". The same year, he edited an explicitly pornographic, psychedelic book of quotations, which he dedicated to his mother.

Spiegelman visited Auschwitz in 1979 as part of his research

Spiegelman spent the rest of the 1970s building his reputation making short, avant-garde comics. He moved back to New York from San Francisco in 1975, which he admitted to his father only in 1977, by which time he had decided he wanted to work on a "very long comic book". He began another series interviews with his father in 1978, and visited Auschwitz in 1979. The story was serialized in a comics and graphics magazine he and Françoise began in 1980 called Raw.

Comics medium

American comic books, which had been big business with a diversity of genres in the 1940s and 1950s, had reached a low ebb in the 1970s. By the time Maus began serialization, the "Big Two" comics publishers, Marvel and DC Comics, dominated the industry with mostly superhero titles. The underground comix movement that had flourished in the late 1960s and early 1970s also seemed moribund. The public perception of comic books was of adolescent power fantasies, inherently incapable of mature artistic or literary expression. Comics was seen as a genre rather than a medium.

Maus came to prominence when the term "graphic novel" was beginning to gain currency. Will Eisner first popularized the term with the publication of A Contract with God in 1978. The term was used partly to mask the culturally low status that comics had in the English-speaking world, and partly because the term "comic book" was being used to refer to short-form periodicals, awkwardly leaving no accepted vocabulary with which to talk about book-form comics.

Publication history

The first chapter of Maus appeared in December 1980 in the second issue of Raw. A new chapter of the story appeared in every issue as a small insert in the oversized magazine until it came to an end in 1991. Every chapter except the last appeared in Raw.

Spiegelman struggled to find a publisher for Maus, but in 1986, Pantheon collected the first six chapters into a book, after a rave New York Times review of the work-in-progress. The volume was titled Maus: A Survivor's Tale and subtitled My Father Bleeds History. Spiegelman said he was eager to have the book come out early, even if incomplete, in order to avoid comparisons with the animated film An American Tail from Steven Spielberg's Amblin Entertainment, which he believed was inspired by Maus. The book found a large audience, partially because it was sold through regular bookstores, rather through comic shops in the direct market that comic books were normally sold through.

The book was difficult not only for critics and reviewers to classify, but also for booksellers, who needed to know on which shelves to place it. Pantheon pushed for the term "graphic novel". Spiegelman was not comfortable with the term, however, as many book-length comics were being referred to as "graphic novels" whether or not they were novelistic. He also suspected the term was being used in an attempt to validate the comics form, rather than to describe the contents of the books. Spiegelman later came to accept the term, and with Drawn and Quarterly publisher Chris Oliveros successfully lobbied the Book Industry Study Group in the early 2000s to include "graphic novel" as a standardized category in bookstores.

In 1991, Pantheon collected the last five chapters in the second volume, subtitled And Here My Troubles Began. Pantheon later collected the two volumes into soft- and hard-covered two-volume boxed sets and single-volume editions. In 1994, The Voyager Company released The Complete Maus on CD-ROM, a collection which, in addition to the original comics, contained Vladek's taped transcripts, filmed interviews with Art, sketches, and other background material. The CD-ROM was based on HyperCard, a now-obsolete Macintosh-only application. In 2011 Pantheon Books published a companion to The Complete Maus entitled MetaMAUS, with further background material, including filmed footage of Vladek. The centerpiece of the book is an extensive Spiegelman interview conducted by Hillary Chute. It also has interviews with his wife and children, sketches, photographs, family trees, assorted artwork, and a DVD with video, audio, photos, and an interactive version of Maus.

Spiegelman dedicated the book to his brother, Richieu, who died during the Holocaust and whom he had never met; and his first daughter, Nadja. A photograph of Spiegelman's brother also prefaces the book. Its epigraph is a quote from Adolf Hitler: "The Jews are undoubtedly a race, but they are not human".

International publication

The initial volume's Commonwealth rights were licensed to Penguin Books in 1986, with the exception of South Africa. In support of the African National Congress's cultural boycott in opposition to apartheid, Spiegelman refused to "compromise with fascism" by allowing publication of his work there.

Piotr Bikont (left) set up a publishing house in 2001 to put out a Polish edition of Maus in the face of protest.

By 2011, Maus had been translated into about thirty languages. Three translations were particularly important to Spiegelman: French, as his wife was French, and because of his respect for the sophisticated Franco-Belgian comics tradition; German, given the book's background; and Polish. Poland was the location of the majority of the book, and Polish was the language of his parents and, he says, was his own mother tongue in infancy. The German reception was positive—Maus was a best-seller, and was taught in schools. The Polish translation encountered difficulties. As early as 1987, when he planned a research visit to Poland, the Polish consulate official who had approved Spiegelman's visa questioned him about the Poles depiction as pigs. He was made to understand that, in Poland, calling someone a swine was a much stronger insult than in the US. Publishers and commentators since then had refused to deal with the book for fear of protests and boycotts. In 2001, Piotr Bikont, a journalist for Gazeta Wyborcza set up his own publishing house to publish Maus in Polish. Demonstrators protested Maus's publication, and burned the book in front of Gazeta's offices. Bikont's response was to don a pig mask and wave to the protesters from the office windows.

For the Hebrew edition of Maus, a few panels were changed. Based on Vladek's memory, Spiegelman portrayed one of the minor characters as a member of the Nazi-installed "Jewish Police". An Israeli descendant objected and threatened to sue for libel. Spiegelman redrew the character with a fedora in place of his original police hat, but appended a note to the volume voicing his objection to this "intrusion". This version of the first volume of the book was published in 1990, and the reception was indifferent or negative. The publisher, Zmora Bitan, opted not to release the second volume. Another Israeli publisher published both volumes, with a new translation that included Vladek's broken language, which Zmora Bitan had refused to do. This may have highlighted a difference between the self-images of Israeli and American Jews—the image of the resistance fighter in contrast to the timid and weak diaspora Jew, a perceived self-hatred that one Israeli writer called "the diaspora sickness".

The magazine-sized Japanese translation was the only authorized edition with larger pages. For years, plans have been made for an Arabic translation, but it has yet to appear due to complicated Arab–Jewish relations in the Middle East.

Themes

Presentation

Two comics panels, in which the cartoonist can't decide to depict a character as a mouse or a cat.

Spiegelman finds the animal metaphor self-destructs

Spiegelman takes a postmodern approach, portraying different races as different species of animals—the Jews as mice, Germans as cats, and ethnic Poles as pigs, among others. Spiegelman took advantage of the way Nazi propaganda films depicted Jews as rats and vermin, though he first was struck by the metaphor after attending a presentation where Ken Jacobs showed films of minstrel shows alongside early American animated films, abundant with racial caricatures.

Maus "feeds on itself", telling the story of how the "inner" story was made. It examines the choices Spiegelman made in the retelling of his father's memories, and the artistic choices he had to make—for example, when his French wife converts to Judaism, Spiegelman's character frets over whether to depict her as a frog or a mouse. Jewish characters try to pass themselves off as ethnic Poles by tying pig masks to their faces, with the strings showing at the back. Vladek's disguise was more convincing than Anja's—"you could see she was more Jewish", Vladek says. Art renders this Jewishness by having her tail hang out of her disguise. This literalization of the genocidal stereotypes that drove the Nazis to their Final Solution may risk reinforcing racist labels, but Spiegelman uses the idea to create anonymity for the characters. According to art historian Andrea Liss, this anonymity may paradoxically enable the reader to identify with the characters as human, preventing the reader from observing racial characteristics based on facial traits, while reminding readers that racist classification is ever present.

In making people of a single nationality look "all alike", Spiegelman hoped to show the absurdity of dividing people along such lines. Spiegelman has stated that "these metaphors...are meant to self-destruct" and "reveal the inanity of the notion itself". Professor Amy Hungerford saw no consistent system to the animal metaphor. Rather, it signified the characters' roles in the story rather than their races—the gentile Françoise is a mouse because of her identification with her husband, who identifies with the Holocaust victims. When asked what animal he would make Israeli Jews, Spiegelman suggests porcupines. When Art visits his psychiatrist, the two wear mouse masks instead of having mouse heads. Spiegelman's own perceptions of the animal metaphor seem to have evolved over the book's making—in the original publication of the first volume, his self-portrait showed a mouse head on a human body, but by the time the second volume arrived, his self-portrait had become of a man wearing a mouse mask. In Maus, the characters seem to be mice and cats only in their predator/prey relationship. In every respect other than the heads, they act and speak as ordinary humans.

Spiegelman, like many of his critics, worries that "[r]eality is too much for comics...so much has to be left out or distorted", admitting that his presentation of the story may not be accurate. Additionally, as he had not lived in the camps himself, he found it difficult to understand or visualize this "separate universe" to depict it.

Memory

To Marianne Hirsch, Spiegelman's life is "dominated by memories that are not his own". His work is one not of memory but of postmemory—a term she coined after encountering Maus. This describes the relation of the children of survivors with the survivors themselves. While these children have not had their parents' experiences, they grow up with their parents' memories—the memory of another's memory—until the stories become so powerful that for these children they become memories in their own right. The children's proximity creates a "deep personal connection" with the memory, though separated from it by "generational distance".

Art tried to keep his father's story chronological, because otherwise he would "never keep it straight". His mother Anja's memories are conspicuously absent from the narrative, given her suicide and Vladek's destruction of her diaries. Hirsch sees Maus in part as an attempt to reconstruct her memory. Vladek keeps her memory alive with the pictures on his desk, "like a shrine", according to Mala.

Guilt

Spiegelman displays his sense of guilt in many ways. He anguishes over his dead brother, Richieu, who perished in the Holocaust, and whom he feels he can never live up to. The eighth chapter, made after the publication and unexpected success of the first volume, opens with a guilt-ridden Spiegelman (now in human form, with a strapped-on mouse mask) atop a pile of corpses—the corpses of the six million Jews upon whom Maus's success was built. He is told by his psychiatrist that his father feels guilt for having survived and for outliving his first son, and that some of Art's guilt may spring from painting his father in such an unflattering way. He also feels inadequate in portraying the Holocaust, as he had not experienced it first hand.

Racism

Kapos, prisoner supervisors under the Nazis, are depicted as antisemitic Poles.

As well as the Nazis' vision of racial divisions that Spiegelman parodies, Vladek's own racism is put on display, as when he becomes upset that Françoise would pick up a black hitchhiker, a "schwartser" in his words. When she berates him, a victim of antisemitism, for his racist attitudes, he replies, "It's not even to compare, the schwartsers and the Jews!" Spiegelman gradually deconstructs the animal metaphor throughout the book, especially in the second volume, showing where the lines cannot be drawn between races of humans.

The Germans are depicted with little difference between them, but there is great variety and little stereotyping of the Poles and Jews who dominate the story. Sometimes Jews and the Jewish councils themselves are shown to comply with the occupiers. Some trick other Jews into capture, while others act as police for the Nazis.

While the Poles have often been demonized for perceived antisemitism and complicity with the Nazis, Spiegelman shows numerous instances of Poles who risked themselves to aid Jews. However, antisemitism is depicted as being rife. The Kapos who run the camps are Poles, while Anja and Vladek are tricked by Polish smugglers into the clutches of the Nazis. Anja and Vladek hear stories that Poles continue to drive off and even kill returning Jews after the war.

Language

Vladek's knowledge of English helps him initiate his first contact with Anja, and also helps him several times during the story. His English, the language in which he recounts his story, however, is broken, highlighted and contrasted with that of Art's more fluent therapist, Paul Pavel, who is also an immigrant and Holocaust survivor. Vladek makes friends with a Frenchman in English, and the two continue to correspond in English after the war. His recounting of the Holocaust, first to American soldiers, then to his son, is never in his mother tongue, and English becomes his daily language when he moves to America. His difficulty with his second language is revealed as Art writes his dialogue in broken English, as when Vladek is imprisoned and tells Art, "...every day we prayed...I was very religious, and it wasn't else to do". In an instance late in the book, Vladek talks of Dachau, saying, "And here[...]my troubles began", though clearly his troubles had begun long before Dachau. This unidiomatic expression was emphasized when Art used it as the subtitle of the second volume.

The German word maus is cognate to the English word "mouse", but also reminiscent of the German word mauscheln, which means "to speak like a Jew" and refers to the particular way Jews spoke German—a word not etymologically related to maus, but distantly to Moses.

Style

Spiegelman's use of funny Animals conflicted with readers' expectations.

Spiegelman's perceived audacity in using the Holocaust as his subject was compounded by his use of comics to tell the story. The medium itself was viewed in the English-speaking world as being inherently trivial, thus degrading the subject matter, especially as he used animal heads in place of recognizably human ones. Funny animals have been a staple of comics, and while they have traditionally been thought of as being for children, the underground had long made use of them in adult stories, notably in Robert Crumb's work (such as Fritz the Cat) which showed that the genre could "open up the way to a paradoxical narrative realism" that Maus would exploit.

Ostensibly about the Holocaust, the story becomes sublimated by the frame tale of Art interviewing and interacting with his father. Art's "Prisoner on the Hell Planet" is also encompassed by the frame. It is a striking visual and thematic contrast with the rest of the book. It depicts all the characters in human form in a surreal, German Expressionist woodcut style inspired by Lynd Ward.

The line between the frame and the world is bolded by comments such as when Spiegelman, neurotically trying to deal with what Maus is becoming for him, says to his wife, "You'd never let me do so much talking without interrupting if this were real life." When a prisoner whom the Nazis believe to be a Jew claims to be German, Spiegelman is confronted with the difficulty of whether to present this character as a cat or a mouse. Throughout the book, Spiegelman incorporates and highlights banal details from his father's tales, sometimes humorous or ironic, giving a lightness and humanity to the story which "helps carry the weight of the unbearable historical realities".

Spiegelman started taking down his interviews with Vladek on paper, but quickly switched to a tape recorder, face-to-face or over the phone. Spiegelman often condensed Vladek's words, but occasionally added to the dialogue, or synthesized multiple retellings into a single portrayal.

Spiegelman worried about the effect that his organizing of Vladek's story would have on its authenticity. In the end, he eschewed a more Joycean approach and settled on a linear narrative he thought would be better at "getting things across". He also strove to present how the book was recorded and organized as an important part of the book itself, expressing the "sense of an interview shaped by a relationship".

Artwork

The story is text-driven, with few wordless panels out of its 1,500 black-and-white drawings. The art has high contrast, with heavy black areas and thick black borders balanced against areas of white and wide white margins. There is little grey in the shading. In the "present" portions, the pages are arranged in eight-panel grids, but in the "past" sections, Spiegelman found himself "violating the grid constantly" with his unique page layouts.

Spiegelman did the original three-page "Maus" and "Prisoner on the Hell Planet" in highly detailed, expressive styles. Spiegelman initially thought to draw Maus in such a sophisticated manner, but after initial sketches decided it would be more appropriate to use a pared-down style, one little removed from his pencil sketches, which would be more direct and immediate. Characters are rendered in a minimalist way, with dots for eyes and slashes for eyebrows and mouths, looking "as if they were human beings with animal heads pasted on them". Spiegelman wanted to get away from the rendering of the characters in the original "Maus", in which oversized cats towered over the Jewish mice, an approach which Spiegelman says, "tells you how to feel, tells you how to think". He would prefer the reader to make independent moral judgments. He drew the cat-Nazis in proportions no different from those of the mouse-Jews, and dropped the stereotypical villainous expressions. The contrast between the artwork in "Prisoner on the Hell Planet" and Maus drives home the effectiveness of the simpler artwork—"Prisoner" is alienating, while Maus is more inviting, encouraging deeper contemplation and understanding.

Spiegelman wanted the artwork to have a diary feel to it, and so drew the pages on stationery with a fountain pen and typewriter correction fluid. It was reproduced at the same size it was drawn, in contrast to his other work, which was normally drawn larger and shrunk down, which would hide defects in the art.

Influences

Two pages from a woodcut novel by Frans Masereel

Wordless woodcut novels like those by Frans Masereel were an early influence.

Spiegelman is conscious of his medium's history, and published articles promoting a greater knowledge of comics' past. Chief among his early influences were Harvey Kurtzman, Will Eisner, and Bernard Krigstein's "Master Race". He acknowledged Eisner's early work as an influence, but he denied that Eisner's first graphic novel, A Contract with God (1978), had any impact on Maus. He cited Harold Gray's comic strip Little Orphan Annie as having "influenced Maus fairly directly", and praised Gray's work for discovering a cartoon-based vocabulary, rather than an illustration-based one, for telling his stories. Justin Green's Binky Brown Meets the Holy Virgin Mary (1972) inspired Spiegelman to open himself up and include autobiographical elements in his comics. Spiegelman stated, "without Binky Brown, there would be no Maus". Among the artists who influenced Maus, Spiegelman cited Frans Masereel, who had made an early woodcut novel called Mon Livre d'Heures (1919, titled Passionate Journey in English).

Reception and legacy

Maus was the first graphic novel to win a Pulitzer Prize.

Spiegelman's work as cartoonist and editor had long been known and respected in the comics community, but the media attention after the first volume's publication in 1986 was unexpected. Hundreds of overwhelmingly positive reviews appeared, and Maus became the center of new attention focused on comics. It was considered one of the "Big Three" book-form comics from around 1986–1987, along with Watchmen and The Dark Knight Returns, that are said to have brought the term "graphic novel" and the idea of comics for adults into mainstream consciousness. It was credited with changing the public's perception of what comics could be at a time when, in the English-speaking world, they were considered to be for children, and strongly associated with superheroes. Initially, critical reception of Maus showed a reluctance to including comics in literary discourse. When The New York Times "praised" the book by saying, "Art Spiegelman doesn't draw comic books". After its Pulitzer Prize win, it gradually won greater acceptance and interest among academics. An exhibition on the making of Maus was staged at the Museum of Modern Art in 1992.

Spiegelman continues to attract academic attention and influence younger cartoonists.

The genre of Maus proved difficult to classify. It has been called biography, fiction, autobiography, history, and memoir. Spiegelman petitioned The New York Times to move it from "fiction" to "non-fiction" on their bestseller list, saying, "I shudder to think how David Duke...would respond to seeing a carefully researched work based closely on my father's memories of life in Hitler's Europe and in the death camps classified as fiction". One editor responded, "Let's go out to Spiegelman's house and if a giant mouse answers the door, we'll move it to the nonfiction side of the list!" The Times eventually acquiesced. The Pulitzer committee sidestepped the issue by giving the completed Maus a Special Award in Letters in 1992.

Maus ranked highly on comics and literature lists. The Comics Journal called it the fourth greatest comics work of the 20th century, and Wizard placed it first on their list of 100 Greatest Graphic Novels. Entertainment Weekly listed Maus at seventh place on their list of The New Classics: Books – The 100 best reads from 1983 to 2008, and Time put Maus at seventh place on their list of best non-fiction books from between 1923 and 2005, and fourth on their list of top graphic novels. Praise for the book also came from contemporaries such as Jules Feiffer, and literary writers such as Umberto Eco. Spiegelman turned down numerous offers to have Maus adapted for film or television.

Early instalments of Maus that appeared in Raw inspired the young Chris Ware to "try to do comics that had a 'serious' tone to them". Maus is cited as a primary influence on graphic novels such as Marjane Satrapi's Persepolis and Alison Bechdel's Fun Home.

Criticism

A "cottage industry" of academic research built up around Maus, and schools have frequently used it as course material in a range of fields: history, dysfunctional family psychology, language arts and social studies. The volume of academic work done on Maus far surpasses that of any other work of comics. One of the earliest was Joshua Brown's 1988 "Of Mice and Memory" from the Oral History Review, which deals with the problems Spiegelman faced in presenting his father's story. Marianne Hirsch wrote an influential essay on post-memory called "Family Pictures: Maus, Mourning, and Post-Memory", later expanded into a book called Family Frames: Photography, Narrative, and Postmemory. Academics far outside the field of comics such as Dominick LaCapra, Linda Hutcheon and Terrence Des Pres took part in the discourse. Few approached Maus who were familiar with comics, however, largely because of the lack of an academic comics tradition—Maus tended to be approached as Holocaust history or from a film or literary perspective. In 2003, Deborah Geis edited a collection of essays on Maus called Considering Maus: Approaches to Art Spiegelman's "Survivor's Tale" of the Holocaust. Maus is considered an important work of Holocaust literature, and studies of it have made significant contributions to Holocaust studies.

Comics writer and critic Harvey Pekar objected to Maus's use of animals and the negative depiction of Spiegelman's father.

According to writer Arie Kaplan, some Holocaust survivors objected to Spiegelman making a comic book out of their tragedy. Literary critics such as Hillel Halkin objected that the animal metaphor was "doubly dehumanizing", reinforcing the Nazi belief that the atrocities were perpetrated by one species on another, when they were actually done by humans against humans. Harvey Pekar and others saw Spiegelman's use of animals as potentially reinforcing stereotypes. Pekar was also disdainful of Spiegelman's overwhelmingly negative portrayal of his father, calling him disingenuous and hypocritical for such a portrayal in a book that presents itself as objective. Comics critic R. C. Harvey argued that Spiegelman's animal metaphor threatened "to erode [Maus's] moral underpinnings", and played "directly into [the Nazis'] racist vision".

Some commentators, such as Peter Obst and Lawrence Weschler, expressed concern over the Poles' depiction as pigs—a much greater insult in Polish culture than in American culture. Jewish culture also views pigs, and pork, as non-kosher, or unclean—a point that was unlikely to be lost on the Jewish Spiegelman. Critics such as Obst and Pekar have said that the portrayal of Poles is unbalanced—that, while some Poles are seen as helping Jews, they often are shown to do so for self-serving reasons. In the late 1990s, an objector to Maus' depiction of Poles persistently and abusively interrupted a presentation by Spiegelman at Montreal's McGill University, and was expelled from the auditorium.

Literary critic Walter Ben Michaels found Spiegelman's racial divisions "counterfactual". Spiegelman depicts the various European races as different animal species, but Americans, both black and white, as dogs—with the exception of the Jews, who remain unassimilated mice. To Michaels, Maus seems to gloss over the racial inequality that has plagued the history of the U.S.

Other critics, such as Bart Beaty, objected to what they saw as the work's fatalism. Belgian publisher La Cinquième Couche anonymously produced a book called Katz, a remix of Spiegelman's book with all animal heads replaced with cat heads. The book reproduced every page and line of dialogue from the French translation of Maus. Spiegelman's French publisher, Flammarion, forced the publisher to destroy all copies, under charges of copyright violation.

Awards and nominations

Awards and nominations for Maus

Year	Organisation	Award	Result
1986	National Book Critics Circle	National Book Critics Circle Award for Biography	Nominated
1987	Present Tense magazine American Jewish Committee	Present Tense/Joel H. Cavior Book Award for Fiction	Won
1988	Angoulême International Comics Festival Awards	Religious Award: Christian Testimony	Won
1988	Angoulême International Comics Festival Awards	Best Foreign Album (Maus: un survivant raconte)	Won
1988	Urhunden Prize	Foreign Album	Won
1990	Max & Moritz Prizes	Special Prize	Won
1991	National Book Critics Circle	National Book Critics Circle Award	Nominated
1992	Pulitzer Prize	Special Awards and Citations – Letters	Won
1992	Eisner Award	Best Graphic Album—Reprint (Maus II).	Won
1992	Harvey Award	Best Graphic Album of Previously Published Material (Maus II)	Won
1992	Los Angeles Times	Book Prize for Fiction (Maus II)	Won
1993	Angoulême International Comics Festival Awards	Best Foreign Album (Maus: un survivant raconte II)	Won
1993	Urhunden Prize	Foreign Album (Maus II)	Won
2012	Eisner Award	Best Comics-Related Book (MetaMaus)	Won

See also

• Anthropomorphism
• Birds' Head Haggadah
• Ethnic stereotypes in comics
• Stereotypes of Jews in literature

References

Works cited

Books

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Adams, Jeff (2008). Documentary Graphic Novels and Social Realism. Peter Lang. ISBN 978-3-03911-362-0. {{cite book}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)

Ahrens, Jörn; Meteling, Arno (2010). Comics and the City: Urban Space in Print, Picture, and Sequence. Continuum International Publishing Group. ISBN 978-0-8264-4019-8. {{cite book}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)

Ball, David M.; Kuhlman, Martha B. (2010). The Comics of Chris Ware: Drawing Is a Way of Thinking. University Press of Mississippi. ISBN 978-1-60473-442-3. {{cite book}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)

Berger, James (1999). After the End: Representations of Post-Apocalypse. University of Minnesota Press. ISBN 978-0-8166-2932-9. {{cite book}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)

Chute, Hillary L. (2010). Graphic Women: Life Narrative and Contemporary Comics. Columbia University Press. ISBN 978-0-231-15062-0. {{cite book}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)

Duncan, Randy; Smith, Matthew J (2009). The Power of Comics. Continuum International Publishing Group. ISBN 978-0-8264-2936-0. {{cite book}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)

Fagan, Bryan D.; Fagan, Jody Condit (2011). "Medium or Genre?". Comic Book Collections for Libraries. ABC-CLIO. p. 3. ISBN 978-1-59884-511-2. {{cite book}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)

Fathers, Michael (2007). "Art Mimics Life in the Death Camps". In Witek, Joseph (ed.). Art Spiegelman: Conversations. University Press of Mississippi. pp. 122–125. ISBN 978-1-934110-12-6. {{cite book}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help) (Originally in Independent on Sunday on 1992-03-22)

Fischer, Heinz Dietrich; Fischer, Erika J. (2002). "Spiegelman, Art". Complete Biographical Encyclopedia of Pulitzer Prize Winners, 1917–2000: Journalists, Writers and Composers on Their Ways to the Coveted Awards. Walter de Gruyter. p. 230. ISBN 978-3-598-30186-5. {{cite book}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)

Harvey, R. C. (1996). The Art of the Comic Book: An Aesthetic History. University Press of Mississippi. ISBN 978-0-87805-758-0. {{cite book}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)

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Hirsch, Marianne (1997). Family Frames: Photography, Narrative, and Postmemory. Harvard University Press. ISBN 978-0-674-29265-9. {{cite book}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)

Horowitz, Sara R. (1997). "Art Spiegelman". In Shatzky, Joel; Taub, Michael (eds.). Contemporary Jewish-American Novelists: A Bio-Critical Sourcebook. Greenwood Publishing Group. pp. 400–408. ISBN 978-0-313-29462-4. {{cite book}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)

Hungerford, Amy (2003). "Surviving Rego Park". The Holocaust of Texts: Genocide, Literature, and Personification. University of Chicago Press. pp. 73–96. ISBN 978-0-226-36076-8. {{cite book}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)

Kannenberg, Gene, Jr. (2001). "'I Looked Just Like Rudolph Valentino': Identity and Representation in Maus". In Baetens, Jan (ed.). The Graphic Novel. Leuven University Press. pp. 79–89. ISBN 978-90-5867-109-7. {{cite book}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)

Kaplan, Arie (2006). Masters of the Comic Book Universe Revealed!. Chicago Review Press. ISBN 978-1-55652-633-6. {{cite book}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)

Kaplan, Arie (2008). From Krakow to Krypton: Jews and Comic Books. Jewish Publication Society. ISBN 978-0-8276-0843-6. {{cite book}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)

LaCapra, Dominick (1998). "'Twas the Night Before Christmas: Art Spiegelman's Maus". History and Memory After Auschwitz. Cornell University Press. pp. 139–179. ISBN 978-0-8014-8496-4. {{cite book}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)

Levine, Michael G. (2006). The Belated Witness: Literature, Testimony, and the Question of Holocaust Survival. Stanford University Press. ISBN 978-0-8047-5555-9. {{cite book}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)

Liss, Andrea (1998). Trespassing Through Shadows: Memory, Photography, and the Holocaust. University of Minnesota Press. ISBN 978-0-8166-3060-8. {{cite book}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)

Loman, Andrew (2010). "The Canonization of Maus". In Williams, Paul; Lyons, James (eds.). The Rise of the American Comics Artist: Creators and Contexts. University Press of Mississippi. ISBN 978-1-60473-792-9. {{cite book}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)

Mandel, Naomi (2006). "The Story of my Death: Night, Maus, Shoah and the Image of the Speaking Corpse". Against the Unspeakable: Complicity, the Holocaust, and Slavery in America. University of Virginia Press. pp. 99–130. ISBN 978-0-8139-2581-3. {{cite book}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)

Meskin, Aaron; Cook, Roy T., eds. (2012). The Art of Comics: A Philosophical Approach. John Wiley & Sons. ISBN 978-1-4443-3464-7.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: ref duplicates default (link)

McGlothlin, Erin Heather (2006). "'In Auschwitz We Didn't Wear Watches': Marking Time in Art Spiegelman's Maus". Second-Generation Holocaust Literature: Legacies of Survival and Perpetration. Camden House Publishing. pp. 66–90. ISBN 978-1-57113-352-6. {{cite book}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)

Monnin, Katie (2010). Teaching Graphic Novels: Practical Strategies for the Secondary ELA Classroom. Maupin House Publishing, Inc. ISBN 978-1-934338-40-7. {{cite book}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)

Orbán, Katalin (2005). "Mauschwitz". Ethical Diversions: The Post-Holocaust Narratives of Pynchon, Abish, DeLillo, and Spiegelman. Routledge. pp. 35–74. ISBN 978-0-415-97167-6. {{cite book}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)

Petersen, Robert (2010). Comics, Manga, and Graphic Novels: A History of Graphic Narratives. ABC-CLIO. ISBN 978-0-313-36330-6. {{cite book}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)

Pustz, Matthew J (2007). "I Gave It All Up to Draw Comics: Autobiographical (And Other) Tales About Creating Comic Books". In Klaehn, Jeffery (ed.). Inside the World of Comic Books. Black Rose Books. pp. 61–81. ISBN 978-1-55164-296-3. {{cite book}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)

Reibmann, James E. (2001). "Fredric Wertham, Spiegelman's Maus, and Representations of the Holocaust". In Baetens, Jan (ed.). The Graphic Novel. Leuven University Press. pp. 23–30. ISBN 978-90-5867-109-7. {{cite book}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)

Reizbaum, Marilyn (2000). Silberstein, Laurence Jay (ed.). Mapping Jewish Identities. New York University Press. ISBN 978-0-8147-9769-3. {{cite book}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)

Rhoades, Shirrel (2008). Comic Books: How the Industry Works. Peter Lang. ISBN 978-0-8204-8892-9. {{cite book}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)

Rice, Maria J. (2007). Migrations of Memory: Postmemory in Twentieth Century Ethnic American Women's Literature. ProQuest. ISBN 978-0-549-69539-4. {{cite book}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)

Rosen, Alan Charles (2005). Sounds of Defiance: the Holocaust, Multilingualism, and the Problem of English. University of Nebraska Press. ISBN 978-0-8032-3962-3. {{cite book}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)

Rothberg, Michael (2000). Traumatic Realism: The Demands of Holocaust Representation. University of Minnesota Press. ISBN 978-0-8166-3459-0. {{cite book}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)

Russell, Vanessa (2008). "The Mild-Mannered Reporter: How Clark Kent Surpassed Superman". In Ndalianis, Angela (ed.). The Contemporary Comic Book Superhero. Taylor & Francis. pp. 216–232. ISBN 978-0-415-99176-6. {{cite book}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)

Sabin, Roger (1993). Adult Comics: An Introduction. Taylor & Francis. ISBN 978-0-415-04419-6. {{cite book}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)

Schwab, Gabriele (2010). Haunting Legacies: Violent Histories and Transgenerational Trauma. Columbia University Press. ISBN 978-0-231-15257-0. {{cite book}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)

Schuldiner, Michael (2011). "The Second-Generation Holocaust Nonsurvivor: Third-Degree Metalepsis and Creative Block in Art Spiegelman's Maus". In Royal, Derek Parker (ed.). Unfinalized Moments: Essays in the Development of Contemporary Jewish American Narrative. Purdue University Press. pp. 69–80. ISBN 978-1-55753-584-9. {{cite book}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)

Wirth-Nesher, Hana (2006). Call It English: The Languages of Jewish American Literature. Princeton University Press. ISBN 978-0-691-13844-2. {{cite book}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)

Smith, Graham (2007). "From Mickey to Maus: Recalling the Genocide Through Cartoon". In Witek, Joseph (ed.). Art Spiegelman: Conversations. University Press of Mississippi. pp. 84–94. ISBN 978-1-934110-12-6. {{cite book}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help) (Originally in Oral History Journal Vol. 15, Spring 1987)

Spiegelman, Art (2011). Chute, Hillary (ed.). MetaMAUS. Viking Press. ISBN 978-0-670-91683-2. {{cite book}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)

Stringer, Jenny, ed. (1996). "Graphic novel". The Oxford Companion to Twentieth-Century Literature in English. Oxford University Press. p. 262. ISBN 978-0-19-212271-1. {{cite book}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)

Tan, Ed (2001). "The Telling Face in Comic Strip and Graphic Novel". In Baetens, Jan (ed.). The Graphic Novel. Leuven University Press. pp. 31–46. ISBN 978-90-5867-109-7. {{cite book}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)

Wood, Monica (1997). "Maus: A Survivor's Tale, Volumes I and II, by Art Spiegelman". 12 Multicultural Novels: Reading and Teacher Strategies. Walch Publishing. pp. 81–94. ISBN 978-0-8251-2901-8. {{cite book}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)

Weine, Stevan J. (2006). Testimony After Catastrophe: Narrating the Traumas of Political Violence. Northwestern University Press. ISBN 978-0-8101-2300-7. {{cite book}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)

Weiner, Stephen (2003). Faster than a Speeding Bullet: The Rise of the Graphic Novel. NBM Publishing. ISBN 978-1-56163-368-5. {{cite book}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)

Williams, Paul; Lyons, James (2010). The Rise of the American Comics Artist: Creators and Contexts. University Press of Mississippi. ISBN 978-1-60473-792-9. {{cite book}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)

Witek, Joseph (1989). Comic Books as History: The Narrative Art of Jack Jackson, Art Spiegelman, and Harvey Pekar. University Press of Mississippi. ISBN 978-0-87805-406-0. {{cite book}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)

Young, James E. (2006). "The Arts of Jewish Memory in a Postmodern Age". In Rüsen, Jörn (ed.). Meaning and Representation in History. Berghahn Books. pp. 239–254. ISBN 978-1-57181-776-1. {{cite book}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)

Journals

Bolhafner, J. Stephen (1991). "Art for Art's Sake". The Comics Journal. 145. Fantagraphics Books: 96–99. ISSN 0194-7869. {{cite journal}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help); Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)

Brown, Joshua (1988). "Of Mice and Memory". Oral History Review (Spring). Oral History Association: 91–109. ISSN 0094-0798. {{cite journal}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)

Frahm, Ole (2004). "Considering MAUS. Approaches to Art Spiegelman's "Survivor's Tale" of the Holocaust by Deborah R. Geis (ed.)". Image & Narrative (8). ISSN 1780-678X. Retrieved 2012-01-30. {{cite journal}}: External link in |journal= (help); Invalid |ref=harv (help); Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)

Gordon, Andrew (2004). "Jewish Fathers and Sons in Spiegelman's Maus and Roth's Patrimony". ImageText. 1 (Spring). ISSN 1549-6732. Retrieved 2012-02-01. {{cite journal}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)

Jannequin, Jean-Paul (1990). "Druillet and Spiegelman Take Grand Prizes". The Comics Journal (121). Fantagraphics Books: 19. ISSN 0194-7869. {{cite journal}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help); Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)

Kannenberg, Gene, Jr. (1999). Groth, Gary (ed.). "# 4: Maus". The Comics Journal (210). Fantagraphics Books. ISSN 0194-7869. {{cite journal}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help); Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)

McGlothlin, Erin Heather (2003). "No Time Like the Present: Narrative and Time in Art Spiegelman's Maus". Narrative. 11 (2): 177–198. {{cite journal}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help); Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)

Merino, Ana (2010). "Memory in Comics: Testimonial, Autobiographical and Historical Space in Maus". TransAtlantica. 2010 (1). ISSN 1765-2766. Retrieved 2012-02-01. {{cite journal}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)

Park, Hye Su (2011-01-01). "Art Spiegelman's Maus: A Survivor's Tale: A Bibliographic Essay". Shofar. Retrieved 2012-03-01.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: ref duplicates default (link)

Pekar, Harvey (1986). "Maus and Other Topics". The Comics Journal (113). Fantagraphics Books: 54–57. ISSN 0194-7869. {{cite journal}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help); Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)

Pekar, Harvey (1990). "Blood and Thunder". The Comics Journal (135). Fantagraphics Books: 27–34. ISSN 0194-7869. {{cite journal}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help); Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)

Surridge, Matthew (2001). "When Extravagant Fantasies Become Drab Experiences". The Comics Journal (235). Fantagraphics Books: 36–37. ISSN 0194-7869. {{cite journal}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help); Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)

Weschler, Lawrence (2001). "Pig Perplex". Lingua Franca. 11 (5). Retrieved 2012-05-15. {{cite journal}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help); Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)

Witek, Joseph (2004). "Imagetext, or, Why Art Spiegelman Doesn't Draw Comics". ImageTexT: Interdisciplinary Comics Studies. 1 (1). University of Florida. ISSN 1549-6732. Retrieved 2012-04-16. {{cite journal}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)

Wizard staff (2009). "100 Greatest Graphic Novels of our Lifetime". Wizard (212). Wizard Entertainment. {{cite journal}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help); Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)

Newspapers

Couvreur, Daniel (2012-03-05). "Katz a-t-il défiguré Maus ?". Le Soir (in French). Retrieved 2012-06-15.{{cite news}}: CS1 maint: ref duplicates default (link)

Garner, Dwight (2011-10-12). "After a Quarter-Century, an Author Looks Back at His Holocaust Comic". The New York Times. Retrieved 2012-06-12.{{cite news}}: CS1 maint: ref duplicates default (link)

Franklin, Ruth (2011-10-05). "Art Spiegelman's Genre-Defying Holocaust Work, Revisited". The New Republic. Retrieved 2012-01-30.

Hays, Matthew (2011-10-08). "Of Maus and man: Art Spiegelman revisits his Holocaust classic". The Globe and Mail. {{cite news}}: |access-date= requires |url= (help)CS1 maint: ref duplicates default (link)

Kois, Dan (2011-12-02). "The Making of 'Maus'". The New York Times. Retrieved 2012-01-27.{{cite news}}: CS1 maint: ref duplicates default (link)

Langer, Lawrence L (1998-12-06). "A Fable Of The Holocaust". The New York Times. Retrieved 2012-08-28.{{cite news}}: CS1 maint: ref duplicates default (link)

McGrath, Charles (2004-07-11). "Not Funnies". The New York Times. Retrieved 2012-06-07.{{cite news}}: CS1 maint: ref duplicates default (link)

New York Times staff (1987-03-11). "Awards for Books With Jewish Themes". The New York Times. Retrieved 2012-01-30.{{cite news}}: CS1 maint: ref duplicates default (link)

Websites

Beaty, Bart (2012-03-07). "Conversational Euro-Comics: Bart Beaty On Katz". The Comics Reporter. Retrieved 2012-04-17. {{cite web}}: Italic or bold markup not allowed in: |publisher= (help)CS1 maint: ref duplicates default (link)

Blau, Rosie (2008-11-29). "Breakfast with the FT: Art Spiegelman". Financial Times. Retrieved 2012-04-18. {{cite web}}: Italic or bold markup not allowed in: |publisher= (help)CS1 maint: ref duplicates default (link) (registration required)

Colbert, James (1992-11-08). "Times Book Prizes 1992 : Fiction : On Maus II". Los Angeles Times. Retrieved 2012-01-31. {{cite web}}: Italic or bold markup not allowed in: |publisher= (help)CS1 maint: ref duplicates default (link)

Comic Salon staff (2012). "Nominierungen/Preisträger seit 1984" (in German). Comic Salon. Retrieved 2012-01-31. {{cite web}}: External link in |publisher= (help)CS1 maint: ref duplicates default (link)

Conan, Neal (2011-10-05). "'MetaMaus': The Story Behind Spiegelman's Classic". National Public Radio. Retrieved 2012-05-08.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: ref duplicates default (link)

Eisner Awards staff (2012). "Complete List of Eisner Award Winners". San Diego Comic-Con International. Retrieved 2012-01-31.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: ref duplicates default (link)

Entertainment Weekly staff (2008-06-27). "The New Classics: Books". Entertainment Weekly. Retrieved 2012-01-27. {{cite web}}: Italic or bold markup not allowed in: |publisher= (help)CS1 maint: ref duplicates default (link)

Grossman, Lev (2009-03-06). "Top Ten Graphic Novels: Maus". Time. Retrieved 2012-04-16. {{cite web}}: Italic or bold markup not allowed in: |publisher= (help)CS1 maint: ref duplicates default (link)

Hammarlund, Ola (2007-08-08). "Urhunden: Satir och iransk kvinnoskildring får seriepris" (in Swedish). Urhunden. Retrieved 2012-04-27.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: ref duplicates default (link)

Harvey Awards staff (1992). "1992 Harvey Award Winners". Harvey Awards. Retrieved 2012-01-31.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: ref duplicates default (link)

Johnston, Ian (2001-12-28). "On Spiegelman's Maus I and II". Vancouver Island University. Retrieved 2012-02-29.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: ref duplicates default (link)

Morman, Todd (2003-01-29). "High Art, Hit Movies and Manifestos". IndyWeek.com. Retrieved 2012-06-07. {{cite web}}: External link in |publisher= (help)CS1 maint: ref duplicates default (link)

Mozzocco, J. Caleb (2011-12-01). "Balloonless | Art Spiegelman and Hillary Chute's MetaMaus". Comic Book Resources. Retrieved 2012-05-18.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: ref duplicates default (link)

National Book Critics Circle staff (2012). "All Past National Book Critics Circle Award Winners and Finalists". National Book Critics Circle. Retrieved 2012-01-31.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: ref duplicates default (link)

Obst, Peter. "A Commentary on Maus by Art Spiegelman". American Council for Polish Culture. Retrieved 2012-05-16.

Pulitzer Prize staff (2012). "Special Awards and Citations". Pulitzer Prizes. Retrieved 2012-01-31.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: ref duplicates default (link)

Silver, Alexandra (2011-08-30). "All-TIME 100 Nonfiction Books: Maus". Time. Retrieved 2012-04-16. {{cite web}}: Italic or bold markup not allowed in: |publisher= (help)CS1 maint: ref duplicates default (link)

Spurgeon, Tom (2012-07-14). "The Comics Reporter". The Comics Reporter. Retrieved 2012-07-15. {{cite web}}: Italic or bold markup not allowed in: |publisher= (help)CS1 maint: ref duplicates default (link)

Tout en BD staff (1993). "Le festival BD: Le palmarès 1993" (in French). Tout en BD. Retrieved 2012-01-31. {{cite web}}: External link in |publisher= (help); Invalid |ref=harv (help)

Tout en BD staff (1998). "Le festival BD: Le palmarès 1988" (in French). Tout en BD. Retrieved 2012-01-31. {{cite web}}: External link in |publisher= (help); Invalid |ref=harv (help)

Tzadka, Saul (2012-02-02). "Maus: Revisited". Alondon. Retrieved 2012-05-18. {{cite web}}: External link in |publisher= (help)CS1 maint: ref duplicates default (link)

Further reading

• Ewert, Jeanne (2004). "Art Spiegelman's Maus and the Graphic Narrative". In Ryan, Marie-Laure (ed.). Narrative Across Media: The Languages of Storytelling. University of Nebraska Press. pp. 180–193. ISBN 978-0-8032-8993-2.
• Geis, Deborah R., ed. (2007). Considering Maus: Approaches to Art Spiegelman's "Survivor's tale" of the Holocaust. University of Alabama Press. ISBN 978-0-8173-5435-0.
• Kannenberg, Eugene P. (2002). Form, Function, Fiction: Text and Image in the Comics Narratives of Winsor McCay, Art Spiegelman, and Chris Ware. University of Connecticut. ISBN 978-0-493-69522-8.
• Miller, Frieda (1998). Maus: A Memoir of the Holocaust : Teacher's Guide (PDF). Vancouver Holocaust Education Centre. ISBN 978-1-895754-29-2.

External links

• (video) Art Spiegelman and the Making of Maus
• Teacher's guide at Random House
• Questions and Resources for Art Spiegelman's Maus college study guide with archived articles
• Art Spiegelman's MAUS: Working Through the Trauma of the Holocaust. In Responses to the Holocaust, University of Virginia
• "Teaching Resources for Art Spiegelman's Maus: A Survivor's Tale". Buckslib.org. 2004-07-11. Retrieved 2012-01-30.
• Spiegelman, Art (1997). "Getting in Touch with My Inner Racist". Mother Jones: 51–52. {{cite journal}}: |access-date= requires |url= (help); Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)