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Transcendental Meditation (TM) refers to a specific form of mantra meditation called the Transcendental Meditation technique,^[1]^[2] and can also refer to the organizations within the Transcendental Meditation movement and to the movement itself.^[2]^[3] The TM technique and TM movement were introduced in India in the mid-1950s by Maharishi Mahesh Yogi (1918–2008).

The Maharishi taught thousands of people during a series of world tours from 1958 to 1965, expressing his teachings in spiritual and religious terms.^[4]^[5] TM became more popular in the 1960s and 1970s, as the Maharishi shifted to a more scientific presentation and his meditation technique was practiced by celebrities. At this time, he began training TM teachers and created specialized organizations to present TM to specific segments of the population such as business people and students. By the late 2000s, TM had been taught to millions of people, and the worldwide TM organization had grown to include educational programs, health products, and related services.

The TM technique involves the use of a sound or mantra and is practiced for 15–20 minutes twice per day. It is taught by certified teachers through a standard course of instruction, which costs a fee that varies by country. According to the Transcendental Meditation movement, it is a method for relaxation, stress reduction and self-development. The technique has been described as both religious and as non-religious by sociologists, scholars, and a New Jersey court case.^[5]^[6]^[7] Governmental agencies have both criticized and supported the Transcendental Meditation program depending on the time period and country.

TM is one of the most widely practiced, and among the most widely researched meditation techniques.^[8]^[9]^[10]

History

File:GuruDevtint.jpg

Brahmananda Saraswati

The Transcendental Meditation (TM) program and the Transcendental Meditation movement originated with Maharishi Mahesh Yogi, founder of the organization, and continued beyond his death (2008). In 1955,^[11]^[12]^[13] the Maharishi began publicly teaching a traditional meditation technique^[14] learned from his master Brahmananda Saraswati that he called Transcendental Deep Meditation^[15] and later renamed Transcendental Meditation.^[16] The Maharishi initiated thousands of people, then developed a TM teacher training program as a way to accelerate the rate of bringing the technique to more people.^[16]^[17] He also inaugurated a series of world tours which promoted Transcendental Meditation.^[18] These factors, coupled with endorsements by celebrities who practiced TM and scientific research that validated the technique, helped to popularize TM in the 1960s and 1970s. By the late 2000s, TM had been taught to millions of individuals and the Maharishi was overseeing a large multinational movement.^[19] Despite organizational changes and the addition of advanced meditative techniques in the 1970s,^[20] the Transcendental Meditation technique has remained relatively unchanged.

Among the first organizations to promote TM were the Spiritual Regeneration Movement and the International Meditation Society. In modern times, the movement has grown to encompass schools and universities that teach the practice,^[21] and includes many associated programs based on the Maharishi's interpretation of the Vedic traditions. In the U.S., major organizations included the Students International Meditation Society,^[22] AFSCI,^[23] World Plan Executive Council, Maharishi Vedic Education Development Corporation, and Global Country of World Peace. The successor to Maharishi Mahesh Yogi, and head of the Global Country of World Peace, is Tony Nader.^[24]

Technique

The Transcendental Meditation technique is a specific form of mantra meditation^[25] developed by Maharishi Mahesh Yogi. It is often referred to as Transcendental Meditation or simply TM. The meditation practice involves the use of a mantra and is practiced for 15–20 minutes twice per day while sitting with one's eyes closed.^[26]^[27] It is reported to be one of the most widely practiced,^[28]^[29]^[30] and among the most widely researched, meditation techniques,^[31] with over 340 peer-reviewed studies published.^[32]^[33] The technique is made available worldwide by certified TM teachers in a seven-step course,^[34] and fees vary from country to country.^[35]^[36] Beginning in 1965, the Transcendental Meditation technique has been incorporated into selected schools, universities, corporations, and prison programs in the U.S.A., Latin America, Europe, and India. In 1977 a U.S. district court ruled that a curriculum in TM and the Science of Creative Intelligence (SCI) being taught in some New Jersey schools was religious in nature and in violation of the First Amendment.^[7] The technique has since been included in a number of educational and social programs around the world.^[37]

The Transcendental Meditation technique has been described as both religious and non religious, as an aspect of a new religious movement, as rooted in Hinduism,^[38]^[39] and as a non-religious practice for self-development.^[40]^[41]^[42] The public presentation of the TM technique over its 50-year history has been praised for its high visibility in the mass media and effective global propagation, and criticized for using celebrity and scientific endorsements as a marketing tool. Advanced courses supplement the TM technique and include an advanced meditation called the TM-Sidhi program. In 1970, the Science of Creative Intelligence became the theoretical basis for the Transcendental Meditation technique, although skeptics questioned its scientific nature.^[43] Proponents have postulated that 1 percent of a population (such as a city or country) practicing the TM technique daily, may have an impact on the quality of life for that population group. This has been termed the Maharishi Effect.

Movement

The Transcendental Meditation movement refers to the programs and organizations connected with the Transcendental Meditation technique and founded by Maharishi Mahesh Yogi. Transcendental Meditation was first taught in the 1950s in India and has continued since the Maharishi's death in 2008. The organization was estimated to have 900,000 participants worldwide in 1977,^[44] a million by the 1980s,^[45]^[46]^[47] and 5 million in more recent years,^[48]^[49]^[50]^[51]^[52]^[53]^[54] including many notable practitioners.

Programs include the Transcendental Meditation technique, an advanced meditation practice called the TM-Sidhi program ("Yogic Flying"), an alternative health care program called Maharishi Ayurveda,^[55] and a system of building and architecture called Maharishi Sthapatya Ved.^[56]^[57] The TM movement's past and present media endeavors include a publishing company (MUM Press), a television station (KSCI), a radio station (KHOE), and a satellite television channel (Maharishi Channel). During its 50-year history, its products and services have been offered through a variety of organizations, which are primarily nonprofit and educational. These include the Spiritual Regeneration Movement, the International Mediation Society, World Plan Executive Council, Maharishi Vedic Education Development Corporation, the Global Country of World Peace, and the David Lynch Foundation.

The TM movement also operates a worldwide network of Transcendental Mediation teaching centers, schools, universities, health centers, and herbal supplement, solar panel, and home financing companies, plus several TM-centered communities. The global organization is reported to have an estimated net worth of USD 3.5 billion.^[58]^[59] The TM movement has been characterized in a variety of ways and has been called a spiritual movement, a new religious movement,^[60]^[61] a millenarian movement, a world affirming movement,^[62] a new social movement,^[63] a guru-centered movement,^[64] a religion, and a cult.^[61]^[65]^[66] ^{[need quotation to verify]} Additional sources contend that TM and its movement are not a cult.^[67]^[68]^[69]^[70] Participation in TM programs does not require a belief system and is practiced by people from a diverse group of religious affiliations including atheists and agnostics.^[71]^[72]^[73]^[74] The organization has also been criticized as well as praised for its public presentation and marketing techniques throughout its 50-year history.

Research

A comparison of the effect of various meditation techniques on systolic blood pressure, though according to the source, it wasn't possible to make strong inferences on which is the best intervention due to a lack of statistical power.^[75]

Independent systematic reviews have not found health benefits for TM beyond relaxation and health education.^[76]^[77]^[78] It is difficult to determine definitive effects of meditation practices in healthcare, as the quality of research has design limitations and a lack of methodological rigor.^[76]^[79]^[80] Part of this difficulty is because studies have the potential for bias due to the connection of researchers to the TM organization, and enrollment of subjects with a favorable opinion of TM.^[81]^[82]^[83]

There has been ongoing research on Transcendental Meditation since the first studies were conducted at the UCLA and Harvard University were published in Science and the American Journal of Physiology in 1970 and 1971.^[84] The research has included studies on physiological changes during meditation, clinical applications, cognitive effects, mental health, addiction, and rehabilitation. Beginning in the 1990s, a focus of research has been the effects of Transcendental Meditation on cardiovascular disease, with over $20 million in funding from the National Institutes of Health.^[85]

References

^ "The Transcendental Meditation Program". Maharishi Foundation. Retrieved 17 January 2013.
^ ^a ^b "Transcendental Meditation". Britannica Online Encyclopedia. Cite error: The named reference "Britannica online/TM" was defined multiple times with different content (see the help page).
^ Dalton, Rex (July 8, 1993). "Sharp HealthCare announces an unorthodox, holistic institute". The San Diego Union – Tribune. p. B.4.5.1. TM is a movement led by Maharishi Mehesh Yogi, ...
^ Dawson, Lorne (2003). Cults and New Religious Movements. Hoboken, New Jersey: Blackwell Publishing. p. 54.
^ ^a ^b Cowan,, Douglas E.,; Bromley, David G. (2007). Cults and New Religions: A Brief History (Blackwell Brief Histories of Religion). Wiley-Blackwell. pp. 48–71. ISBN 1-4051-6128-0.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: extra punctuation (link) CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
^ Calo, Zachary (2008). "Chapter 4: The Internationalization of Church-State Issues". In Duncan, Ann; Jones, Steven (eds.). Church-State Issues in America Today. Westport, Connecticut: Praeger. p. 159. ISBN 978-0-275-99368-9.
^ ^a ^b Ashman, Allan (1978). "What's New in the Law". American Bar Association Journal. 64: 144. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help) Cite error: The named reference "American Bar Association 1978 144" was defined multiple times with different content (see the help page).
^ Murphy, M; Donovan, S; Taylor, E (1997). The Physical and Psychological Effects of Meditation: A review of Contemporary Research with a Comprehensive Bibliography 1931–1996. Sausalito, California: Institute of Noetic Sciences.
^ Benson, Herbert; Klipper, Miriam Z. (2001). The Relaxation Response. New York, NY: Quill. p. 61. ISBN 978-0-380-81595-1.
^ Sinatra, Stephen T.; Roberts, James C.; Zucker, Martin (December 20, 2007). Reverse Heart Disease Now: Stop Deadly Cardiovascular Plaque Before It's Too Late. Wiley. p. 192. ISBN 978-0-470-22878-4.
^ AP (February 5, 2008). "Beatles guru dies in Netherlands". USA Today.
^ Epstein, Edward (December 29, 1995). "Politics and Transcendental Meditation". San Francisco Chronicle.
^ Morris, Bevan (1992). "Maharishi's Vedic Science and Technology: The Only Means to Create World Peace" (PDF). Journal of Modern Science and Vedic Science. 5 (1–2): 200.
^ Rooney, Ben (February 6, 2008). "Maharishi Mahesh Yogi, guru to Beatles, dies". The Telegraph. London.
^ Williamson, Lola (2010). Transcendent in America: Hindu-Inspired Meditation Movements as New Religion. New York: NYU Press. pp. 97–99. ISBN 0-8147-9450-5, 9780814794500. {{cite book}}: Check |isbn= value: invalid character (help)
^ ^a ^b Russell, Peter (1977). The TM Technique: An Introduction to Transcendental Meditation and the Teachings of Maharishi Mahesh Yogi. London: Routledge. pp. 25–26. ISBN 978-0-7100-8539-9.
^ Maharishi Mahesh Yogi (1986). Thirty Years Around the World, Volume One, 1957–1964. MVU Press. p. 302. ISBN 90-71750-02-7.^{[need quotation to verify]}
^ Olson, Helena; Olson, Roland (2001). His Holiness Maharishi Mahesh Yogi: A Living Saint for the New Millennium: Stories of His First Visit to the USA. College Park, Maryland: Samhita Productions. p. 297. ISBN 978-1-929297-21-4.
^ "Maharishi Mahesh Yogi". The Times (London). February 7, 2008. p. 62.
^ Oates, Robert M. (1976). Celebrating the Dawn: Maharishi Mahesh Yogi and the TM technique. New York: G.P. Putnam's Sons. p. 226. ISBN 978-0-399-11815-9.
^ Irwin, T. K. (October 8, 1972). "What's New in Science: Transcendental Meditation: Medical Miracle or 'Another Kooky Fad'". Sarasota Herald Tribune Family Weekly. pp. 8–9.
^ Chryssides, George D. (1999). Exploring New Religions. London: Cassell. pp. 293–296. ISBN 978-0-8264-5959-6.
^ "Behavior: The TM Craze: 40 Minutes to Bliss". Time. October 13, 1975. ISSN 0040-718X. Retrieved November 15, 2009. {{cite news}}: Check |issn= value (help)
^ Mizroch, Amir (July 23, 2006). "Forget the F-16s, Israel needs more Yogic Flyers to beat Hizbullah: 30-strong TM group, sole guests at Nof Ginnosar Hotel, say they need another 235 colleagues to make the country safe". Jerusalem Post. p. 4.
^ "Transcendental Meditation". Oxford English Dictionary.
^ "The Transcendental Meditation Program". Tm.org. Retrieved February 17, 2013.
^ Lansky, Ephraim; St Louis, Erik (2006). "Transcendental meditation: a double-edged sword in epilepsy?". Epilepsy & Behavior. 9 (3): 394–400. doi:10.1016/j.yebeh.2006.04.019. PMID 16931164. {{cite journal}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help); Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
^ Cotton, Dorothy H. G. (1990). Stress management: An integrated approach to therapy. New York: Brunner/Mazel. p. 138. ISBN 0-87630-557-5.
^ Schneider, Robert; Fields, Jeremy (2006). Total Heart Health: How to Prevent and Reverse Heart Disease with the Maharishi Vedic Approach to Health. Laguna Beach, CA: Basic Health Publications. pp. 148–149.
^ "The Transcendental Meditation Program". TM.org. Retrieved February 13, 2013.
^ Bushell, William (2009). "Longevity Potential Life Span and Health Span Enhancement through Practice of the Basic Yoga Meditation Regimen". Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences. 1172: 46. Transcendental Meditation (TM), a concentrative technique ... has been the most extensively studied meditation technique.
^ Rosenthal, Norman (2011). Transcendence: Healing and Transformation through Transcendental Meditation. New York: Tarcher/Penguin. p. 14. ISBN 978-1-58542-873-1. By my latest count, there have been 340 per-reviewed articles published on TM, many of which have appeared in highly respected journals.
^ Freeman, Lyn (2008). Mosby's Complementary & Alternative Medicine: A Research-Based Approach. St Louis: Mosby Elsevier. p. 163. ISBN ISBN 978-0-323-05346-4|ISBN 0-323-05346-7 | ISBN 978-0-323-05346-4. {{cite book}}: Check |isbn= value: invalid character (help); Text "Edition: 3" ignored (help)
^ "How To Learn". Tm.org. Retrieved February 17, 2013.
^ "TM Course Fee". TM.org. Retrieved May 30, 2012.
^ "Transcendental Meditation Fees and Course Details". Transcendental Meditation: Official website for the UK. Retrieved January 31, 2013.
^ Humes, C.A. (2005). "Maharishi Mahesh Yogi: Beyond the T.M. Technique". In Forsthoefel, Thomas A.; Humes, Cynthia Ann (eds.). Gurus in America. SUNY Press. p. 69. ISBN 0-7914-6573-X. This lawsuit was the most significant setback for TM in the United States ... Since then TM has made a comeback of sorts with some governmental sponsorship
^ Bainbridge, William Sims (1997). The Sociology of Religious Movements. New York: Routledge. p. 188. ISBN 0-415-91202-4.
^ Aghiorgoussis, Maximos (Spring 1999). "The challenge of metaphysical experiences outside Orthodoxy and the Orthodox response". Greek Orthodox Theological Review. 44 (1–4). Brookline: 21, 34. {{cite journal}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)
^ Chryssides, George D. (2001). Exploring New Religions. Continuum International Publishing Group. pp. 301–303. ISBN 0-8264-5959-5, 9780826459596. {{cite book}}: Check |isbn= value: invalid character (help); Unknown parameter |dq= ignored (help)"Although one can identify the Maharishi's philosophical tradition, its teachings are in no way binding on TM practitioners. There is no public worship, no code of ethics, no scriptures to be studied, and no rites of passage that are observed, such as dietary laws, giving to the poor, or pilgrimages. In particular, there is no real TM community: practitioners do not characteristically meet together for public worship, but simply recite the mantra, as they have been taught it, not as religious obligation, but simply as a technique to benefit themselves, their surroundings and the wider world."
^ Partridge, Christopher (200). New Religions: A Guide To New Religious Movements, Sects and Alternative Spiritualities. New York: Oxford University Press. p. 184. It is understood in terms of the reduction of stress and the charging of one's mental and physical batteries.
^ Rosenthal, Norman E. (2011). Transcendence: Healing and Transformation Through Transcendental Meditation. Tarcher Penguin. p. 4. ISBN 978-1-58542-873-1.
^ Science of Creative Intelligence Reserve Collection "Science of Creative Intelligence Reserve Collection". SCI collection. Maharishi University of Management. Retrieved May 30, 2012. {{cite web}}: Check |url= value (help)
^ Stark, Rodney; Bainbridge, William, Sims (1986). The Future Of Religion. University of California Press,. p. 287. ISBN ISBN 0520057317 ISBN 978-0520057319. {{cite book}}: Check |isbn= value: invalid character (help)CS1 maint: extra punctuation (link) CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) "Time magazine in 1975 estimated that the U.S. total had risen to 600,000 augmented by half that number elsewhere" =[900,000 world wide] "Annual Growth in TM Initiations in the U.S. [chart] Cumulative total at the End of Each Year: 1977, 919,300"
^ Peterson, William (1982). Those Curious New Cults in the 80s. New Canaan, Connecticut: Keats Publishing. p. 123. ISBN 0879833173, 9780879833176. {{cite book}}: Check |isbn= value: invalid character (help) claims "more than a million" in the USA and Europe.
^ Occhiogrosso, Peter. The Joy of Sects: A Spirited Guide to the World's Religious Traditions. New York: Doubleday (1996); p 66, citing "close to a million" in the USA.
^ Bainbridge, William Sims (1997) Routledge, The Sociology of Religious Movements, page 189 "the million people [Americans] who had been initiated"
^ Analysis: Practice of requiring probationers to take lessons in transcendental meditation sparks religious controversy, NPR All Things Considered, February 1, 2002 | ROBERT SIEGEL “TM's five million adherents claim that it eliminates chronic health problems and reduces stress.”
^ Martin Hodgson, The Guardian (5 February 2008) "He [Maharishi] transformed his interpretations of ancient scripture into a multimillion-dollar global empire with more than 5m followers worldwide”
^ Stephanie van den Berg, Sydney Morning Herald, Beatles guru Maharishi Mahesh Yogi dies, (February 7, 2008) “the TM movement, which has some five million followers worldwide”
^ Meditation a magic bullet for high blood pressure – study, Sunday Tribune (South Africa), (January 27, 2008) “More than five million people have learned the technique worldwide, including 60,000 in South Africa."
^ Maharishi Mahesh Yogi - Transcendental Meditation founder's grand plan for peace, The Columbian (Vancouver, WA), February 19, 2006 | ARTHUR MAX Associated Press writer "transcendental meditation, a movement that claims 6 million practitioners since it was introduced."
^ Bickerton, Ian (February 8, 2003). "Bank makes an issue of mystic's mint". Financial Times. London (UK). p. 09. the movement claims to have five million followers,
^ Maharishi Mahesh Yogi, Spiritual Leader Dies, New York Times, By LILY KOPPEL, Published: February 6, 2008 "Since the technique’s inception in 1955, the organization says, it has been used to train more than 40,000 teachers, taught more than five million people"
^ Sharma & Clark 1998, Preface
^ Welvaert, Brandy, Vedic homes seek better living through architecture", Rock Island Argus, (August 5, 2005)
^ Spivack, Miranda (September 12, 2008). "Bricks Mortar and Serenity". Washington Post.
^ "Maharishi Mahesh Yogi". The Times. London (UK). February 7, 2008.
^ "Maharishi Mahesh Yogi". Britannica Concise Encyclopedia.
^ For new religious movement see:
Beckford, James A. (1985). Cult controversies: the societal response to new religious movements. Tavistock Publications. p. 23. ISBN 978-0-422-79630-9.
Parsons, Gerald (1994). The Growth of Religious Diversity: Traditions. The Open University/Methuen. p. 288. ISBN 978-0-415-08326-3.
For neo-Hindu, see:
Alper, Harvey P. (December 1991). Understanding mantras. Motilal Banarsidass Publ. p. 442. ISBN 978-81-208-0746-4.
Raj, Selva J.; William P. Harman (2007). Dealing With Deities: The Ritual Vow in South Asia. SUNY Press. p. 129. ISBN 978-0-7914-6708-4.
^ ^a ^b Persinger, Michael A.; Carrey, Normand J.; Suess, Lynn A. (1980). TM and cult mania. North Quincy, Mass.: Christopher Pub. House. ISBN 0-8158-0392-3.
^ Dawson, Lorne L. (2003) Blackwell Publishing, Cults and New Religious Movements, Chapter 3: Three Types of New Religious Movement by Roy Wallis (1984), page 44-48
^ Christian Blatter, Donald McCown, Diane Reibel, Marc S. Micozzi, (2010) Springer Science+Business Media, Teaching Mindfulness, Page 47
^ Olson, Carl (2007) Rutgers University Press, The Many Colors of Hinduism, page 345
^ Bainbridge, Sims; Stark, Rodney; Bainbridge, William Sims (1985). The future of religion: secularization, revival, and cult formation. Berkeley, Calif: Univ. of California Press. ISBN 0-520-05731-7.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
^ Sagan, Carl (1997). The demon-haunted world: science as a candle in the dark. [New York: Ballantine Books. p. 16. ISBN 0-345-40946-9.
^ Harrison, Shirley (1990). Cults: The Battle for God. Kent: Christopher Helm. pp. 93–103 "none of the other 'cultic qualities' defined by cult watchers can be fairly attributed to TM."
^ Rowson, Jonathan (April 23, 2007) Meditation: for old hippies or a better way of life? Sunday Herald (Scotland) " the TM movement is not a cult", accessed Feb 2, 2013
^ Hannaford, Alex (December 27, 2010). "Mantra with a mission; Feature Om or ominous? The maverick film director David Lynch wants to bring Transcendental Meditation to our classrooms, and believes in 'yogic flying'. Can he get it off the ground?". The Sunday Times (London).
^ Lyster, Samantha (October 21, 2000) Samantha Lyster finds herself in holistic heaven with new-found happiness and tranquillity after learning the art of transcendental meditation, The Birmingham Post (England), “TM is not a religion, a cult or a philosophy”
^ ["the TM technique does not require adherence to any belief system—there is no dogma or philosophy attached to it, and it does not demand any lifestyle changes other than the practice of it."] [1]
^ "Its proponents say it is not a religion or a philosophy."The Guardian March 28, 2009 [2]
^ "It's used in prisons, large corporations and schools, and it is not considered a religion.” [3] Concord Monitor
^ Chryssides George D. Defining the New Spirituality http://www.cesnur.org/conferences/riga2000/chryssides.htm One possible suggestion is that religion demands exclusive allegiance: this would ipso facto exclude Scientology, TM and the Soka Gakkai simply on the grounds that they claim compatibility with whatever other religion the practitioner has been following. For example, TM is simply – as they state – a technique. Although it enables one to cope with life, it offers no goal beyond human existence (such as moksha), nor does it offer rites or passage or an ethic. Unlike certain other Hindu-derived movements, TM does not prescribe a dharma to its followers – that is to say a set of spiritual obligations deriving from one’s essential nature.
^ Ospina p. 128, 130
^ ^a ^b Krisanaprakornkit, T.; Krisanaprakornkit, W.; Piyavhatkul, N.; Laopaiboon, M. (2006). Krisanaprakornkit, Thawatchai (ed.). "Meditation therapy for anxiety disorders". Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews (1): CD004998. doi:10.1002/14651858.CD004998.pub2. PMID 16437509. The small number of studies included in this review do not permit any conclusions to be drawn on the effectiveness of meditation therapy for anxiety disorders. Transcendental meditation is comparable with other kinds of relaxation therapies in reducing anxiety
^ Ospina, MB.; Bond, K.; Karkhaneh, M.; Tjosvold, L.; Vandermeer, B.; Liang, Y.; Bialy, L.; Hooton, N.; Buscemi, N. (2007). "Meditation practices for health: state of the research" (PDF). Evid Rep Technol Assess (Full Rep) (155): 4. PMID 17764203. A few studies of overall poor methodological quality were available for each comparison in the meta-analyses, most of which reported nonsignificant results. TM had no advantage over health education to improve measures of systolic blood pressure and diastolic blood pressure, body weight, heart rate, stress, anger, self-efficacy, cholesterol, dietary intake, and level of physical activity in hypertensive patients {{cite journal}}: More than one of |pages= and |page= specified (help); Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
^ Krisanaprakornkit, T.; Ngamjarus, C.; Witoonchart, C.; Piyavhatkul, N. (2010). Krisanaprakornkit, Thawatchai (ed.). "Meditation therapies for attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD)". Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 6 (6): CD006507. doi:10.1002/14651858.CD006507.pub2. PMID 20556767. As a result of the limited number of included studies, the small sample sizes and the high risk of bias, we are unable to draw any conclusions regarding the effectiveness of meditation therapy for ADHD.
^ Ospina MB, Bond K, Karkhaneh M; et al. (2007). "Meditation practices for health: state of the research". Evid Rep Technol Assess (Full Rep) (155): 1–263. PMID 17764203. Scientific research on meditation practices does not appear to have a common theoretical perspective and is characterized by poor methodological quality. Firm conclusions on the effects of meditation practices in healthcare cannot be drawn based on the available evidence. {{cite journal}}: Explicit use of et al. in: |author= (help); Invalid |ref=harv (help); Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
^ Krisanaprakornkit T, Ngamjarus C, Witoonchart C, Piyavhatkul N (2010). Krisanaprakornkit, Thawatchai (ed.). "Meditation therapies for attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD)". Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 6 (6): CD006507. doi:10.1002/14651858.CD006507.pub2. PMID 20556767. As a result of the limited number of included studies, the small sample sizes and the high risk of bias{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
^ Canter PH, Ernst E (2004). "Insufficient evidence to conclude whether or not Transcendental Meditation decreases blood pressure: results of a systematic review of randomized clinical trials". Journal of Hypertension. 22 (11): 2049–54. doi:10.1097/00004872-200411000-00002. PMID 15480084. All the randomized clinical trials of TM for the control of blood pressure published to date have important methodological weaknesses and are potentially biased by the affiliation of authors to the TM organization. {{cite journal}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help); Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
^ Edzard Ernst, Chapter 51 in Braunwald's Heart Disease: A Textbook of Cardiovascular Medicine, Peter Libby, et al, eds, Saunders Elsevier, 2011. ISBN 978-1437727081 Quotation: "A systematic review of six RCTs of transcendental meditation failed to generate convincing evidence that meditation is an effective treatment for hypertension.15 “ (references the same 2004 systematic review by Canter and Ernst on TM and hypertension that is separately referenced in this article)
^ Canter PH, Ernst E (2003). "The cumulative effects of Transcendental Meditation on cognitive function--a systematic review of randomised controlled trials". Wien. Klin. Wochenschr. 115 (21–22): 758–66. doi:10.1007/BF03040500. PMID 14743579. All 4 positive trials recruited subjects from among people favourably predisposed towards TM, and used passive control procedures … The association observed between positive outcome, subject selection procedure and control procedure suggests that the large positive effects reported in 4 trials result from an expectation effect. The claim that TM has a specific and cumulative effect on cognitive function is not supported by the evidence from randomized controlled trials. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
^ Lyn Freeman, Mosby’s Complementary & Alternative Medicine: A Research-Based Approach, Mosby Elsevier, 2009, p. 163
^ QUICK, SUSANNE (October 17, 2004). "Delving into alternative care: Non-traditional treatments draw increased interest, research funding". Journal Sentinel. Milwaukee, WI. Archived from the original on September 29, 2007.

External links

Official TM site

[TM.org-1] "The Transcendental Meditation Program". Maharishi Foundation. Retrieved 17 January 2013.

[Britannica_online/TM-2] "Transcendental Meditation". Britannica Online Encyclopedia. Cite error: The named reference "Britannica online/TM" was defined multiple times with different content (see the help page).

[3] Dalton, Rex (July 8, 1993). "Sharp HealthCare announces an unorthodox, holistic institute". The San Diego Union – Tribune. p. B.4.5.1. TM is a movement led by Maharishi Mehesh Yogi, ...

[4] Dawson, Lorne (2003). Cults and New Religious Movements. Hoboken, New Jersey: Blackwell Publishing. p. 54.

[Bromley-5] Cowan,, Douglas E.,; Bromley, David G. (2007). Cults and New Religions: A Brief History (Blackwell Brief Histories of Religion). Wiley-Blackwell. pp. 48–71. ISBN 1-4051-6128-0.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: extra punctuation (link) CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)

[Praeger-6] Calo, Zachary (2008). "Chapter 4: The Internationalization of Church-State Issues". In Duncan, Ann; Jones, Steven (eds.). Church-State Issues in America Today. Westport, Connecticut: Praeger. p. 159. ISBN 978-0-275-99368-9.

[American_Bar_Association_1978_144-7] Ashman, Allan (1978). "What's New in the Law". American Bar Association Journal. 64: 144. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help) Cite error: The named reference "American Bar Association 1978 144" was defined multiple times with different content (see the help page).

[8] Murphy, M; Donovan, S; Taylor, E (1997). The Physical and Psychological Effects of Meditation: A review of Contemporary Research with a Comprehensive Bibliography 1931–1996. Sausalito, California: Institute of Noetic Sciences.

[The_Relaxation_Response-9] Benson, Herbert; Klipper, Miriam Z. (2001). The Relaxation Response. New York, NY: Quill. p. 61. ISBN 978-0-380-81595-1.

[10] Sinatra, Stephen T.; Roberts, James C.; Zucker, Martin (December 20, 2007). Reverse Heart Disease Now: Stop Deadly Cardiovascular Plaque Before It's Too Late. Wiley. p. 192. ISBN 978-0-470-22878-4.

[11] AP (February 5, 2008). "Beatles guru dies in Netherlands". USA Today.

[12] Epstein, Edward (December 29, 1995). "Politics and Transcendental Meditation". San Francisco Chronicle.

[13] Morris, Bevan (1992). "Maharishi's Vedic Science and Technology: The Only Means to Create World Peace" (PDF). Journal of Modern Science and Vedic Science. 5 (1–2): 200.

[14] Rooney, Ben (February 6, 2008). "Maharishi Mahesh Yogi, guru to Beatles, dies". The Telegraph. London.

[Williamson_2010-15] Williamson, Lola (2010). Transcendent in America: Hindu-Inspired Meditation Movements as New Religion. New York: NYU Press. pp. 97–99. ISBN 0-8147-9450-5, 9780814794500. {{cite book}}: Check |isbn= value: invalid character (help)

[Russell-16] Russell, Peter (1977). The TM Technique: An Introduction to Transcendental Meditation and the Teachings of Maharishi Mahesh Yogi. London: Routledge. pp. 25–26. ISBN 978-0-7100-8539-9.

[World1-17] Maharishi Mahesh Yogi (1986). Thirty Years Around the World, Volume One, 1957–1964. MVU Press. p. 302. ISBN 90-71750-02-7.^{[need quotation to verify]}

[18] Olson, Helena; Olson, Roland (2001). His Holiness Maharishi Mahesh Yogi: A Living Saint for the New Millennium: Stories of His First Visit to the USA. College Park, Maryland: Samhita Productions. p. 297. ISBN 978-1-929297-21-4.

[19] "Maharishi Mahesh Yogi". The Times (London). February 7, 2008. p. 62.

[20] Oates, Robert M. (1976). Celebrating the Dawn: Maharishi Mahesh Yogi and the TM technique. New York: G.P. Putnam's Sons. p. 226. ISBN 978-0-399-11815-9.

[21] Irwin, T. K. (October 8, 1972). "What's New in Science: Transcendental Meditation: Medical Miracle or 'Another Kooky Fad'". Sarasota Herald Tribune Family Weekly. pp. 8–9.

[Chryssides-22] Chryssides, George D. (1999). Exploring New Religions. London: Cassell. pp. 293–296. ISBN 978-0-8264-5959-6.

[Craze-23] "Behavior: The TM Craze: 40 Minutes to Bliss". Time. October 13, 1975. ISSN 0040-718X. Retrieved November 15, 2009. {{cite news}}: Check |issn= value (help)

[24] Mizroch, Amir (July 23, 2006). "Forget the F-16s, Israel needs more Yogic Flyers to beat Hizbullah: 30-strong TM group, sole guests at Nof Ginnosar Hotel, say they need another 235 colleagues to make the country safe". Jerusalem Post. p. 4.

[Transcendental_Meditation-25] "Transcendental Meditation". Oxford English Dictionary.

[26] "The Transcendental Meditation Program". Tm.org. Retrieved February 17, 2013.

[Epi06-27] Lansky, Ephraim; St Louis, Erik (2006). "Transcendental meditation: a double-edged sword in epilepsy?". Epilepsy & Behavior. 9 (3): 394–400. doi:10.1016/j.yebeh.2006.04.019. PMID 16931164. {{cite journal}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help); Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)

[google138-28] Cotton, Dorothy H. G. (1990). Stress management: An integrated approach to therapy. New York: Brunner/Mazel. p. 138. ISBN 0-87630-557-5.

[Total_Heart_Health-29] Schneider, Robert; Fields, Jeremy (2006). Total Heart Health: How to Prevent and Reverse Heart Disease with the Maharishi Vedic Approach to Health. Laguna Beach, CA: Basic Health Publications. pp. 148–149.

[30] "The Transcendental Meditation Program". TM.org. Retrieved February 13, 2013.

[Bushell-31] Bushell, William (2009). "Longevity Potential Life Span and Health Span Enhancement through Practice of the Basic Yoga Meditation Regimen". Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences. 1172: 46. Transcendental Meditation (TM), a concentrative technique ... has been the most extensively studied meditation technique.

[Rosenthal_2011_14-32] Rosenthal, Norman (2011). Transcendence: Healing and Transformation through Transcendental Meditation. New York: Tarcher/Penguin. p. 14. ISBN 978-1-58542-873-1. By my latest count, there have been 340 per-reviewed articles published on TM, many of which have appeared in highly respected journals.

[Lyn_Freeman-33] Freeman, Lyn (2008). Mosby's Complementary & Alternative Medicine: A Research-Based Approach. St Louis: Mosby Elsevier. p. 163. ISBN ISBN 978-0-323-05346-4|ISBN 0-323-05346-7 | ISBN 978-0-323-05346-4. {{cite book}}: Check |isbn= value: invalid character (help); Text "Edition: 3" ignored (help)

[34] "How To Learn". Tm.org. Retrieved February 17, 2013.

[35] "TM Course Fee". TM.org. Retrieved May 30, 2012.

[36] "Transcendental Meditation Fees and Course Details". Transcendental Meditation: Official website for the UK. Retrieved January 31, 2013.

[Humes_page_69-37] Humes, C.A. (2005). "Maharishi Mahesh Yogi: Beyond the T.M. Technique". In Forsthoefel, Thomas A.; Humes, Cynthia Ann (eds.). Gurus in America. SUNY Press. p. 69. ISBN 0-7914-6573-X. This lawsuit was the most significant setback for TM in the United States ... Since then TM has made a comeback of sorts with some governmental sponsorship

[Bainbridge-38] Bainbridge, William Sims (1997). The Sociology of Religious Movements. New York: Routledge. p. 188. ISBN 0-415-91202-4.

[Aghiorgoussis_21,_34-39] Aghiorgoussis, Maximos (Spring 1999). "The challenge of metaphysical experiences outside Orthodoxy and the Orthodox response". Greek Orthodox Theological Review. 44 (1–4). Brookline: 21, 34. {{cite journal}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)

[Chryssides_2001_301–303-40] Chryssides, George D. (2001). Exploring New Religions. Continuum International Publishing Group. pp. 301–303. ISBN 0-8264-5959-5, 9780826459596. {{cite book}}: Check |isbn= value: invalid character (help); Unknown parameter |dq= ignored (help)"Although one can identify the Maharishi's philosophical tradition, its teachings are in no way binding on TM practitioners. There is no public worship, no code of ethics, no scriptures to be studied, and no rites of passage that are observed, such as dietary laws, giving to the poor, or pilgrimages. In particular, there is no real TM community: practitioners do not characteristically meet together for public worship, but simply recite the mantra, as they have been taught it, not as religious obligation, but simply as a technique to benefit themselves, their surroundings and the wider world."

[41] Partridge, Christopher (200). New Religions: A Guide To New Religious Movements, Sects and Alternative Spiritualities. New York: Oxford University Press. p. 184. It is understood in terms of the reduction of stress and the charging of one's mental and physical batteries.

[Rosenthal_2011_4-42] Rosenthal, Norman E. (2011). Transcendence: Healing and Transformation Through Transcendental Meditation. Tarcher Penguin. p. 4. ISBN 978-1-58542-873-1.

[SCI_reserve_collection-43] Science of Creative Intelligence Reserve Collection "Science of Creative Intelligence Reserve Collection". SCI collection. Maharishi University of Management. Retrieved May 30, 2012. {{cite web}}: Check |url= value (help)

[Stark_1986_page_287-44] Stark, Rodney; Bainbridge, William, Sims (1986). The Future Of Religion. University of California Press,. p. 287. ISBN ISBN 0520057317 ISBN 978-0520057319. {{cite book}}: Check |isbn= value: invalid character (help)CS1 maint: extra punctuation (link) CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) "Time magazine in 1975 estimated that the U.S. total had risen to 600,000 augmented by half that number elsewhere" =[900,000 world wide] "Annual Growth in TM Initiations in the U.S. [chart] Cumulative total at the End of Each Year: 1977, 919,300"

[Petersen,_William_J._1982_p_123-45] Peterson, William (1982). Those Curious New Cults in the 80s. New Canaan, Connecticut: Keats Publishing. p. 123. ISBN 0879833173, 9780879833176. {{cite book}}: Check |isbn= value: invalid character (help) claims "more than a million" in the USA and Europe.

[Occhiogrosso,_Peter_1996_p_66-46] Occhiogrosso, Peter. The Joy of Sects: A Spirited Guide to the World's Religious Traditions. New York: Doubleday (1996); p 66, citing "close to a million" in the USA.

[Bainbridge,_William_Sims_1997_page_189-47] Bainbridge, William Sims (1997) Routledge, The Sociology of Religious Movements, page 189 "the million people [Americans] who had been initiated"

[48] Analysis: Practice of requiring probationers to take lessons in transcendental meditation sparks religious controversy, NPR All Things Considered, February 1, 2002 | ROBERT SIEGEL “TM's five million adherents claim that it eliminates chronic health problems and reduces stress.”

[49] Martin Hodgson, The Guardian (5 February 2008) "He [Maharishi] transformed his interpretations of ancient scripture into a multimillion-dollar global empire with more than 5m followers worldwide”

[50] Stephanie van den Berg, Sydney Morning Herald, Beatles guru Maharishi Mahesh Yogi dies, (February 7, 2008) “the TM movement, which has some five million followers worldwide”

[51] Meditation a magic bullet for high blood pressure – study, Sunday Tribune (South Africa), (January 27, 2008) “More than five million people have learned the technique worldwide, including 60,000 in South Africa."

[ReferenceA-52] Maharishi Mahesh Yogi - Transcendental Meditation founder's grand plan for peace, The Columbian (Vancouver, WA), February 19, 2006 | ARTHUR MAX Associated Press writer "transcendental meditation, a movement that claims 6 million practitioners since it was introduced."

[53] Bickerton, Ian (February 8, 2003). "Bank makes an issue of mystic's mint". Financial Times. London (UK). p. 09. the movement claims to have five million followers,

[Maharishi_Mahesh_Yogi_1955-54] Maharishi Mahesh Yogi, Spiritual Leader Dies, New York Times, By LILY KOPPEL, Published: February 6, 2008 "Since the technique’s inception in 1955, the organization says, it has been used to train more than 40,000 teachers, taught more than five million people"

[55] Sharma & Clark 1998, Preface

[Argus-56] Welvaert, Brandy, Vedic homes seek better living through architecture", Rock Island Argus, (August 5, 2005)

[Spivack-57] Spivack, Miranda (September 12, 2008). "Bricks Mortar and Serenity". Washington Post.

[Times0882-58] "Maharishi Mahesh Yogi". The Times. London (UK). February 7, 2008.

[59] "Maharishi Mahesh Yogi". Britannica Concise Encyclopedia.

[60] For new religious movement see:
Beckford, James A. (1985). Cult controversies: the societal response to new religious movements. Tavistock Publications. p. 23. ISBN 978-0-422-79630-9.
Parsons, Gerald (1994). The Growth of Religious Diversity: Traditions. The Open University/Methuen. p. 288. ISBN 978-0-415-08326-3.
For neo-Hindu, see:
Alper, Harvey P. (December 1991). Understanding mantras. Motilal Banarsidass Publ. p. 442. ISBN 978-81-208-0746-4.
Raj, Selva J.; William P. Harman (2007). Dealing With Deities: The Ritual Vow in South Asia. SUNY Press. p. 129. ISBN 978-0-7914-6708-4.

[TM_and_cult_mania-61] Persinger, Michael A.; Carrey, Normand J.; Suess, Lynn A. (1980). TM and cult mania. North Quincy, Mass.: Christopher Pub. House. ISBN 0-8158-0392-3.

[Dawson-62] Dawson, Lorne L. (2003) Blackwell Publishing, Cults and New Religious Movements, Chapter 3: Three Types of New Religious Movement by Roy Wallis (1984), page 44-48

[Blatter-63] Christian Blatter, Donald McCown, Diane Reibel, Marc S. Micozzi, (2010) Springer Science+Business Media, Teaching Mindfulness, Page 47

[64] Olson, Carl (2007) Rutgers University Press, The Many Colors of Hinduism, page 345

[Market85-65] Bainbridge, Sims; Stark, Rodney; Bainbridge, William Sims (1985). The future of religion: secularization, revival, and cult formation. Berkeley, Calif: Univ. of California Press. ISBN 0-520-05731-7.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)

[66] Sagan, Carl (1997). The demon-haunted world: science as a candle in the dark. [New York: Ballantine Books. p. 16. ISBN 0-345-40946-9.

[Harrison-67] Harrison, Shirley (1990). Cults: The Battle for God. Kent: Christopher Helm. pp. 93–103 "none of the other 'cultic qualities' defined by cult watchers can be fairly attributed to TM."

[68] Rowson, Jonathan (April 23, 2007) Meditation: for old hippies or a better way of life? Sunday Herald (Scotland) " the TM movement is not a cult", accessed Feb 2, 2013

[69] Hannaford, Alex (December 27, 2010). "Mantra with a mission; Feature Om or ominous? The maverick film director David Lynch wants to bring Transcendental Meditation to our classrooms, and believes in 'yogic flying'. Can he get it off the ground?". The Sunday Times (London).

[70] Lyster, Samantha (October 21, 2000) Samantha Lyster finds herself in holistic heaven with new-found happiness and tranquillity after learning the art of transcendental meditation, The Birmingham Post (England), “TM is not a religion, a cult or a philosophy”

[71] ["the TM technique does not require adherence to any belief system—there is no dogma or philosophy attached to it, and it does not demand any lifestyle changes other than the practice of it."] [1]

[72] "Its proponents say it is not a religion or a philosophy."The Guardian March 28, 2009 [2]

[73] "It's used in prisons, large corporations and schools, and it is not considered a religion.” [3] Concord Monitor

[74] Chryssides George D. Defining the New Spirituality http://www.cesnur.org/conferences/riga2000/chryssides.htm One possible suggestion is that religion demands exclusive allegiance: this would ipso facto exclude Scientology, TM and the Soka Gakkai simply on the grounds that they claim compatibility with whatever other religion the practitioner has been following. For example, TM is simply – as they state – a technique. Although it enables one to cope with life, it offers no goal beyond human existence (such as moksha), nor does it offer rites or passage or an ethic. Unlike certain other Hindu-derived movements, TM does not prescribe a dharma to its followers – that is to say a set of spiritual obligations deriving from one’s essential nature.

[75] Ospina p. 128, 130

[Cochrane06-76] Krisanaprakornkit, T.; Krisanaprakornkit, W.; Piyavhatkul, N.; Laopaiboon, M. (2006). Krisanaprakornkit, Thawatchai (ed.). "Meditation therapy for anxiety disorders". Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews (1): CD004998. doi:10.1002/14651858.CD004998.pub2. PMID 16437509. The small number of studies included in this review do not permit any conclusions to be drawn on the effectiveness of meditation therapy for anxiety disorders. Transcendental meditation is comparable with other kinds of relaxation therapies in reducing anxiety

[Ospina-77] Ospina, MB.; Bond, K.; Karkhaneh, M.; Tjosvold, L.; Vandermeer, B.; Liang, Y.; Bialy, L.; Hooton, N.; Buscemi, N. (2007). "Meditation practices for health: state of the research" (PDF). Evid Rep Technol Assess (Full Rep) (155): 4. PMID 17764203. A few studies of overall poor methodological quality were available for each comparison in the meta-analyses, most of which reported nonsignificant results. TM had no advantage over health education to improve measures of systolic blood pressure and diastolic blood pressure, body weight, heart rate, stress, anger, self-efficacy, cholesterol, dietary intake, and level of physical activity in hypertensive patients {{cite journal}}: More than one of |pages= and |page= specified (help); Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)

[78] Krisanaprakornkit, T.; Ngamjarus, C.; Witoonchart, C.; Piyavhatkul, N. (2010). Krisanaprakornkit, Thawatchai (ed.). "Meditation therapies for attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD)". Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 6 (6): CD006507. doi:10.1002/14651858.CD006507.pub2. PMID 20556767. As a result of the limited number of included studies, the small sample sizes and the high risk of bias, we are unable to draw any conclusions regarding the effectiveness of meditation therapy for ADHD.

[79] Ospina MB, Bond K, Karkhaneh M; et al. (2007). "Meditation practices for health: state of the research". Evid Rep Technol Assess (Full Rep) (155): 1–263. PMID 17764203. Scientific research on meditation practices does not appear to have a common theoretical perspective and is characterized by poor methodological quality. Firm conclusions on the effects of meditation practices in healthcare cannot be drawn based on the available evidence. {{cite journal}}: Explicit use of et al. in: |author= (help); Invalid |ref=harv (help); Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)

[80] Krisanaprakornkit T, Ngamjarus C, Witoonchart C, Piyavhatkul N (2010). Krisanaprakornkit, Thawatchai (ed.). "Meditation therapies for attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD)". Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 6 (6): CD006507. doi:10.1002/14651858.CD006507.pub2. PMID 20556767. As a result of the limited number of included studies, the small sample sizes and the high risk of bias{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)

[81] Canter PH, Ernst E (2004). "Insufficient evidence to conclude whether or not Transcendental Meditation decreases blood pressure: results of a systematic review of randomized clinical trials". Journal of Hypertension. 22 (11): 2049–54. doi:10.1097/00004872-200411000-00002. PMID 15480084. All the randomized clinical trials of TM for the control of blood pressure published to date have important methodological weaknesses and are potentially biased by the affiliation of authors to the TM organization. {{cite journal}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help); Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)

[Braunwald_2011-82] Edzard Ernst, Chapter 51 in Braunwald's Heart Disease: A Textbook of Cardiovascular Medicine, Peter Libby, et al, eds, Saunders Elsevier, 2011. ISBN 978-1437727081 Quotation: "A systematic review of six RCTs of transcendental meditation failed to generate convincing evidence that meditation is an effective treatment for hypertension.15 “ (references the same 2004 systematic review by Canter and Ernst on TM and hypertension that is separately referenced in this article)

[83] Canter PH, Ernst E (2003). "The cumulative effects of Transcendental Meditation on cognitive function--a systematic review of randomised controlled trials". Wien. Klin. Wochenschr. 115 (21–22): 758–66. doi:10.1007/BF03040500. PMID 14743579. All 4 positive trials recruited subjects from among people favourably predisposed towards TM, and used passive control procedures … The association observed between positive outcome, subject selection procedure and control procedure suggests that the large positive effects reported in 4 trials result from an expectation effect. The claim that TM has a specific and cumulative effect on cognitive function is not supported by the evidence from randomized controlled trials. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)

[84] Lyn Freeman, Mosby’s Complementary & Alternative Medicine: A Research-Based Approach, Mosby Elsevier, 2009, p. 163

[85] QUICK, SUSANNE (October 17, 2004). "Delving into alternative care: Non-traditional treatments draw increased interest, research funding". Journal Sentinel. Milwaukee, WI. Archived from the original on September 29, 2007.

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@@ Line 1: / Line 1: @@
+[[File:TM logo.png|250px|thumb|Logo of TM.org]]
-{{POV|date=November 2011}}
+'''Transcendental Meditation''' (TM) refers to  a specific form of [[mantra]] [[meditation]] called the [[Transcendental Meditation technique]],<ref name=TM.org>{{cite web|title=The Transcendental Meditation Program |url=http://www.tm.org/|publisher=Maharishi Foundation|accessdate=17 January 2013}}</ref><ref name="Britannica online/TM"> {{Cite web|url=http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/602436/Transcendental-Meditation |title=Transcendental Meditation |work=Britannica Online Encyclopedia |accessdate=}}</ref> and can also refer to the organizations within the [[Transcendental Meditation movement]] and to the movement itself.<ref name="Britannica online/TM">{{Cite web|url=http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/602436/Transcendental-Meditation |title=Transcendental Meditation – Britannica Online Encyclopedia |work=Britannica Online Encyclopedia |accessdate=}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|title=Sharp HealthCare announces an unorthodox, holistic institute|first=Rex |last=Dalton |work=The San Diego Union – Tribune|date=July 8, 1993|page=B.4.5.1|quote=TM is a movement led by Maharishi Mehesh Yogi,&nbsp;...}}</ref> The TM technique and TM movement were introduced in [[India]] in the mid-1950s by [[Maharishi Mahesh Yogi]] (1918–2008).
-[[Image:TM logo.png|250px|thumb|Logo of TM.org]]
-'''Transcendental Meditation''' (TM) refers to the [[Transcendental Meditation technique]],<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://dictionary.oed.com/ |title=Transcendental Meditation |work=Oxford English Dictionary|accessdate=}}</ref> a specific form of [[mantra]] [[meditation]], and to the [[Transcendental Meditation movement]], a spiritual movement.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/602436/Transcendental-Meditation |title=Transcendental Meditation – Britannica Online Encyclopedia |work=Britannica Online Encyclopedia |accessdate=}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|title=Sharp HealthCare announces an unorthodox, holistic institute|first=Rex |last=Dalton |work=The San Diego Union – Tribune|date=July 8, 1993|page=B.4.5.1|quote=TM is a movement led by Maharishi Mehesh Yogi,.... }}</ref> The TM technique and TM movement were introduced in India in the mid-1950s by [[Maharishi Mahesh Yogi]] (1914–2008) and had reached global proportions by the 1960s.
-The TM technique came out of and is based on [[Indian philosophy]] and the teachings of [[Krishna]], the [[Buddha]], and [[Adi Shankara|Shankara]], as well as the [[Yoga Sutras of Patanjali]],<ref name=Bromley>{{Cite book|author=Bromley, David G.; Cowan, Douglas E. |title=Cults and New Religions: A Brief History (Blackwell Brief Histories of Religion) |publisher=Wiley-Blackwell |year=2007 |pages=48–71 |isbn=1-4051-6128-0 }}</ref> and is a version of a technique passed down from the Maharishi's teacher, [[Brahmananda Saraswati]]. The Maharishi also developed the Science of Creative Intelligence (SCI), a system of theoretical principles to underlie this meditation technique. Additional technologies were added to the Transcendental Meditation program, including "advanced techniques" such as the [[TM-Sidhi program]] (Yogic Flying).
+The Maharishi taught thousands of people during a series of world tours from 1958 to 1965, expressing his teachings in spiritual and religious terms.<ref>{{cite book |last=Dawson |first=Lorne |year=2003 |publisher=Blackwell Publishing |title=Cults and New Religious Movements |location=Hoboken, New Jersey |page=54}}</ref><ref name=Bromley>{{Cite book|last1=Cowan,|first1= Douglas E.,|last2= Bromley|first2= David G. |title=Cults and New Religions: A Brief History (Blackwell Brief Histories of Religion) |publisher=Wiley-Blackwell |year=2007 |pages=48–71 |ISBN=1-4051-6128-0 }}</ref> TM became more popular in the 1960s and 1970s, as the Maharishi shifted to a more scientific presentation and his meditation technique was practiced by celebrities. At this time, he began training TM teachers and created specialized organizations to present TM to specific segments of the population such as business people and students. By the late 2000s, TM had been taught to millions of people, and the worldwide TM organization had grown to include educational programs, health products, and related services.
+The TM technique involves the use of a sound or mantra and is practiced for 15–20 minutes twice per day. It is taught by certified teachers through a standard course of instruction, which costs a fee that varies by country. According to the Transcendental Meditation movement, it is a method for relaxation, [[stress (biology)|stress]] reduction and self-development. The technique has been described as both religious and as non-religious by [[sociologist]]s, scholars, and a [[New Jersey]] court case.<ref name=Bromley/><ref name="Praeger">{{cite book |first=Zachary |last=Calo |editor1-first=Ann |editor1-last=Duncan |editor2-first=Steven |editor2-last=Jones |title=Church-State Issues in America Today |chapter=Chapter 4: The Internationalization of Church-State Issues |year=2008|publisher=Praeger|location=Westport, Connecticut |isbn=978-0-275-99368-9|page=159|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=zzOn09EaETgC&dq}}</ref><ref name="American Bar Association 1978 144">{{cite journal |title=What's New in the Law |journal=American Bar Association Journal |last=Ashman |first=Allan |year=1978|month=Jan|volume=64|pages=144|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=eDu0e8buVPAC&pg=PA124&dq=Transcendental+Meditation+was+held+to+be+a+religion+in+a+New+Jersey+court+case#v=onepage&q=Transcendental%20Meditation%20was%20held%20to%20be%20a%20religion%20in%20a%20New%20Jersey%20court%20case&f=false}}</ref> Governmental agencies have both criticized and supported the Transcendental Meditation program depending on the time period and country.
-TM is one of the most widely practiced, and among the most widely researched meditation techniques.<ref>Murphy M, Donovan S, Taylor E. The Physical and Psychological Effects of Meditation: A review of Contemporary Research with a Comprehensive Bibliography 1931–1996. Sausalito, California: Institute of Noetic Sciences; 1997.</ref><ref>{{Cite book| last1 = Benson | first1 = Herbert | last2 = Klipper | first2 = Miriam Z. | title = The relaxation response | year = 2001 | publisher = Quill | location = New York, NY | isbn = 978-0-380-81595-1 | page = 61|url=http://books.google.com/?id=TJDGTP9Sa5UC&pg=PA61&dq=transcendental+meditation&q=transcendental%20meditation }}</ref><ref>{{Cite book| first1=Stephen T. |last1=Sinatra|first2=James C. |last2=Roberts| last3 = Zucker | first3 = Martin | title = Reverse Heart Disease Now: Stop Deadly Cardiovascular Plaque Before It's Too Late | date = December 20, 2007| publisher = Wiley | location = | isbn = 978-0-470-22878-4 | page = 192|url=http://books.google.com/?id=4TfJqNA8sOIC&pg=PA192&dq=transcendental+meditationlr=#v=onepage&q=transcendental%20meditation }}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|work=New Life magazine|date=Sept–Oct, 2003|first1=Frederick|last1=Travis|first2=Ken |last2=Chawkin}}</ref> Independent<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.cochrane.org/news/opportunities-jobs/methods-co-ordinator |title=Methods Co-ordinator &#124; The Cochrane Collaboration |work=Cochrane Collabortion |accessdate= |quote=The Cochrane Collaboration is an independent, not-for-profit, research organisation}}</ref> [[systematic reviews]] have not found health benefits for TM beyond [[Relaxation technique|relaxation]] or [[health education]].<ref>{{Cite book|author=Ospina MB, Bond TK, Karkhaneh M, Tjosvold L, Vandermeer B, Liang Y, Bialy L, Hooton N, Buscemi N, Dryden DM, Klassen TP.|url= http://www.ahrq.gov/downloads/pub/evidence/pdf/meditation/medit.pdf|title= Meditation Practices for Health: State of the Research|publisher= [[Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality]]|page=4|date = June 2007|quote=A few studies of overall poor methodological quality were available for each comparison in the meta-analyses, most of which reported nonsignificant results. TM had no advantage over health education to improve measures of systolic blood pressure and diastolic blood pressure, body weight, heart rate, stress, anger, self-efficacy, cholesterol, dietary intake, and level of physical activity in hypertensive patients}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|author=Krisanaprakornkit T, Ngamjarus C, Witoonchart C, Piyavhatkul N |title=Meditation therapies for attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) |journal=Cochrane Database Syst Rev |volume=6 |issue= 6|pages=CD006507 |year=2010 |pmid=20556767 |doi=10.1002/14651858.CD006507.pub2 |url= |quote =As a result of the limited number of included studies, the small sample sizes and the high risk of bias, we are unable to draw any conclusions regarding the effectiveness of meditation therapy for ADHD.}}</ref><ref name=Cochrane06>{{Cite journal|author=Krisanaprakornkit T, Krisanaprakornkit W, Piyavhatkul N, Laopaiboon M |title=Meditation therapy for anxiety disorders |journal=Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews |volume=|issue=1 |pages=CD004998 |year=2006 |pmid=16437509 |doi=10.1002/14651858.CD004998.pub2 |ref=harv| quote=The small number of studies included in this review do not permit any conclusions to be drawn on the effectiveness of meditation therapy for anxiety disorders. Transcendental meditation is comparable with other kinds of relaxation therapies in reducing anxiety}}</ref> Skeptics have called TM or its associated theories and technologies a [[pseudoscience]].<ref name="randi.org">{{Cite web|url=http://www.randi.org/encyclopedia/Transcendental%20Meditation.html |title=James Randi Educational Foundation — An Encyclopedia of Claims, Frauds, and Hoaxes of the Occult and Supernatural |work= |accessdate=}}</ref><ref name="Sagan, 1997 p16">{{Cite book|author=Sagan, Carl |title=The demon-haunted world: science as a candle in the dark |publisher=Ballantine Books |location=New York |year=1997 |page=16 |isbn=0-345-40946-9 |oclc= |doi= |accessdate=}}</ref><ref name=Pseudo>
-* [http://books.google.com/books?id=3oE3y0OwEyMC&pg=PA204&dq=maharishi+pseudoscience&hl=en&ei=YSXsTNM9xaedB-Xjjf4B&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=3&ved=0CDMQ6AEwAg#v=onepage&q&f=false Boa, Kenneth, ''Cults, World Religions and the Occult'', David C. Cook, 1990 ISBN 0896938239, 9780896938236 p. 204]
-* [http://books.google.com/books?id=GAAoz3xRpSYC&pg=PT239&dq=maharishi+pseudoscience&hl=en&ei=YSXsTNM9xaedB-Xjjf4B&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=4&ved=0CDgQ6AEwAw#v=onepage&q&f=false Carlson, Ron, Decker, Ed, ''Fast Facts on False Teachings'' Harvest House Publishers, 2003 ISBN 0736912142, 9780736912143 p. 254]
-* [http://books.google.com/books?id=79uJxu1TMFYC&pg=PA74&dq=maharishi+pseudoscience&hl=en&ei=YSXsTNM9xaedB-Xjjf4B&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=6&ved=0CEIQ6AEwBQ#v=onepage&q=maharishi%20pseudoscience&f=false Hexham, Irving, ''Pocket Dictionary of New Religious Movements'', InterVarsity Press, 2002 ISBN 0830814663, 9780830814664 p. 74]
-* [http://books.google.com/books?id=Gr4snwg7iaEC&pg=PA141&dq=maharishi+pseudoscience&hl=en&ei=_yfsTLP5IpDLngf0iI3aAQ&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=1&ved=0CCIQ6AEwADgK#v=onepage&q&f=false Marvizon, Juan Carlos "Meditation", Shermer, Michael (ed)''The Skeptic: Encyclopedia of Pseudoscience'' ABC-CLIO, 2002 ISBN 1576076539, 9781576076538 p 141]
-* [http://books.google.com/books?id=fX0o-k1brLgC&pg=PA232&dq=maharishi+pseudoscience&hl=en&ei=_yfsTLP5IpDLngf0iI3aAQ&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=7&ved=0CDwQ6AEwBjgK#v=onepage&q=maharishi%20pseudoscience&f=false Nanda, Meera "Postmodernism, Hindu Nationalism and Vedic Science", Koertge, Noretta ''Scientific Values and Civic Virtues'', Oxford University Press US, 2005 ISBN 0195172256, 9780195172256 p 232]
-* [http://books.google.com/books?id=34Xwp-d5dMAC&pg=PA130&dq=%22Transcendental+meditation%22+pseudoscience&hl=en&ei=ti7sTNe8EcL3nAeciqTVAQ&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=4&ved=0CDcQ6AEwAzgK#v=onepage&q&f=false Kinman, John M., ''Of One Mind:The Collectivization of Science'' Springer, 1995 ISBN 1563960656, 9781563960659 p 130]
-* [http://books.google.com/books?id=SgCSC2P1IToC&pg=PT235&dq=%22Transcendental+meditation%22+pseudoscience&hl=en&ei=5S_sTLSkNIW3ngeb64yKAg&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=2&ved=0CDAQ6AEwATgU#v=onepage&q=pseudo&f=false Hook, Ernest B, ''Prematurity in Scientific Discovery; On Resistance and Neglect'' University of California Press, 2002 ISBN 0520231066, 9780520231061 p 215]
-* [http://books.google.com/books?id=2qkpAUqV3oQC&pg=PA1&dq=%22Transcendental+meditation%22+pseudoscience&hl=en&ei=lDDsTIa8JdTVngeV67HvAQ&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=9&ved=0CFMQ6AEwCDgU#v=onepage&q=transcendental%20meditation&f=false Becker, Carl B. ''Paranormal Experience and Survival of Death'', SUNY Press, 1993 ISBN 0791414752, 9780791414750 p 1]
-* [http://books.google.com/books?id=esUZuH_nXg0C&pg=PA10&dq=%22Transcendental+meditation%22+pseudoscience&hl=en&ei=jDHsTKi3F4-gnwexzczIAQ&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=1&ved=0CCsQ6AEwADge#v=onepage&q&f=false Bainbridge, William Sims, ''Across the Secular Abyss: From Faith to Wisdom'' Lexington Books, 2007 ISBN 0739116789, 9780739116784 p 10]
-* Stenger, Victor, ''Quantum Gods: Creation, Chaos and the Search for Cosmic Consciousness'' Prometheus Books, 2009 ISBN 1591027136, 9781591027133</ref>
+TM is one of the most widely practiced, and among the most widely [[Transcendental Meditation research|researched meditation techniques]].<ref>{{cite book |last1=Murphy |first1=M |last2=Donovan |first2=S |last3=Taylor |first3=E |title=The Physical and Psychological Effects of Meditation: A review of Contemporary Research with a Comprehensive Bibliography 1931–1996 |location=Sausalito, California |publisher=Institute of Noetic Sciences |year=1997}}</ref><ref name="The Relaxation Response">{{Cite book| last1 = Benson | first1 = Herbert | last2 = Klipper | first2 = Miriam Z. | title = The Relaxation Response | year = 2001 | publisher = Quill | location = New York, NY | isbn = 978-0-380-81595-1 | page = 61|url=http://books.google.com/?id=TJDGTP9Sa5UC&pg=PA61&dq=transcendental+meditation&q=transcendental%20meditation }}</ref><ref>{{Cite book| first1=Stephen T. |last1=Sinatra|first2=James C. |last2=Roberts| last3 = Zucker | first3 = Martin | title = Reverse Heart Disease Now: Stop Deadly Cardiovascular Plaque Before It's Too Late | date = December 20, 2007| publisher = Wiley | location = | isbn = 978-0-470-22878-4 | page = 192|url=http://books.google.com/?id=4TfJqNA8sOIC&pg=PA192&dq=transcendental+meditationlr=#v=onepage&q=transcendental%20meditation }}</ref>
-In the 1950s, the Transcendental Meditation movement was  presented as a religious organization. The Transcendental Meditation technique was held to be a religion in a New Jersey court case.<ref>{{cite book|first=ed. by Ann W. Duncan|title=Church-state issues in America today|year=2008|publisher=Praeger|location=Westport, Conn. [u.a.]|isbn=9780275993689|pages=159|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=zzOn09EaETgC&dq|edition=1. publ.}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last=American Bar Association|title=Constitutional Law... Separating Church and State|journal=ABA Journal|year=1978|month=Jan|volume=64|pages=144|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=eDu0e8buVPAC&pg=PA124&dq=Transcendental+Meditation+was+held+to+be+a+religion+in+a+New+Jersey+court+case#v=onepage&q=Transcendental%20Meditation%20was%20held%20to%20be%20a%20religion%20in%20a%20New%20Jersey%20court%20case&f=false}}</ref> By the 1970s, the organization had shifted to a more scientific presentation while maintaining many religious elements.<ref name=Bromley/> The movement now describes itself on a spiritual, scientific, and non-religious basis. This shift has been described by both those within and outside the movement as an attempt to appeal to the more secular West.<ref name=Bromley/>
-The TM movement has programs and holdings in multiple countries while as many as six million people have been trained in the TM technique, including [[The Beatles]], [[Russell Brand]], and other well-known public figures.
 ==History==
 {{Main|History of Transcendental Meditation}}
-[[File:GuruDevtint.jpg|thumb|120px|[[Brahmananda Saraswati]] ]]
+[[File:GuruDevtint.jpg|thumb|100px|Brahmananda Saraswati]]
+The Transcendental Meditation (TM) program and the Transcendental Meditation movement originated  with Maharishi Mahesh Yogi, founder of the organization, and continued beyond his death (2008). In 1955,<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.usatoday.com/news/religion/2008-02-05-maharishi-obit_N.htm|title=Beatles guru dies in Netherlands|work=USA Today|author=AP|date=February 5, 2008}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.sfgate.com/default/article/PAGE-ONE-Politics-and-Transcendental-Meditation-3016926.php |last=Epstein|first=Edward|title=Politics and Transcendental Meditation|work=San Francisco Chronicle|date=December 29, 1995}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|url=http://www.mum.edu/pdf_msvs/v05/morris.pdf |last=Morris|first=Bevan |title=Maharishi's Vedic Science and Technology: The Only Means to Create World Peace|journal=Journal of Modern Science and Vedic Science|volume=5|number=1–2|year=1992|page=200|format=PDF}}</ref> the Maharishi began publicly teaching a traditional meditation technique<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/1577866/Maharishi-Mahesh-Yogi-guru-to-Beatles-dies.html|last= Rooney|first=Ben|title=Maharishi Mahesh Yogi, guru to Beatles, dies |work=The Telegraph|date=February 6, 2008 | location=London}}</ref> learned from his master [[Brahmananda Saraswati]] that he called Transcendental Deep Meditation<ref name="Williamson 2010">{{cite book |last=Williamson |first=Lola |year=2010 |publisher=NYU Press |location=New York |url=http://books.google.com/books?id=OxD1SYaelLAC&dq=enrollment+%22TM+movement%22&q=tm+movement#v=onepage&q=sidhi&f=false |title=Transcendent in America: Hindu-Inspired Meditation Movements as New Religion |isbn=0-8147-9450-5, 9780814794500 |pages=97–99}}</ref> and later renamed Transcendental Meditation.<ref name=Russell>{{Cite book|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=TZ89AAAAIAAJ&dq=maharishi+%22transcendental+deep+meditation%22&source=gbs_navlinks_s|last= Russell|first=Peter|title=The TM Technique: An Introduction to Transcendental Meditation and the Teachings of Maharishi Mahesh Yogi|publisher=Routledge |location=London |year=1977|isbn=978-0-7100-8539-9|pages=25–26}}</ref>
+The Maharishi initiated thousands of people, then developed a TM teacher training program as a way to accelerate the rate of bringing the technique to more people.<ref name=Russell/><ref name=World1>{{Cite book  | author = Maharishi Mahesh Yogi|  title = Thirty Years Around the World, Volume One, 1957–1964 | year =  1986| publisher = MVU Press  | isbn = 90-71750-02-7 | page = 302}}{{Request quotation|date=June 2010}}</ref> He also inaugurated a series of world tours which promoted Transcendental Meditation.<ref>{{Cite book  | last1 = Olson | first1 = Helena | last2 = Olson | first2 = Roland | title = His Holiness Maharishi Mahesh Yogi: A Living Saint for the New Millennium: Stories of His First Visit to the USA | year =  2001 | publisher = Samhita Productions | location = College Park, Maryland  | isbn = 978-1-929297-21-4 | page =297  }}</ref> These factors, coupled with endorsements by celebrities who practiced TM and scientific research that  validated the technique, helped to popularize TM in the 1960s and 1970s. By the late 2000s, TM had been taught to millions of individuals and the Maharishi was overseeing a large multinational movement.<ref>{{cite news |newspaper=The Times (London) |title=Maharishi Mahesh Yogi |date=February 7, 2008 |page=62}}</ref> Despite organizational changes and the addition of advanced meditative techniques in the 1970s,<ref>{{cite book|last=Oates |first=Robert M. |title=Celebrating the Dawn: Maharishi Mahesh Yogi and the TM technique|page=226|location=New York|publisher=G.P. Putnam's Sons|isbn=978-0-399-11815-9|year=1976}}</ref> the Transcendental Meditation technique has remained relatively unchanged.
-The history of modern Transcendental Meditation began in the late 1950s, when [[Maharishi Mahesh Yogi]] first taught the technique, and continues beyond 2008, the year of the Maharishi's death.
-Although he had already  initiated thousands of people, the Maharishi began a program to create more teachers of the technique as a way to accelerate the rate of creating new meditators. The Maharishi began a series of world tours which promoted the technique, and this, the celebrities who practiced the technique, and later scientific research endorsing the technique helped to popularize the technique in the 1960s and '70s. In the 1970s, advanced meditation techniques were introduced. By the late 2000s, TM had been taught to millions of individuals and the Maharishi was overseeing a large multinational movement. The movement has grown to encompass schools and universities that teach the practice, and includes many associated programs offering health and well-being based on the Maharishi's interpretation of the Vedic traditions.
-Among the first organizations to promote TM were the Spiritual Regeneration Movement and the International Meditation Society. In the U.S., major organizations included Student International Meditation Society, World Peace Executive Council, Maharishi Vedic Education Corporation, and [[Global Country of World Peace]]. The successor to Maharishi Mahesh Yogi, and head of the Global Country of World Peace, is [[Tony Nader]] ([[Maharaja Adhiraj Rajaraam]]).
-While additional techniques were added, and the organization that taught the Transcendental Meditation and additional techniques changed, the TM technique itself remained relatively unchanged.
-According to religious scholar Kenneth Boa in his 1990 book, ''Cults, World Religions and the Occult'', the Transcendental Meditation technique is rooted in the [[Vedanta|Vedantic School]] of [[Hinduism]], "repeatedly confirmed" in books authored by Maharishi Mahesh Yogi such as the ''Science of Being and the Art of Living'' and ''Commentary on the Bhagavad Gita''.<ref>Boa cites ''Meditations of Maharishi Mahesh Yogi'', ''Maharishi Mahesh Yogi on the Bhagavad-Gita'', and ''The Science of Being and Art of Living''.</ref> Boa writes that the Maharishi "makes it clear" that Transcendental Meditation was delivered to man about 5,000 years ago by the Hindu god [[Krishna]]. The technique was then lost, but restored for a time by [[Buddha]]. It was lost again, but rediscovered in the 9th century AD by the Hindu philosopher [[Adi Shankara|Shankara]]. Finally, it was revived by [[Brahmananda Saraswati]] (Guru Dev) and passed on to the Maharishi.<ref>{{Cite book| last1 = Boa | first1 = Kenneth | title = Cults, world religions, and the occul | year = 1990 | publisher = Victor Books | location = Wheaton, Ill. | isbn = 978-0-89693-823-6 | page = 201 | url = http://books.google.com/?id=3oE3y0OwEyMC&pg=PA201&dq=maharishi+%22god+consciousness%22#v=onepage&q=maharishi%20%22god%20consciousness%22 }}</ref>
-George Chryssides similarly says, in his 1999 book, ''Exploring New Religions'', that the Maharishi and Guru Dev were from the Shankara tradition of ''[[advaita]] Vedanta''.<ref name=Chryssides>{{Cite book| last1 = Chryssides | first1 = George D.|authorlink= George D. Chryssides| title = Exploring new religions | year = 1999 | publisher = Cassell | location = London | isbn = 978-0-8264-5959-6 | pages = 293–296| url=http://books.google.com/?id=jxIxPBpGMwgC&pg=PA293&dq=#v=onepage&q= }}</ref> Peter Russell, in his 1976 book ''The TM Technique'', says that the Maharishi believed that from the time of the Vedas, this knowledge cycled from lost to found multiple times, as is described in the introduction of the Maharishi's commentaries on the Bhagavad-Gita. Revival of the knowledge recurred principally in the Bhagavad-Gita, and in the teachings of Buddha and Shankara.<ref name="Russell1">{{Cite book| last1 = Russell | first1 = Peter H. |authorlink=Peter Russell (author)| title = The TM technique| year = 1976 | publisher = Routledge Kegan Paul PLC | location = | isbn = 0-7100-8539-7 | page = 134|url=http://books.google.com/?id=TZ89AAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=The+TM+Technique&q= }}</ref> Chryssides notes that, in addition to the revivals of the Transcendental Meditaton technique by Krishna, the Buddha and Shankara, the Maharishi also drew from the ''Yoga Sutras of Patanjali''.<ref name=Chryssides/> Bromley also says the technique is based on Indian philosophy and the teachings of Krishna, the Buddha, and Shankara.<ref name=Bromley/> In a chapter of a 1998 book titled ''Alternative medicine and ethics'', Vimal Patel writes that the Maharishi drew from Patanjali when developing the TM technique.<ref name=Patel>{{Cite book|last=Patel|first=Vimal|publisher= Humana Press|isbn = 9780896034402|editor1-last = Humber| editor1-first = James M.|editor2-first = Robert F. |editor2-last=Almeder|title = Alternative medicine and ethics|year = 1998|pages=55–56|chapter=Understanding the Integration of Alternative Modalities Into an Emerging Healthcare Model In the United States|url=http://books.google.com/?id=E7X7d_DZlLkC}}</ref>''
+Among the first organizations to promote TM were the Spiritual Regeneration Movement and the International Meditation Society. In modern times, the movement has grown to encompass schools and universities that teach the practice,<ref>{{cite news|first=T. K. |last=Irwin|title=What's New in Science: Transcendental Meditation: Medical Miracle or 'Another Kooky Fad'|work=Sarasota Herald Tribune Family Weekly|date=October 8, 1972|pages=8–9}}</ref> and includes many associated programs based on the Maharishi's interpretation of the Vedic traditions. In the U.S., major organizations included the Students International Meditation Society,<ref name=Chryssides>{{Cite book  | last1 = Chryssides | first1 = George D. | title = Exploring New Religions | year = 1999 | publisher = Cassell | location = London  | isbn = 978-0-8264-5959-6 | pages = 293–296| url=http://books.google.com/books?id=jxIxPBpGMwgC&pg=PA293&dq=#v=onepage&q=&f=false }}</ref> AFSCI,<ref name=Craze>{{Cite news| issn = 0040-718X| title = Behavior: The TM Craze: 40 Minutes to Bliss| work = Time| accessdate = November 15, 2009 | date = October 13, 1975 | url = http://www.time.com/time/printout/0,8816,947229,00.html}}</ref> World Plan Executive Council, Maharishi Vedic Education Development Corporation, and [[Global Country of World Peace]]. The successor to Maharishi Mahesh Yogi, and head of the Global Country of World Peace, is [[Tony Nader]].<ref>{{cite news|title=Forget the F-16s, Israel needs more Yogic Flyers to beat Hizbullah: 30-strong TM group, sole guests at Nof Ginnosar Hotel, say they need another 235 colleagues to make the country safe|first=Amir|last=Mizroch|work=Jerusalem Post|date=July 23, 2006|page=4}}</ref>
-While the Transcendental Meditation technique was originally presented in religious terms during the 1950s, this changed to an emphasis on scientific verification in the 1970s; attributed to an effort to improve its public relations, and as an attempt to bring the teaching of  the TM technique into  American public schools where church and state are separated.<ref>{{Cite book|author=Dawson, Lorne L. |title=Cults and New Religious Movements: A Reader (Blackwell Readings in Religion) |publisher=Blackwell Publishing Professional |location= |year=2003 |pages=54 |isbn=1-4051-0181-4 |oclc= |doi= |accessdate=}}</ref><ref name="Chryssides, George D.; Margaret Lucy Wilkins 2006 7">{{Cite book|author=Chryssides, George D.; Margaret Lucy Wilkins |title=A reader in new religious movements |publisher=Continuum |location=London |year=2006 |pages=7 |isbn=0-8264-6167-0 |oclc= |doi= |accessdate=}}</ref>
 ==Technique==
 {{Main|Transcendental Meditation technique}}
+ [[File:Maharishi Huntsville Jan 1978A.JPG|thumb|200px|Maharishi Mahesh Yogi]]
-The Transcendental Meditation technique is a form of mantra meditation that, according to the TM organization, is effortless when used properly. The mantra is a sound that is thought (but not spoken) during meditation.<ref name=Phelan>{{Cite journal|url=http://www.persee.fr/web/revues/home/prescript/article/assr_0335-5985_1979_num_48_1_2186|first=Michael|last=Phelan|work=Archives des sciences sociales des religions|title=Transcendental Meditation. A Revitalization of the American Civil Religion|year=1979|volume =48|issue=48-1|pages=5–20|ref=harv}}</ref> and is utilized as a vehicle that allows the individual's attention to travel naturally to a less active, quieter style of mental functioning.<ref name=Phelan/><ref name=Hunt>{{Cite book| last1 = Hunt | first1 = Stephen | authorlink=Stephen J. Hunt|title = Alternative religions: a sociological introduction | year = 2003 | publisher = Ashgate | location = Aldershot, Hampshire, England ; Burlington, VT | isbn = 978-0-7546-3410-2 | pages = 197–198|url=http://books.google.com/?id=0GuWbJhYIccC&pg=PA197&dq=transcendental+meditation&q=transcendental%20meditation }}</ref> The technique is practiced morning and evening for 15–20 minutes each time.<ref name=Craze>{{Cite news| issn = 0040-718X| title = Behavior: THE TM CRAZE: 40 Minutes to Bliss| work = Time| accessdate = November 15, 2009| date = October 13, 1975| url = http://www.time.com/time/printout/0,8816,947229,00.html}}</ref><ref name="google138"/>
+The Transcendental Meditation technique is a specific form of mantra meditation<ref name="Transcendental Meditation">{{cite web|url=http://dictionary.oed.com/ |title=Transcendental Meditation |work=Oxford English Dictionary|accessdate=}}</ref> developed by Maharishi Mahesh Yogi. It is often referred to as Transcendental Meditation or simply TM. The meditation practice involves the use of a mantra and is practiced for 15–20 minutes twice per day while sitting with one's eyes closed.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.tm.org/meditation-techniques |title=The Transcendental Meditation Program |publisher=Tm.org |date= |accessdate=February 17, 2013}}</ref><ref name=Epi06>{{Cite journal|last1=Lansky |first1=Ephraim |last2=St Louis |first2=Erik |title=Transcendental meditation: a double-edged sword in epilepsy? |journal=Epilepsy & Behavior |volume=9 |issue=3 |pages=394–400 |year=2006 |month=November |pmid=16931164 |doi=10.1016/j.yebeh.2006.04.019 |url= |ref=harv}}</ref> It is reported to be one of the most widely practiced,<ref name="google138">{{Cite book| last1 = Cotton | first1 = Dorothy H. G. | title = Stress management: An integrated approach to therapy | year = 1990 | publisher = Brunner/Mazel | location = New York | isbn = 0-87630-557-5 | page = 138|url=http://books.google.com/?id=oLsECokSFHwC&vq}}</ref><ref name ="Total Heart Health">{{cite book |last1=Schneider |first1=Robert |last2=Fields |first2=Jeremy |year=2006 |publisher=Basic Health Publications |location=Laguna Beach, CA |url=http://books.google.com/books?id=EWXz0Y9maukC&pg=PA148&dq=transcendental+meditation+seven+steps&hl=en&sa=X&ei=NN3IT_O_LJCs8QTK2L2CDw&ved=0CGMQ6AEwBA#v=onepage&q=transcendental%20meditation%20seven%20steps&f=false |title=Total Heart Health: How to Prevent and Reverse Heart Disease with the Maharishi Vedic Approach to Health |pages=148–149}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.TM.org |title=The Transcendental Meditation Program |publisher=TM.org |accessdate=February 13, 2013}}</ref> and among the most widely researched, meditation techniques,<ref name=Bushell>{{cite journal |first=William |last=Bushell |title=Longevity Potential Life Span and Health Span Enhancement through Practice of the Basic Yoga Meditation Regimen |journal=Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences |volume=1172 | year=2009 |page=46 | quote=Transcendental Meditation (TM), a concentrative technique&nbsp;... has been the most extensively studied meditation technique. | url = http://books.google.ca/books?id=TMJRynOxsisC&pg=PA20&dq=William+Bushell+%282009%29.+%22Longevity+Potential+Life+Span+and+Health+Span+Enhancement+through+Practice+of+the+Basic+Yoga+Meditation&hl=en&sa=X&ei=hryvUPaBN8TtigLSjIHQAQ&ved=0CDIQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=Transendental%20Meditation&f=false
+}}</ref> with over 340 peer-reviewed studies published.<ref name="Rosenthal 2011 14">{{cite book |first=Norman |last=Rosenthal |title=Transcendence: Healing and Transformation through Transcendental Meditation |publisher=Tarcher/Penguin |year=2011 |page=14 |location=New York |isbn=978-1-58542-873-1  | url = http://books.google.ca/books?hl=en&lr=&id=ssJ6jU0YeNEC&oi=fnd&pg=PT12&dq=Transcendence:+Healing+and+Transformation+through+Transcendental+Meditation+&ots=m21SjjiK0C&sig=QIsnkZLDlWvOgFhDQfi5NAkRPWI#v=onepage&q=340&f=fale | quote = By my latest count, there have been 340 per-reviewed articles published on TM, many of which have appeared in highly respected journals.}}</ref><ref name="Lyn Freeman">{{cite book|last=Freeman|first=Lyn|title=Mosby's Complementary & Alternative Medicine: A Research-Based Approach|year=2008|publisher=Mosby Elsevier|location=St Louis|isbn=ISBN  0-323-05346-7 {{!}} ISBN  978-0-323-05346-4 | Edition: 3|pages=163}}</ref> The technique is made available worldwide by certified TM teachers in a seven-step course,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.tm.org/learn-tm |title=How To Learn |publisher=Tm.org |date= |accessdate=February 17, 2013}}</ref> and fees vary from country to country.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.tm.org/tuition |title=TM Course Fee |publisher=TM.org |accessdate=May 30, 2012}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.t-m.org.uk/learning.shtml |title=Transcendental Meditation Fees and Course Details |publisher=Transcendental Meditation: Official website for the UK |accessdate=January 31, 2013}}</ref> Beginning in 1965, the Transcendental Meditation technique has been incorporated into selected schools, universities, corporations, and prison programs in the U.S.A., Latin America, Europe, and India. In 1977 a U.S. district court ruled that a curriculum in TM and the Science of Creative Intelligence (SCI) being taught in some New Jersey schools was religious in nature and in violation of the First Amendment.<ref name="American Bar Association 1978 144">{{cite journal|last=American Bar Association|title=Constitutional Law&nbsp;... Separating Church and State|journal=ABA Journal|year=1978|month=Jan|volume=64|pages=144|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=eDu0e8buVPAC&pg=PA124&dq=Transcendental+Meditation+was+held+to+be+a+religion+in+a+New+Jersey+court+case#v=onepage&q=Transcendental%20Meditation%20was%20held%20to%20be%20a%20religion%20in%20a%20New%20Jersey%20court%20case&f=false}}</ref> The technique has since been included in a number of educational and social programs around the world.<ref name="Humes page 69">{{Cite book|last=Humes|first=C.A.|year=2005|chapter=Maharishi Mahesh Yogi: Beyond the T.M. Technique|title=Gurus in America|editor1-first=Thomas A. |editor1-last=Forsthoefel |editor2-first=Cynthia Ann |editor2-last=Humes|publisher=SUNY Press|page=69|isbn=0-7914-6573-X |url=http://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ugSb7mArJlYC |quote=This lawsuit was the most significant setback for TM in the United States&nbsp;... Since then TM has made a comeback of sorts with some governmental sponsorship}}</ref>
+The Transcendental Meditation technique has been described as both religious and non religious, as an aspect of a new religious movement, as rooted in Hinduism,<ref name=Bainbridge>{{Cite book|last1 = Bainbridge | first1 = William Sims | title = The Sociology of Religious Movements | year = 1997 | publisher = Routledge | location = New York | isbn = 0-415-91202-4 | page = 188|url=http://books.google.com/?id=eCKbw8QuhEkC&printsec=frontcover&q=tm }}</ref><ref name="Aghiorgoussis 21, 34">{{Cite journal|title=The challenge of metaphysical experiences outside Orthodoxy and the Orthodox response|first=Maximos|last=Aghiorgoussis|work=Greek Orthodox Theological Review|location=Brookline|date=Spring 1999|volume=44|issue=1–4|pages=21, 34|ref=harv}}</ref> and as a non-religious practice for self-development.<ref name="Chryssides 2001 301–303">{{cite book|url=http://books.google.com/?id=vyX1sL8-0gMC&pg=PA292&lpg=PA292| dq=Chryssides+and+Transcendental+Meditation#PPA303,M1|last=Chryssides|first= George D.|title=Exploring New Religions|publisher=Continuum International Publishing Group|year=2001|isbn=0-8264-5959-5, 9780826459596|pages=301–303}}"Although one can identify the Maharishi's philosophical tradition, its teachings are in no way binding on TM practitioners. There is no public worship, no code of ethics, no scriptures to be studied, and no rites of passage that are observed, such as dietary laws, giving to the poor, or pilgrimages. In particular, there is no real TM community: practitioners do not characteristically meet together for public worship, but simply recite the mantra, as they have been taught it, not as religious obligation, but simply as a technique to benefit themselves, their surroundings and the wider world."</ref><ref>{{Cite book| last = Partridge | first = Christopher | year = 200 | title = New Religions: A Guide To New Religious Movements, Sects and Alternative Spiritualities | publisher = Oxford University Press | quote = It is understood in terms of the reduction of stress and the charging of one's mental and physical batteries.| location = New York| id =  | pages = 184}}</ref><ref name="Rosenthal 2011 4">{{cite book|title=[[Transcendence: Healing and Transformation Through Transcendental Meditation]]|authorlink=Norman E. Rosenthal|first=Norman E.|last=Rosenthal|publisher=Tarcher Penguin|year=2011|isbn=978-1-58542-873-1|page=4}}</ref> The public presentation of the TM technique over its 50-year history has been praised for its high visibility in the mass media and effective global propagation, and criticized for using celebrity and scientific endorsements as a marketing tool. Advanced courses supplement the TM technique and include an advanced meditation called the [[TM-Sidhi program]]. In 1970, the Science of Creative Intelligence became the theoretical basis for the Transcendental Meditation technique, although skeptics questioned its scientific nature.<ref name="SCI reserve collection">{{cite web|title=Science of Creative Intelligence Reserve Collection|url=http://www.mum.edu/library/mvs_collection.html Science of Creative Intelligence Reserve Collection|work=SCI collection|publisher=Maharishi University of Management|accessdate=May 30, 2012}}</ref> Proponents have postulated that 1 percent of a population (such as a city or country) practicing the TM technique daily, may have an impact on the quality of life for that population group. This has been termed the [[Maharishi Effect]].
-The mantras are generally considered to be sounds without meaning,<ref name=Hunt/><ref name=Shear>{{Cite book| last1 = Shear | first1 = J. (Jonathan) | title = The experience of meditation : experts introduce the major tradition | year = 2006 | publisher = Paragon House | location = St. Paul, MN | isbn = 978-1-55778-857-3 | pages = 23, 30–32, 43–44}}</ref> though some have claimed that they refer to deities.<ref name=Beacon>{{Cite book|url=http://www.paulmason.info/gurudev/sources/pdf/Beacon%20Light%20of%20the%20HImalayas.pdf|format=PDF|author=Maharishi Mahesh Yogi|title=Beacon Light of the Himalyas|year=1955|page=63}}</ref><ref name=Forsthoefel>{{Cite book| last1 = Forsthoefel | first1 = Thomas A. | last2 = Humes | first2 = Cynthia Ann | title = Gurus in Americ | year = 2005 | publisher = State University of New York Press | location = Albany, NY | isbn = 978-0-7914-6573-8 | page = 63|url=http://books.google.com/?id=ugSb7mArJlYC&pg=PP1&dq=gurus+in+america#v=onepage&q= }}</ref> Mantras are said to be selected by trained teachers to suit the individual. Students are told to never share their mantras with anyone.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Oates |first=Robert M. |title=Celebrating the dawn: Maharishi Mahesh Yogi and the TM technique|page=194|location=New York|publisher=G.P. Putnam's Sons|isbn=9780399118159|year=1976}}</ref> Scholars say that the original mantras derive from the Vedic or Tantric tradition.<ref name=Russell2>Russell, pp. 49–50</ref><ref>{{Cite book|title=Transcendent in America|first=Lola |last=Williamson|page= 86|publisher=New York University Press|year=2010 |isbn=9780814794500}}</ref> The Maharishi is said to have reduced the number of mantras used from hundreds down to a minimum number.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Jefferson|first=William|title=The Story of The Maharishi|location=New York|publisher=Pocket (Simon and Schuster)|year=1976|pages=52–53}}</ref> Some reports say that the total number of mantras used is 16, and that they are assigned using a simple formula based on gender and age.<ref name="Bainbridge"/><ref>{{Cite news|work=Omni|date=Jan 1984|page=129|title=Transcendental Truth}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|title=Transcendental Misconceptions|first=R.D. |last=Scott|publisher=Beta Books|location=San Diego|year=1978|isbn=0892930314}}</ref>
-Some claim that the trademarked Transcendental Meditation technique can be learned only from a certified teacher.<ref name=Russell1/><ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.tm.org/main_pages/learn_tm.html |title=Learn the Transcendental Meditation Technique – Seven Step Program |publisher=Tm.org |date= |accessdate=November 15, 2009}}</ref> The Transcendental Meditation technique is taught during a standardized seven-step course consisting of two introductory lectures, a personal interview, and four two-hour long instruction sessions given on consecutive days.<ref name="google138">{{Cite book| last1 = Cotton | first1 = Dorothy H. G. | title = Stress management : an integrated approach to therap | year = 1990 | publisher = Brunner/Mazel | location = New York | isbn = 0-87630-557-5 | page = 138|url=http://books.google.com/?id=oLsECokSFHwC&vq}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|work=Washington Parent|title=Oming in on ADHD|first=Sarina |last=Grosswald|date=October 2005}}</ref> The initial personal instruction session begins with a short [[Puja (Hinduism)|puja]] ceremony performed by the teacher, after which the student is taught the technique.<ref>{{Cite book|title=The New Cults|first=Walter |last=Martin|year=1980|publisher=Vision House Pub|isbn=978-0884490166|page=95}}</ref> Following initiation the student practices the technique twice a day. During subsequent group sessions the teacher gives the student feedback so that they know they're practicing TM correctly. During step five the teacher again corrects the student and provides him/her further instruction; during step six the teacher tells the student the mechanics of the TM technique based on his/her personal experiences; and in step seven the teacher explains the higher stages of human development that the TM organization say can be achieved through the TM technique.<ref>[http://www.tm.org/learn-meditation "How to Learn", Seven Steps] Official TM web site</ref> As stated by Maharishi Mahesh Yogi in 1955 in ''The Beacon Light of the Himalayas'' he said: "For purpose we select only the suitable mantras of personal gods.  Such mantras fetch to us the grace of personal gods and make us happier in every walk of life".<ref>Beacon Light of the Himalayas, 1955.</ref>
-The fee charged for instruction has varied over time and also by country. In the 1960s, in the United States, the usual fee was one-week's salary or $35 for a student.<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://news.google.com/newspapers?nid=1300&dat=19671104&id=A9sQAAAAIBAJ&sjid=YpMDAAAAIBAJ&pg=1167,660639|last=Slee|first=John|title=Towards meditation (with the unmistakable fragrance of money)|work=The Age|date=November 4, 1967|location=Melbourne, Australia|page =5}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|url=http://news.google.com/newspapers?id=z7EpAAAAIBAJ&sjid=BeYDAAAAIBAJ&pg=2571,8040808&dq=maharishi+one-week-salary&hl=en|last=Souter|first=Gavin|title=Sydney 1967: Non-eternal city|work=Sydney Morning Herald|date=December 30, 1967|page=2}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|url=http://news.google.com/newspapers?id=NhsqAAAAIBAJ&sjid=BCgEAAAAIBAJ&pg=5055,5854221&dq=maharishi+one-week-salary&hl=en |last=Brothers|first=Joyce|title=Maharishi is vague on happiness recipe|work=Milwaukee Journal|date=January 27, 1968|page=B1}}</ref> In the 1970s, it became a fixed fee of $125 in America with discounts for students and families.<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://www.religion-online.org/showarticle.asp?title=1875|last=LaMore|first=George|title=The Secular Selling of a Religion|work=The Christian Century|date=December 10, 1975|pages=1133–1137}}</ref> By 2003, the fee in the United States was set at $2,500.<ref>{{Cite news|last=Overton|first=Penelope|title=Group promotes meditation therapy in schools|work=Hartford Courant|date=September 15, 2003|page=B1}}</ref> It has since been reduced to $1,500.<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2009/12/19/AR2009121902187.html |last=Johnson|first=Jenna|title=Colleges Use Meditation|work=Washington Post|date=December 20, 2009}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|url=http://www.bloomberg.com/apps/news?pid=20601206&sid=awJoYYAfJotY |last=Carmiel|first=Osharat |title=Wall Street Meditators|work=Bloomberg|date=September 18, 2009}}</ref> Advanced techniques<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.maharishitm.org/en/advtecen.htm|archivedate=October 20, 2010|archiveurl=http://www.webcitation.org/5tcG6Tv5d|title=The Advanced Techniques: Developing Bliss Consciousness to Create Heaven on Earth|date=February 22, 2009|publisher=Maharishi Health Education Center}}</ref> and rounding sessions require additional fees.{{Citation needed|date=September 2010}} In 2011, the fees for learning TM in Great Britain vary from £190.00 to £590.00 depending on income.<ref>[http://www.t-m.org.uk/learning.shtml#CourseFees Course Fees] UK TM web site</ref>
-"Rounding" is a combination of yogic breathing techniques, yoga postures or ''asanas'', and meditation, repeated for a prolonged period in a supervised setting.<ref>{{Cite book| publisher = University of Iowa Press| isbn = 0877456453| last = Knopp| first = Lisa| title = Flight Dreams: A Life in the Midwestern Landscape| date = 1998-11|page=167}}</ref><ref name=Scott>{{Cite book| publisher = Beta Books| last = Scott| first = R. D.| title = Transcendental misconceptions| date = 1978-02|pages=30–31, 36–37|isbn=0892930314}}</ref> There are other "advanced techniques" that build on the basic TM technique. Using [[TM-Sidhi]], the most prominent of these, practitioners are said to achieve "Yogic Flying".<ref name=Bainbridge>{{Cite book| last1 = Bainbridge | first1 = William Sims | title = The sociology of religious movements | year = 1997 | publisher = Routledge | location = New York | isbn = 0-415-91202-4 | page = 188|url=http://books.google.com/?id=eCKbw8QuhEkC&printsec=frontcover&q=tm }}</ref><ref name=Forsthoefel66>{{Cite book| last1 = Forsthoefel | first1 = Thomas A. | last2 = Humes | first2 = Cynthia Ann | title = Gurus in America | year = 2005 | publisher = State University of New York Press | location = Albany, NY | isbn = 978-0-7914-6573-8 | page = 66|url=http://books.google.com/?id=ugSb7mArJlYC&pg=PA66&dq=yogic+flying+inauthor:forsthoefel#v=onepage&q=yogic%20flying%20inauthor%3Aforsthoefel&f=false }}</ref><ref>Williamson (2010) p. 97</ref>
-The Maharishi predicted that the quality of life for an entire population would be noticeably improved if one percent (1%) of the population practiced the Transcendental Meditation technique. This is known as the "[[Maharishi Effect]]".<ref name=Wager>{{Cite news|title=Musicians Spread the Maharishi's Message of Peace|first=Gregg|last=Wager|work=Los Angeles Times|date=December 11, 1987 |page=12}}</ref>
-The US District Court of New Jersey, in 1977,   in Docket # 76-341,  considered the TM technique to be religious in nature, and did not allow it in schools in New Jersey.<ref>District of New Jersey Docket # 76-341 HCM Civil Action judgement on Dec. 12, 1977</ref>
 ==Movement==
 {{Main|Transcendental Meditation movement}}
+The Transcendental Meditation movement refers to the programs and organizations connected with the Transcendental Meditation technique and founded by [[Maharishi Mahesh Yogi]]. Transcendental Meditation was first taught in the 1950s in India and has continued since the Maharishi's death in  2008.  The organization was estimated to have 900,000 participants worldwide in 1977,<ref name="Stark 1986 page 287">{{cite book|last1=Stark|first1=Rodney|last2=Bainbridge|first2=William, Sims| title=The Future Of Religion|year=1986|publisher=University of California Press,|isbn=ISBN 0520057317 ISBN 978-0520057319|pages=287}} "Time magazine in 1975 estimated that the U.S. total had risen to 600,000 augmented by half that number elsewhere" =[900,000 world wide]  "Annual Growth in TM Initiations in the U.S.  [chart]  Cumulative total at the End of Each Year: 1977, 919,300"</ref> a million by the 1980s,<ref name="Petersen, William J. 1982 p 123">{{cite book|last=Peterson|first=William|title=Those Curious New Cults in the 80s|year=1982|publisher=Keats Publishing|location=New Canaan, Connecticut|isbn=0879833173, 9780879833176|pages=123}} claims "more than a million" in the USA and Europe.</ref><ref name="Occhiogrosso, Peter 1996 p 66">Occhiogrosso, Peter. ''The Joy of Sects: A Spirited Guide to the World's Religious Traditions.'' New York: Doubleday (1996); p 66, citing "close to a million" in the USA.</ref><ref name="Bainbridge, William Sims 1997 page 189">Bainbridge, William Sims (1997) Routledge, The Sociology of Religious Movements, page 189 "the million people [Americans] who had been initiated"</ref> and 5 million in more recent years,<ref>Analysis: Practice of requiring probationers to take lessons in transcendental meditation sparks religious controversy, NPR All Things Considered, February 1, 2002 | ROBERT SIEGEL “TM's five million adherents claim that it eliminates chronic health problems and reduces stress.”</ref><ref>Martin Hodgson, The Guardian  (5 February 2008)	"He [Maharishi]  transformed his interpretations of ancient scripture into a multimillion-dollar global empire with more than 5m followers worldwide”</ref><ref>Stephanie van den Berg, Sydney Morning Herald, Beatles guru Maharishi Mahesh Yogi dies, (February 7, 2008)  “the TM movement, which has some five million followers worldwide”</ref><ref>Meditation a magic bullet for high blood pressure – study, Sunday Tribune (South Africa), (January 27, 2008)  “More than five million people have learned the technique worldwide, including 60,000 in South Africa."</ref><ref name="ReferenceA">Maharishi Mahesh Yogi - Transcendental Meditation founder's grand plan for peace, The Columbian (Vancouver, WA), February 19, 2006 | ARTHUR MAX Associated Press writer "transcendental meditation, a movement that claims 6 million practitioners since it was introduced."</ref><ref>{{cite news|title=Bank makes an issue of mystic's mint|last=Bickerton|first=Ian|work=Financial Times|location=London (UK)|date=February 8, 2003|page=09}}  the movement claims to have five million followers,</ref><ref name="Maharishi Mahesh Yogi 1955">Maharishi Mahesh Yogi, Spiritual Leader Dies, New York Times, By LILY KOPPEL, Published: February 6, 2008 "Since the technique’s inception in 1955, the organization says, it has been used to train more than 40,000 teachers, taught more than five million people"</ref> including many [[List of Transcendental Meditation practitioners|notable practitioners]].
-The Transcendental Meditation movement (also referred to as Transcendental Meditation (TM), "Maharishi's worldwide movement", and the Transcendental Meditation Organization) is a world-wide organization founded by Maharishi Mahesh Yogi in the 1950s.  Estimated to have tens of thousands of participants, with high estimates citing as many as several million,<ref>"tens of thousands": ''New Religious Movements'' (University of Virginia) (1998), citing Melton, J. Gordon, 1993, Encyclopedia of American Religions. 4th ed. Detroit: Gale Research Inc, 945–946. Occhiogrosso, Peter. ''The Joy of Sects: A Spirited Guide to the World's Religious Traditions.'' New York: Doubleday (1996); p 66, citing "close to a million" in the USA. The three million estimate appears to originate with ''The State of Religion Atlas''. Simon & Schuster: New York (1993); pg. 35. O'Brien, J. & M. Palmer. The State of Religion Atlas. Simon & Schuster: New York (1993); p. 35. Petersen, William J. ''Those Curious New Cults in the 80s''. New Canaan, Connecticut: Keats Publishing (1982), p 123 claims "more than a million" in the USA and Europe. The [[Financial Times]] (8 February 2003) reported that the movement claims to have five million followers, {{cite news|title=Bank makes an issue of mystic's mint|last=Bickerton|first=Ian|work=Financial Times|location=London (UK)|date=February 8, 2003|page=09}}</ref> the global organization also consists of close to 1,000 TM centers, and controls property assets of the order of [[USD]] 3.5 billion (1998 estimate).<ref name=Times0882>{{cite news|date=February 7, 2008|title=Maharishi Mahesh Yogi|work=The Times|location=London (UK)|url=http://www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/comment/obituaries/article3320882.ece}}</ref>
+Programs include the [[Transcendental Meditation technique]], an advanced meditation practice called the [[TM-Sidhi program]] ("Yogic Flying"), an alternative health care program called [[Maharishi Ayurveda]],<ref>{{harvnb|Sharma|Clark|1998|loc=Preface}}</ref> and a system of building and architecture called [[Maharishi Sthapatya Ved]].<ref name=Argus>[http://download.tmnews.org/2005_08_05_RockIsArgus_ltr.pdf  Welvaert, Brandy, Vedic homes seek better living through architecture", ''Rock Island Argus'', (August 5, 2005)]</ref><ref name=Spivack>{{cite news|work=Washington Post|title=Bricks Mortar and Serenity|first=Miranda|last=Spivack|date=September 12, 2008|url=http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2008/12/11/AR2008121103497.html}}</ref>  The TM movement's past and present media endeavors include a publishing company (MUM Press), a television station ([[KSCI]]), a radio station ([[KHOE]]), and a satellite television channel (Maharishi Channel).  During its 50-year history, its products and services have been offered through a variety of organizations, which are primarily nonprofit and educational. These include the Spiritual Regeneration Movement, the International Mediation Society, World Plan Executive Council, Maharishi Vedic Education  Development Corporation, the [[Global Country of World Peace]], and the [[David Lynch Foundation]].
-It includes programs and organizations connected to the Transcendental Meditation technique, developed and or introduced by the founder. An advanced form of meditation is the TM-Sidhi program which includes "Yogic flying". Maharishi Ayurveda is a system of health treatments using herbs and massage. Maharishi Sthapatya Veda is a system of architecture and city planning.
+The TM movement also operates a worldwide network of Transcendental Mediation teaching centers, schools, universities, health centers, and herbal supplement, solar panel, and home financing companies, plus several TM-centered communities. The global organization is reported to have an estimated net worth of [[USD]] 3.5 billion.<ref name=Times0882>{{cite news|date=February 7, 2008|title=Maharishi Mahesh Yogi|work=The Times|location=London (UK)|url=http://www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/comment/obituaries/article3320882.ece}}</ref><ref>{{cite encyclopedia |title=Maharishi Mahesh Yogi |encyclopedia=Britannica Concise Encyclopedia |url=http://www.answers.com/topic/maharishi-mahesh-yogi}}</ref> The TM movement has been characterized in a variety of ways and has been called a spiritual movement, a [[new religious movement]],<ref>For ''new religious movement'' see:
-The first organization was the Spiritual Regeneration Movement, founded in India in 1958. The International Meditation Society and Student International Meditation Society (SIMS) were founded in the US in the 1960s. The organizations were consolidated under the leadership of the World Plan Executive Council in the 1970s. In 1992, a political party, the [[Natural Law Party]] (NLP) was founded based on the principles of TM and it ran candidates in ten countries before disbanding in 2004.<ref name=Bromley/>  The Global Country of World Peace is the current main organization. The movement operates numerous schools and universities. Mother Divine and Thousand-Headed Purusha are the monastic arms. It also has health spas and assorted businesses. There are many TM-centered communities.
+<br>{{cite book|last=Beckford|first=James A.|title=Cult controversies: the societal response to new religious movements|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=0pc9AAAAIAAJ|year=1985|publisher=Tavistock Publications|isbn=978-0-422-79630-9|page=23}}
+<br>{{cite book|last=Parsons|first=Gerald|title=The Growth of Religious Diversity: Traditions|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=tlKkZoNPi0oC&pg=PA288|year=1994|publisher=The Open University/Methuen|isbn=978-0-415-08326-3|page=288}}
-The TM movement has been described as a spiritual movement, as a [[new religious movement]], and a "[[Neo-Hindu]]" sect.<ref name="TM and cult mania">{{Cite book | last1 = Persinger | first1 = Michael A. | last2 = Carrey | first2 = Normand J. | last3 = Suess | first3 = Lynn A. | title = TM and cult mania | year = 1980 | publisher = Christopher Pub. House | location = North Quincy, Mass. | isbn = 0-8158-0392-3 | pages = }}</ref> It has been characterized as a religion, a [[cult]], a charismatic movement, a "sect", "plastic export Hinduism", a progressive millennialism organization and a "multinational, capitalist, Vedantic Export Religion" in books and the mainstream press,<ref name="TM and cult mania" /><ref>{{cite book |author=Sagan, Carl |title=The demon-haunted world: science as a candle in the dark |publisher=Ballantine Books |location=New York |year=1997 |page=16 |isbn=0-345-40946-9 |oclc= |doi= |accessdate=}}</ref> with concerns that the movement was being run to promote the Maharishi's personal interests.<ref>{{Cite book| publisher = HarperCollins| isbn = 9780060931179| page = 211 |last = McTaggart| first = Lynne| title = The Field| date = July 24, 2003|url=http://books.google.com/books?d=uivwpQIRMwUC&pg=PA211&dq=transcendental+meditation#v=onepage&q=transcendental%20meditation&f=false}}</ref> Other sources assert that TM is not a religion, but a meditation technique; and they hold that the TM movement is a spiritual organization, and not a religion or a cult.<ref>"TM is not a religion and requires no change in belief or lifestyle. Moreover, the TM movement is not a cult."</ref><ref>The Herald Scotland, April 21, 2007 Meditation-for-old-hippies-or-a-better-way-of-life?</ref> Participation in TM programs at any level does not require one to hold or deny any specific religious beliefs; TM is practiced by people of many diverse religious affiliations, as well as atheists and agnostics.<ref>["the TM technique does not require adherence to any belief system—there is no dogma or philosophy attached to it, and it does not demand any lifestyle changes other than the practice of it."  [http://books.google.com/books?id=Ac0g-v6gpjkC&printsec=frontcover&dq=Nancy+leibler+depression&cd=1#v=onepage&q=Transcendental%20Meditation&f=false]</ref><ref>"Its proponents say it is not a religion or a philosophy."The Guardian March 28, 2009 [http://www.guardian.co.uk/education/2009/mar/29/schools-pupils-meditation-courses]</ref><ref>"It's used in prisons, large corporations and schools, and it is not considered a religion.” [http://www.concordmonitor.com/apps/pbcs.dll/article?AID=/20090331/NEWS01/903310312/0/FRONTPAGE] Concord Monitor</ref>
+<br>For ''neo-Hindu'', see:
+<br>{{cite book|last=Alper|first=Harvey P.|title=Understanding mantras|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=V8Upy4ApG_oC&pg=PA442|date=December 1991|publisher=Motilal Banarsidass Publ.|isbn=978-81-208-0746-4|page=442}}
+<br>{{cite book|last1=Raj|first1=Selva J.|author2=William P. Harman|title=Dealing With Deities: The Ritual Vow in South Asia|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=Ov2oltTLinkC&pg=PA129|year=2007|publisher=SUNY Press|isbn=978-0-7914-6708-4|page=129}}</ref><ref name="TM and cult mania">{{Cite book | last1 = Persinger | first1 = Michael A. | last2 = Carrey | first2 = Normand J. | last3 = Suess | first3 = Lynn A. | title = TM and cult mania | year = 1980 | publisher = Christopher Pub. House | location = North Quincy, Mass. | isbn = 0-8158-0392-3 | pages = }}</ref> a millenarian movement, a world affirming movement,<ref name="Dawson">Dawson, Lorne L. (2003) Blackwell Publishing, Cults and New Religious Movements, Chapter 3: Three Types of New Religious Movement by Roy Wallis (1984), page 44-48</ref> a new social movement,<ref name=Blatter>Christian Blatter, Donald McCown, Diane Reibel, Marc S. Micozzi, (2010) Springer Science+Business Media, Teaching Mindfulness, Page 47</ref> a guru-centered movement,<ref>Olson, Carl (2007) Rutgers University Press, The Many Colors of Hinduism, page 345</ref> a religion, and a [[cult]].<ref name="TM and cult mania" /><ref name=Market85>{{cite book |author=Bainbridge, Sims; Stark, Rodney; Bainbridge, William Sims |title=The future of religion: secularization, revival, and cult formation |publisher=Univ. of California Press |location=Berkeley, Calif |year=1985 |pages= |isbn=0-520-05731-7 |oclc= |doi= |url=http://books.google.com/?id=lTzPyvT2yusC&pg=PA285&dq=public+relations+Transcendental+meditation#v=onepage&q=public%20relations%20Transcendental%20meditation&f=false}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |author=Sagan, Carl |title=The demon-haunted world: science as a candle in the dark |publisher=Ballantine Books |location=[New York |year=1997 |page=16 |isbn=0-345-40946-9 |oclc= |doi= |accessdate=}}</ref> {{quotation needed|date=February 2013}} Additional sources contend that TM and its movement are not a cult.<ref name=Harrison>Harrison, Shirley (1990). Cults: The Battle for God. Kent: Christopher Helm. pp. 93–103  "none of the other 'cultic qualities' defined by cult watchers can be fairly attributed to TM."</ref><ref>Rowson, Jonathan (April 23, 2007) [http://www.heraldscotland.com/meditation-for-old-hippies-or-a-better-way-of-life-1.839896 Meditation: for old hippies or a better way of life?] Sunday Herald (Scotland) " the TM movement is not a cult", accessed Feb 2, 2013</ref><ref>Hannaford, Alex (December 27, 2010). "Mantra with a mission; Feature Om or ominous? The maverick film director David Lynch wants to bring Transcendental Meditation to our classrooms, and believes in 'yogic flying'. Can he get it off the ground?". The Sunday Times (London).</ref><ref>Lyster, Samantha (October 21, 2000) Samantha Lyster finds herself in holistic heaven with new-found happiness and tranquillity after learning the art of transcendental meditation, The Birmingham Post (England), “TM is not a religion, a cult or a philosophy”</ref> Participation in TM programs does not require a belief system and is practiced by people from a diverse group of religious affiliations including atheists and agnostics.<ref>["the TM technique does not require adherence to any belief system—there is no dogma or philosophy attached to it, and it does not demand any lifestyle changes other than the practice of it."]  [http://books.google.com/books?id=Ac0g-v6gpjkC&printsec=frontcover&dq=Nancy+leibler+depression&cd=1#v=onepage&q=Transcendental%20Meditation&f=false]</ref><ref>"Its proponents say it is not a religion or a philosophy."The Guardian March 28, 2009 [http://www.guardian.co.uk/education/2009/mar/29/schools-pupils-meditation-courses]</ref><ref>"It's used in prisons, large corporations and schools, and it is not considered a religion.” [http://www.concordmonitor.com/apps/pbcs.dll/article?AID=/20090331/NEWS01/903310312/0/FRONTPAGE] Concord Monitor</ref><ref>Chryssides George D. Defining the New Spirituality http://www.cesnur.org/conferences/riga2000/chryssides.htm ''One possible suggestion is that religion demands exclusive allegiance: this would ipso facto exclude Scientology, TM and the Soka Gakkai simply on the grounds that they claim compatibility with whatever other religion the practitioner has been following. For example, TM is simply – as they state – a technique. Although it enables one to cope with life, it offers no goal beyond human existence (such as moksha), nor does it offer rites or passage or an ethic. Unlike certain other Hindu-derived movements, TM does not prescribe a dharma to its followers – that is to say a set of spiritual obligations deriving from one’s essential nature.''</ref> The organization has also been criticized as well as praised for its public presentation and marketing techniques throughout its 50-year history.
 ==Research==
 {{main|Transcendental Meditation research}}
 [[File:Meditation&BP.jpg|thumb|300px|A comparison of the effect of various meditation techniques on systolic [[blood pressure]], though according to the source, it wasn't possible to make strong inferences on which is the best intervention due to a lack of statistical power.<ref>Ospina p. 128, 130</ref>]]
-Independent [[systematic reviews]] have not found health benefits for TM beyond [[Relaxation technique|relaxation]] and [[health education]].<ref name=Cochrane06>{{Cite journal|last1 =Krisanaprakornkit | first1 = T. | last2 = Krisanaprakornkit | first2 = W. | last3 = Piyavhatkul | first3 = N. | last4 = Laopaiboon | first4 = M. |title=Meditation therapy for anxiety disorders |journal=Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews |issue=1 |pages=CD004998 |year=2006 |pmid=16437509 |doi=10.1002/14651858.CD004998.pub2 |quote=The small number of studies included in this review do not permit any conclusions to be drawn on the effectiveness of meditation therapy for anxiety disorders. Transcendental meditation is comparable with other kinds of relaxation therapies in reducing anxiety}}</ref><ref name=Ospina>{{cite journal|last1=Ospina|first1= MB.|last2=Bond|first2=K.|last3 =Karkhaneh |first3 =M. |last4 =Tjosvold |first4 =L. |last5 =Vandermeer |first5 =B. |last6 =Liang |first6 =Y. |last7 =Bialy |first7 =L. |last8 =Hooton |first8 =N. |last9 =Buscemi |first9 =N. |title =Meditation practices for health: state of the research|journal =Evid Rep Technol Assess (Full Rep) |issue = 155 |pages =1–263 |month = June |year =2007 |PMID = 17764203|url= http://www.ahrq.gov/downloads/pub/evidence/pdf/meditation/medit.pdf|page=4|quote=A few studies of overall poor methodological quality were available for each comparison in the meta-analyses, most of which reported nonsignificant results. TM had no advantage over health education to improve measures of systolic blood pressure and diastolic blood pressure, body weight, heart rate, stress, anger, self-efficacy, cholesterol, dietary intake, and level of physical activity in hypertensive patients}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last1 = Krisanaprakornkit | first1 = T. | last2 = Ngamjarus | first2 = C. | last3 = Witoonchart | first3 = C. | last4 = Piyavhatkul | first4 = N. |title=Meditation therapies for attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) |journal=Cochrane Database Syst Rev |volume=6 |issue= |pages=CD006507 |year=2010 |pmid=20556767 |doi=10.1002/14651858.CD006507.pub2 |quote =As a result of the limited number of included studies, the small sample sizes and the high risk of bias, we are unable to draw any conclusions regarding the effectiveness of meditation therapy for ADHD.}}</ref> It is difficult to determine definitive effects of meditation practices in healthcare, as the quality of research has design limitations and a lack of [[methodological rigor]].<ref name=Cochrane06/><ref>{{Cite journal|author=Ospina MB, Bond K, Karkhaneh M, ''et al.'' |title=Meditation practices for health: state of the research |journal=Evid Rep Technol Assess (Full Rep) |volume=|issue=155 |pages=1–263 |year=2007 |month=June |pmid=17764203 |doi= |url= |ref=harv |quote=Scientific research on meditation practices does not appear to have a common theoretical perspective and is characterized by poor methodological quality. Firm conclusions on the effects of meditation practices in healthcare cannot be drawn based on the available evidence.}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|author=Krisanaprakornkit T, Ngamjarus C, Witoonchart C, Piyavhatkul N |title=Meditation therapies for attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) |journal=Cochrane Database Syst Rev |volume=6 |issue= |pages=CD006507 |year=2010 |pmid=20556767 |doi=10.1002/14651858.CD006507.pub2 |url= |quote =As a result of the limited number of included studies, the small sample sizes and the high risk of bias}}</ref> Part of this difficulty is because studies have the potential for [[bias]] due to the connection of researchers to the TM organization, and enrollment of subjects with a favorable opinion of TM.<ref>{{Cite journal|author=Canter PH, Ernst E |title=Insufficient evidence to conclude whether or not Transcendental Meditation decreases blood pressure: results of a systematic review of randomized clinical trials |journal=Journal of Hypertension |volume=22 |issue=11 |pages=2049–54 |year=2004 |month=November |pmid=15480084|url=http://meta.wkhealth.com/pt/pt-core/template-journal/lwwgateway/media/landingpage.htm?issn=0263-6352&volume=22&issue=11&spage=2049 |ref=harv| quote = All the randomized clinical trials of TM for the control of blood pressure published to date have important methodological weaknesses and are potentially biased by the affiliation of authors to the TM organization.}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|author=Canter PH, Ernst E |title=The cumulative effects of Transcendental Meditation on cognitive function--a systematic review of randomised controlled trials |journal=Wien. Klin. Wochenschr. |volume=115 |issue=21&ndash;22 |pages=758&ndash;66 |year=2003 |month=November |pmid=14743579 |doi= 10.1007/BF03040500|url= |quote = All 4 positive trials recruited subjects from among people favourably predisposed towards TM, and used passive control procedures &hellip; The association observed between positive outcome, subject selection procedure and control procedure suggests that the large positive effects reported in 4 trials result from an expectation effect. The claim that TM has a specific and cumulative effect on cognitive function is not supported by the evidence from randomized controlled trials.}}</ref>
+Independent [[systematic reviews]] have not found health benefits for TM beyond [[Relaxation technique|relaxation]] and [[health education]].<ref name=Cochrane06>{{Cite journal|last1 =Krisanaprakornkit | first1 = T. | last2 = Krisanaprakornkit | first2 = W. |last3 = Piyavhatkul | first3 = N. | last4 = Laopaiboon | first4 = M. |title=Meditation therapy for anxiety disorders |journal=Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews |issue=1|pages=CD004998 |year=2006 |pmid=16437509 |doi=10.1002/14651858.CD004998.pub2 |quote=The small number of studies included in this review do not permit any conclusions to be drawn on the effectiveness of meditation therapy for anxiety disorders. Transcendental meditation is comparable with other kinds of relaxation therapies in reducing anxiety|editor1-last =Krisanaprakornkit|editor1-first =Thawatchai}}</ref><ref name=Ospina>{{cite journal|last1=Ospina|first1= MB.|last2=Bond|first2=K.|last3 =Karkhaneh|first3 =M. |last4 =Tjosvold |first4 =L. |last5 =Vandermeer |first5 =B. |last6 =Liang|first6 =Y. |last7 =Bialy |first7 =L. |last8 =Hooton |first8 =N. |last9 =Buscemi |first9 =N. |title =Meditation practices for health: state of the research|journal =Evid Rep Technol Assess (Full Rep) |issue = 155 |pages =1–263 |month = June |year =2007 |pmid = 17764203|url=http://www.ahrq.gov/downloads/pub/evidence/pdf/meditation/medit.pdf|page=4|quote=A few studies of overall poor methodological quality were available for each comparison in the meta-analyses, most of which reported nonsignificant results. TM had no advantage over health education to improve measures of systolic blood pressure and diastolic blood pressure, body weight, heart rate, stress, anger, self-efficacy, cholesterol, dietary intake, and level of physical activity in hypertensive patients}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last1 = Krisanaprakornkit | first1 = T. | last2 = Ngamjarus | first2 = C. | last3 = Witoonchart | first3 = C. | last4 = Piyavhatkul | first4 = N. |title=Meditation therapies for attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) |journal=Cochrane Database Syst Rev |volume=6 |issue= 6|pages=CD006507 |year=2010 |pmid=20556767|doi=10.1002/14651858.CD006507.pub2 |quote =As a result of the limited number of included studies, the small sample sizes and the high risk of bias, we are unable to draw any conclusions regarding the effectiveness of meditation therapy for ADHD.|editor1-last = Krisanaprakornkit|editor1-first = Thawatchai}}</ref> It is difficult to determine definitive effects of meditation practices in healthcare, as the quality of research has design limitations and a lack of [[methodological rigor]].<ref name=Cochrane06/><ref>{{Cite journal|author=Ospina MB, Bond K, Karkhaneh M, ''et al.''|title=Meditation practices for health: state of the research |journal=Evid Rep Technol Assess (Full Rep) |volume=|issue=155 |pages=1–263 |year=2007 |month=June |pmid=17764203|doi= |url= |ref=harv |quote=Scientific research on meditation practices does not appear to have a common theoretical perspective and is characterized by poor methodological quality. Firm conclusions on the effects of meditation practices in healthcare cannot be drawn based on the available evidence.}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|author=Krisanaprakornkit T, Ngamjarus C, Witoonchart C, Piyavhatkul N |title=Meditation therapies for attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) |journal=Cochrane Database Syst Rev|volume=6 |issue= 6|pages=CD006507 |year=2010 |pmid=20556767|doi=10.1002/14651858.CD006507.pub2 |url= |quote =As a result of the limited number of included studies, the small sample sizes and the high risk of bias|editor1-last=Krisanaprakornkit|editor1-first=Thawatchai}}</ref> Part of this difficulty is because studies have the potential for [[bias]] due to the connection of researchers to the TM organization, and enrollment of subjects with a favorable opinion of TM.<ref>{{Cite journal|author=Canter PH, Ernst E |title=Insufficient evidence to conclude whether or not Transcendental Meditation decreases blood pressure: results of a systematic review of randomized clinical trials |journal=Journal of Hypertension |volume=22 |issue=11|pages=2049–54 |year=2004 |month=November|pmid=15480084|url=http://meta.wkhealth.com/pt/pt-core/template-journal/lwwgateway/media/landingpage.htm?issn=0263-6352&volume=22&issue=11&spage=2049 |ref=harv| quote = All the randomized clinical trials of TM for the control of blood pressure published to date have important methodological weaknesses and are potentially biased by the affiliation of authors to the TM organization.|doi=10.1097/00004872-200411000-00002}}</ref><ref name="Braunwald 2011">Edzard Ernst, Chapter 51 in ''Braunwald's Heart Disease: A Textbook of Cardiovascular Medicine'', Peter Libby, et al, eds, Saunders Elsevier, 2011. ISBN 978-1437727081 Quotation: "A systematic review of six RCTs of transcendental meditation failed to generate convincing evidence that meditation is an effective treatment for hypertension.15 “ (references the same 2004 systematic review by Canter and Ernst on TM and hypertension that is separately referenced in this article)</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|author=Canter PH, Ernst E |title=The cumulative effects of Transcendental Meditation on cognitive function--a systematic review of randomised controlled trials|journal=Wien. Klin. Wochenschr. |volume=115 |issue=21&ndash;22 |pages=758&ndash;66|year=2003 |month=November |pmid=14743579 |doi= 10.1007/BF03040500|url= |quote = All 4 positive trials recruited subjects from among people favourably predisposed towards TM, and used passive control procedures &hellip; The association observed between positive outcome, subject selection procedure and control procedure suggests that the large positive effects reported in 4 trials result from an expectation effect. The claim that TM has a specific and cumulative effect on cognitive function is not supported by the evidence from randomized controlled trials.}}</ref>
-There has been ongoing research on Transcendental Meditation since the first studies were conducted at the UCLA and Harvard University were published in ''Science'' and the ''American Journal of Physiology'' in 1970 and 1971.<ref>Lyn Freeman, ''Mosby’s Complementary & Alternative Medicine: A Research-Based Approach'', Mosby Elsevier, 2009, p. 163</ref> The research has included studies on physiological changes during meditation, clinical applications, cognitive effects, mental health, addiction, and rehabilitation. Beginning in the 1990s, a focus of research has been the effects of Transcendental Meditation on cardiovascular disease, with over $20 million in funding from the [[National Institutes of Health]].<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://www.jsonline.com/story/index.aspx?id=267105 |title=Delving into alternative care: Non-traditional treatments draw increased interest, research funding|first=SUSANNE|last=QUICK|date=October 17, 2004|work=Journal Sentinel|location=Milwaukee, WI |archiveurl = http://web.archive.org/web/20070929124114/http://www.jsonline.com/story/index.aspx?id=267105 |archivedate = September 29, 2007}}</ref>
+There has been ongoing research on Transcendental Meditation since the first studies were conducted at the UCLA and Harvard University were published in ''Science'' and the ''American Journal of Physiology'' in 1970 and 1971.<ref>Lyn Freeman, ''Mosby’s Complementary & Alternative Medicine: A Research-Based Approach'', Mosby Elsevier, 2009, p. 163</ref> The research has included studies on physiological changes during meditation, clinical applications, cognitive effects, mental health, addiction, and rehabilitation. Beginning in the 1990s, a focus of research has been the effects of Transcendental Meditation on cardiovascular disease, with over $20 million in funding from the [[National Institutes of Health]].<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://www.jsonline.com/story/index.aspx?id=267105 |title=Delving into alternative care: Non-traditional treatments draw increased interest, research funding|first=SUSANNE|last=QUICK|date=October 17, 2004|work=Journal Sentinel|location=Milwaukee, WI |archiveurl =http://web.archive.org/web/20070929124114/http://www.jsonline.com/story/index.aspx?id=267105 |archivedate = September 29, 2007}}</ref>
-{{clear}}
+{{-}}
 ==References==
@@ Line 77: / Line 49: @@
 ==Further reading==
+* Alexander, Charles and O'Connel, David F. (1995) Routledge Self Recovery: Treating Addictions Using Transcendental Meditation and Maharishi Ayur-Veda ISBN 1-56024-454-2
-;Scholarly
+* [[Harold H. Bloomfield|Bloomfield, Harold]]; Cain, Michael Peter; Jaffe, Dennis T.  (1973)  ''TM: Discovering Inner Energy and Overcoming Stress''
-*{{Cite book|author=Bromley, David G.; Cowan, Douglas E. |title=Cults and New Religions: A Brief History (Blackwell Brief Histories of Religion) |publisher=Wiley-Blackwell |year=2007|pages=48–71 |isbn=1-4051-6128-0 }}
+* Clark, Christopher and Sharma, Hari (1995) Churchill Livingstone, ''Contemporary Ayurveda'' ISBN 0-443-05594-7
-*{{Cite book|author=Chryssides, George D.; Margaret Lucy Wilkins |title=A reader in new religious movements |publisher=Continuum |location=London |year=2006 |pages=7 |isbn=0-8264-6167-0 |oclc= |doi= |accessdate=}}
+* [[Ashley Deans|Deans, Ashley]] (2005) MUM Press,  ''A Record of Excellence'', ISBN 0-923569-37-5
-* {{Cite book| first=Tamar| last=Gablinger | year=2010 | title=The Religious Melting Point: On Tolerance, Controversial Religions and the State : The Example of Transcendental Meditation in Germany, Israel and the United States  | chapter= | editor= | others=Language: English | pages=354 pages | publisher=Tectum| isbn=	3828825060  | url= | authorlink= | ref=harv | postscript=<!--None--> }}
+* Denniston, Denise, ''The TM Book'', Fairfield Press 1986 ISBN 0-931783-02-X
-* {{Cite book| first=Michael| last=Persinger | year=1980 | title=[[TM and Cult Mania]] | chapter= | editor= | others=Language: English | pages=198 pages | publisher=Christopher Pub House| isbn=0815803923 | url= | authorlink= | ref=harv | postscript=<!--None--> }}
+* Forem, Jack (2012) Hay House UK Ltd,  ''Transcendental Meditation: The Essential Teachings of Maharishi Mahesh Yogi'' ISBN 1-84850-379-2
-* {{Cite book| first=Mikael| last=Rothstein |author-link=Mikael Rothstein | year=1996 | title=Belief Transformations: Some Aspects of the Relation Between Science and Religion in Transcendental Meditation (Tm) and the International Society for Krishna Consciousness  | chapter= | editor= | others=Language: English | pages=227 pages | publisher=Aarhus universitetsforlag| isbn=	8772884215  | url= | authorlink= | ref=harv | postscript=<!--None--> }}
+* Geoff Gilpin, ''The Maharishi Effect: A Personal Journey Through the Movement That Transformed American Spirituality'', Tarcher-Penguin 2006, ISBN 1-58542-507-9* Pollack, A. A., Weber, M. A., Case, D.
+* Jefferson, William (1976) Pocket Books, ''The Story Of The Maharishi'', ISBN 10: 0671805266
-;Non-scholarly
 * Kropinski v. World Plan Executive Council, 853 F, 2d 948, 956 (D.C. Cir, 1988)
+* Marcus, Jay (1991) MIU press, ''Success From Within: Discovering the Inner State That Creates Personal Fulfillment and Business Success''  ISBN 0-923569-04-9
-* Geoff Gilpin, ''The Maharishi Effect: A Personal Journey Through the Movement That Transformed American Spirituality'', Tarcher-Penguin 2006, ISBN 1-58542-507-9
+* Oates, Robert and Swanson, Gerald (1989) MIU Press, ''Enlightened Management: Building High-performance People'' ASIN: B001L8DBY2
-* {{Cite journal| first=Paul| last=Mason | year=2005 | title=Maharishi Mahesh Yogi: The Biography of the Man Who Gave Transcendental Meditation to the World | chapter= | editor= | others=Language: English | pages=335 pages | publisher=Evolution Publishing | isbn=0-9550361-0-0 | authorlink= | ref=harv | postscript=<!--None--> }}
+* {{Cite book| first=Mikael| last=Rothstein |author-link=Mikael Rothstein | year=1996 | title=Belief Transformations: Some Aspects of the Relation Between Science and Religion in Transcendental Meditation (Tm) and the International Society for Krishna Consciousness  | chapter= | editor= | others=Language: English | page=227  | publisher=Aarhus universitetsforlag| isbn=87-7288-421-5  | url= | authorlink= | ref=harv | postscript=<!--None--> }}
+* Roth, Robert (1994) Primus, ''Transcendental Meditation'' ISBN 1-55611-403-6
-;Other Researches
+* [[Andrew A. Skolnick|Skolnick, Andrew]] "Maharishi Ayur-Veda: Guru's Marketing Scheme Promises the World Eternal 'Perfect Health'!", JAMA 1991;266:1741–1750,October 2, 1991.
-* Persinger, M.A. "Transcendental Meditation and general meditation are associated with enhanced complex partial epileptic-like signs: evidence for 'cognitive' kindling?" Perceptual and Motor Skills, 1993, 76, 80-82.
+* Yogi, Maharishi Mahesh (1968) (Bantam Books) ''Transcendental Meditation: Serenity Without Drugs''  ISBN 0-451-05198-X
-* Castillo, R. J. "Depersonalization and Meditation." Psychiatry, 1990, 53, 158-168.
+* Yogi, Maharishi Mahesh  (1967) Penguin, ''Maharishi Mahesh Yogi on the Bhagavad-Gita : A New Translation and Commentary'' ISBN 0-14-019247-6.
-The depersonalization and derealization experiences of novice subjects while meditating by gazing at a blue vase are strikingly similar to the experiences reported by TM meditators.
-* Carsello, C. J. and Creaser, J. W. "Does Transcendental Meditation Affect Grades?" Journal of Applied Psychology, 1978, 63, 644-645. No effect upon grades was demonstrated for TM training.
-* Pollack, A. A., Weber, M. A., Case, D. B., Laragh, J. H. "Limitations of Transcendental Meditation in the treatment of essential hypertension." The Lancet, January 8, 1977, 71-73. Patients showed no significant change in blood-pressure after a 6 month study.
-* Morler, Edward E. "A Preliminary Study of the Effects of Transcendental Meditation on Selected Dimensions of Organization Dynamics." Unpublished doctoral dissertation, 1973.  TM may not have immediate measurable effects, and many changes may be due to placebo effect. (Abstract)
-* Heide, F.J. and Borkovec, T.D. "Relaxation-Induced Anxiety: Mechanism and Theoretical Implications." Behavioral Research Therapy, 1984, 22, 1-12.
-* A.P. French, A.C. Schmid, and E. Ingalls, "Transcendental Meditation, Altered Reality Testing, and Behavioral Change: A Case Report," Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease, 1975, 161, 55-58.
-* R.B. Kennedy, "Self-Induced Depersonalization Syndrome," American Journal of Psychiatry, 1976, 133, 1326-1328.
-* A.A. Lazarus, "Psychiatric Problems Precipitated by Transcendental Meditation,"  Psychological Reports, 1976, 39, 601-602.
-* L.S. Otis, "Adverse Effects of Transcendental Meditation," in D. Shapiro and R. Walsh (eds.), Meditation: Classic and Contemporary Perspectives (New York: Alden, 1984).
-* M.A. Persinger, "Enhanced Incidence of 'The Sensed Presence' in People Who Have Learned to Meditate: Support for the Right Hemispheric Intrusion Hypothesis," Perceptual and Motor Skills, 1992, 75,  1308-1310.
-* J. Younger, W. Adriance, and R.J. Berger, "Sleep during Transcendental Meditation," Perceptual and Motor Skills, 1976,40,953-954.
-* D.L. Schacter, "EEG Theta Waves and Psychological Phenomena: A Review and Analysis."Biological Psychology, 5, 1977, 47-82.
-* Andrew Skolnick, "Maharishi Ayur-Veda: Guru's Marketing Scheme Promises the World Eternal 'Perfect Health'!", JAMA 1991;266:1741-1750,October 2, 1991.
-* James Hassett, "Caution: Meditation Can Hurt," Psychology Today, November 1978, 125-126.
-TM and Cult Mania by Michael Persinger with Normand J. Carrey and Lynn A. Suess. ISBN 0-8158-0392-3
-;By the movement
-* Denniston, Denise, ''The TM Book'', Fairfield Press, Fairfield, Iowa, 1986 ISBN 0-931783-02-X
-* ''Maharishi Mahesh Yogi on the Bhagavad-Gita : A New Translation and Commentary'', Chapters 1–6. ISBN 0-14-019247-6.
-* ''Maharishi Mahesh Yogi: Science of Being and Art of Living : Transcendental Meditation'' ISBN 0-452-28266-7.
 ==External links==
 * [http://www.tm.org Official TM site]
-* [http://articles.latimes.com/2010/nov/15/health/la-he-psychology-fads-20101115 A look at four psychology fads] — a comparison of [[est]], [[primal therapy]], Transcendental Meditation and [[lucid dreaming]] at the ''[[Los Angeles Times]]''
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-[[Category:Transcendental Meditation movement| ]]
+[[Category:Transcendental Meditation| ]]
 [[Category:Meditation]]
 [[Category:Parapsychology]]
 [[Category:Self religions]]
-[[br:Meveriañ trehontel]]
-[[cs:Transcendentální meditace]]
-[[da:Transcendental meditation]]
-[[de:Transzendentale Meditation]]
-[[el:Υπερβατικός διαλογισμός]]
-[[es:Meditación trascendental]]
-[[fr:Méditation transcendantale]]
-[[it:Meditazione trascendentale]]
-[[he:מדיטציה טרנסצנדנטלית]]
-[[lt:Transcendentinė meditacija]]
-[[nl:Transcendente meditatie]]
-[[no:Transcendental meditasjon]]
-[[pl:Medytacja transcendentalna]]
-[[pt:Meditação transcendental]]
-[[ru:Трансцендентальная медитация]]
-[[simple:Transcendental Meditation]]
-[[fi:Transsendenttinen meditaatio]]
-[[sv:Transcendental meditation]]
-[[vi:Thiền Siêu Việt]]

v t e Transcendental Meditation
Programs	History of Transcendental Meditation Maharishi Peace Palace Maharishi Vedic Approach to Health Transcendental Meditation in education Transcendental Meditation technique
Organizations	David Lynch Foundation (US) Global Country of World Peace Maharishi Heaven on Earth Development Natural Law Party Natural Law Party of Canada Natural Law Party (United States) Natural Law Party (Trinidad and Tobago) Transcendental Meditation movement
Education	Maharishi Institute of Management (IN) Maharishi Mahesh Yogi Vedic University (IN) Maharishi School (UK) Maharishi School of the Age of Enlightenment (US) Maharishi University of Management and Technology (IN) Maharishi International University (US) Maharishi Vidya Mandir Schools (IN)
People	Ashley Deans Bevan Morris Brahmananda Saraswati David Lynch David Orme-Johnson Deepak Chopra John Fagan John Hagelin Nancy Cooke de Herrera Maharishi Mahesh Yogi Nancy Lonsdorf Prudence Farrow Tony Nader The Beatles In Bangor In India
Places	Fairfield, Iowa (US) Golden Domes (US) Hararit (IL) Kolleg St. Ludwig (NL) Maharishi Vedic City, Iowa (US)
Media	Catching the Big Fish David Wants to Fly KSCI TM and Cult Mania Transcendence: Healing and Transformation Through Transcendental Meditation