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Simulations of the fluorescence of different fluorescent proteins.

The life sciences comprise the fields of science that involve the scientific study of living organisms – such as microorganisms, plants, animals, and human beings – as well as related considerations like bioethics. While biology remains the centerpiece of the life sciences, technological advances in molecular biology and biotechnology have led to a burgeoning of specializations and interdisciplinary fields.^[1]

Some life sciences focus on a specific type of life. For example, zoology is the study of animals, while botany is the study of plants. Other life sciences focus on aspects common to all or many life forms, such as anatomy and genetics. Yet other fields are interested in technological advances involving living things, such as bio-engineering. Another major, though more specific, branch of life sciences involves understanding the mind – neuroscience.

The life sciences are helpful in improving the quality and standard of life. They have applications in health, agriculture, medicine, and the pharmaceutical and food science industries.

The following is an incomplete list of as well as topics of study in the life sciences, in which there is considerable overlap between many entries:

Topics of study

Affective neuroscience

Affective neuroscience is the study of the neural mechanisms of emotion. This interdisciplinary field combines neuroscience with the psychological study of personality, emotion, and mood.^[2]

Anatomy

Anatomy is the study of the body plan of animals. In some of its facets, anatomy is closely related to embryology, comparative anatomy and comparative embryology,^[3] through common roots in evolution. Human anatomy is important in medicine.

The discipline of anatomy is subdivided into gross (or macroscopic) anatomy and microscopic anatomy. Gross anatomy is the study of structures that can, when suitably presented or dissected, be seen by unaided vision with the naked eye. Microscopic anatomy is the study of structures on a microscopic scale, including histology (the study of tissues) and cytology (the study of cells).

The history of anatomy is characterized by a continual development in understanding of the functions of the organs and structures of the human body. Methods have also improved dramatically, advancing from examination of animals through dissection of cadavers (dead human bodies) to 20th century techniques including X-ray, ultrasound, and magnetic resonance imaging.

Astrobiology

Astrobiology is the study of the origin, evolution, distribution, and future of life in the universe: extraterrestrial life and life on Earth. This interdisciplinary field encompasses the search for habitable environments in our Solar System and habitable planets outside our Solar System, the search for evidence of prebiotic chemistry, laboratory and field research into the origins and early evolution of life on Earth, and studies of the potential for life to adapt to challenges on Earth and in outer space.^[4] Astrobiology addresses the question of whether life exists beyond Earth, and how humans can detect it if it does.^[5] (The term exobiology is similar but more specific — it covers the search for life beyond Earth, and the effects of extraterrestrial environments on living things.)^[6]

Astrobiology makes use of physics, chemistry, astronomy, biology, molecular biology, ecology, planetary science, geography, and geology to investigate the possibility of life on other worlds and help recognize biospheres that might be different from the biosphere on Earth.^[7]^[8] Astrobiology concerns itself with interpretation of existing scientific data; given more detailed and reliable data from other parts of the universe, the roots of astrobiology itself—physics, chemistry and biology—may have their theoretical bases challenged. Although speculation is entertained to give context, astrobiology concerns itself primarily with hypotheses that fit firmly into existing scientific theories.

Biochemistry

Biochemistry, sometimes called biological chemistry, is the study of chemical processes within and relating to, living organisms.^[9] By controlling information flow through biochemical signaling and the flow of chemical energy through metabolism, biochemical processes give rise to the complexity of life. Over the last 40 years, biochemistry has become so successful at explaining living processes that now almost all areas of the life sciences from botany to medicine are engaged in biochemical research.^[10] Today, the main focus of pure biochemistry is in understanding how biological molecules give rise to the processes that occur within living cells, which in turn relates greatly to the study and understanding of whole organisms.

Biochemistry is closely related to molecular biology, the study of the molecular mechanisms by which genetic information encoded in DNA is able to result in the processes of life. Depending on the exact definition of the terms used, molecular biology can be thought of as a branch of biochemistry, or biochemistry as a tool with which to investigate and study molecular biology.

Much of biochemistry deals with the structures, functions and interactions of biological macromolecules, such as proteins, nucleic acids, carbohydrates and lipids, which provide the structure of cells and perform many of the functions associated with life. The chemistry of the cell also depends on the reactions of smaller molecules and ions. These can be inorganic, for example water and metal ions, or organic, for example the amino acids which are used to synthesize proteins. The mechanisms by which cells harness energy from their environment via chemical reactions are known as metabolism. The findings of biochemistry are applied primarily in medicine, nutrition, and agriculture. In medicine, biochemists investigate the causes and cures of disease. In nutrition, they study how to maintain health and study the effects of nutritional deficiencies. In agriculture, biochemists investigate soil and fertilizers, and try to discover ways to improve crop cultivation, crop storage and pest control.

Biocomputers

Biocomputers use systems of biologically derived molecules, such as DNA and proteins, to perform computational calculations involving storing, retrieving, and processing data. The development of biocomputers has been made possible by the expanding new science of nanobiotechnology.

Biocontrol

Biological control is a bioeffector-method of controlling pests (including insects, mites, weeds and plant diseases) using other living organisms.^[11]

Biodynamics

Biodynamic agriculture is a method of organic farming originally developed by Rudolf Steiner that employs what proponents describe as "a holistic understanding of agricultural processes".^[12]^: 145 One of the first sustainable agriculture movements,^[13]^[14]^[15]

Bioinformatics

Bioinformatics is an interdisciplinary scientific field that develops methods for storing, retrieving, organizing and analyzing biological data. A major activity in bioinformatics is to develop software tools to generate useful biological knowledge.

Biology

Biomaterials

Biomechanics

Biomedical science

Biomedicine

Biomonitoring

Biophysics

Biopolymers

Biotechnology

Botany

Cell biology

Cognitive neuroscience

Computational neuroscience

Conservation biology

Developmental biology

Ecology

Environmental science

Ethology

Evolutionary biology

Evolutionary genetics

Food science

Genetics

Genomics

Health sciences

Immunogenetics

Immunology

Immunotherapy

Kinesiology

Marine biology

Medical devices

Medical imaging

Medical Sciences

Medical Social Work

Microbiology

Molecular biology

Neuroethology

Neuroscience

Oncology

Optogenetics

Optometry

Parasitology

Pathology

Pharmacogenomics

Pharmaceutical sciences

Pharmacology

Physiology

Population dynamics

Proteomics

Psychiatric Social Work

Psychology

Sports science

Structural biology

Systems biology

Zoology

Scientific societies

Federation of European Biochemical Societies (FEBS)
European Molecular Biology Organization (EMBO)
International Union of Biological Sciences (IUBS)
Life Sciences Switzerland

References

^ "Life Sciences". Empire State Development Corporation. Government of New York. Retrieved 3 February 2014.
^ Panksepp J (1992). "A role for "affective neuroscience" in understanding stress: the case of separation distress circuitry". In Puglisi-Allegra S, Oliverio A (ed.). Psychobiology of Stress. Dordrecht, Netherlands: Kluwer Academic. pp. 41–58. ISBN 0-7923-0682-1.
^ "Introduction page, "Anatomy of the Human Body". Henry Gray. 20th edition. 1918". Archived from the original on 16 March 2007. Retrieved 19 March 2007.
^ "How the search for aliens can help sustain life on Earth". CNN News. 4 October 2012. Retrieved 2012-10-08. {{cite news}}: |first= missing |last= (help); Check |first= value (help)
^ "About Astrobiology". NASA Astrobiology Institute. NASA. 21 January 2008. Archived from the original on 11 October 2008. Retrieved 2008-10-20. {{cite web}}: Unknown parameter |deadurl= ignored (|url-status= suggested) (help)
^ Mirriam Webster Dictionary entry "Exobiology" (accessed 11 April 2013)
^ iTWire - Scientists will look for alien life, but Where and How?
^ Ward, P. D. (2004). The life and death of planet Earth. New York: Owl Books. ISBN 0-8050-7512-7. {{cite book}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
^ http://portal.acs.org/portal/acs/corg/content?_nfpb=true&_pageLabel=PP_ARTICLEMAIN&node_id=1188&content_id=CTP_003379&use_sec=true&sec_url_var=region1&__uuid=aa3f2aa3-8047-4fa2-88b8-32ffcad3a93e
^ "scientific term 'biochemistry'".
^ Clark, Jack K., ed. (1998). Natural Enemies Handbook: The Illustrated Guide to Biological Pest Control. University of California Press. ISBN 9780520218017. {{cite book}}: Cite uses deprecated parameter |authors= (help)
^ Cite error: The named reference OrgAg2 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
^ Cite error: The named reference PaullJ was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
^ Lotter, D.W. 2003."Organic agriculture" J. Sustainable Agriculture 21(4)
^ Richard Harwood, former C.S. Mott Chair for Sustainable Agriculture at Michigan State University, calls the biodynamic movement the "first organized and well-defined movement of growers and philosophies [in sustainable agriculture] (Harwood 1990; p.6).

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+Bioinformatics is an interdisciplinary scientific field that develops methods for storing, retrieving, organizing and analyzing biological data. A major activity in bioinformatics is to develop software tools to generate useful biological knowledge.
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 {{main|Biology}}

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