My Lai massacre

15°10′42″N 108°52′10″E

My Lai Massacre
Location	Sơn Mỹ village, Sơn Tịnh district of South Vietnam
Date	March 16, 1968
Target	My Lai 4 and My Khe 4 hamlets
Attack type	Massacre
Deaths	347 to 504
Perpetrators	Task force from the United States Army Americal Division Lt. William Calley (convicted)

The My Lai Massacre (, approximately [mi.˧˩˥'lɐːj˧˧]) (Vietnamese: thảm sát Mỹ Lai) was the mass murder of 347 to 504 unarmed citizens of the Republic of Vietnam (South Vietnam), mostly civilians and majority of them women and children, conducted by U.S. Army forces on March 16, 1968. The massacre took place in the hamlets of Mỹ Lai and My Khe of Sơn Mỹ village during the Vietnam War.

The incident prompted widespread outrage around the world and reduced U.S. support at home for the Vietnam War. The massacre is also known as the Sơn Mỹ Massacre (Vietnamese: thảm sát Sơn Mỹ) or sometimes as the Song My Massacre.

The incident

He fired at it [the baby] with a .45. He missed. We all laughed. He got up three or four feet closer and missed again. We laughed. Then he got up right on top and plugged him.

Vietnamese women and children in My Lai shortly before U.S. soldiers killed them, March 16, 1968. Photo by Ronald L. Haeberle

Background

Charlie Company of 1st Battalion, 20th Infantry Regiment, 11th Brigade, 23rd Infantry Division (the Americal Division), arrived in South Vietnam in December 1967. Their first month in-country passed without any direct enemy contact. Nevertheless, by mid-March the company had suffered 28 casualties, including five dead. Most of the deaths were from mines and booby-traps.

During the Tet Offensive of January 1968, attacks were carried out in Quảng Ngãi by the 48th Battalion of the NLF (National Front for the Liberation of South Vietnam, commonly referred to as the Viet Cong). U.S. military intelligence postulated that the 48th NLF Battalion, having retreated, was taking refuge in the village of Sơn Mỹ, in Quang Ngai Province. A number of specific hamlets within that village — designated My Lai 1, 2, 3, and 4 — were suspected of harboring the 48th.

U.S. forces planned a major offensive against those hamlets. Colonel Oran K. Henderson urged his officers to "go in there aggressively, close with the enemy and wipe them out for good." Lieutenant-Colonel Frank A. Barker ordered the 1st Battalion commanders to burn the houses, kill the livestock, destroy foodstuffs, and perhaps to close the wells.

On the eve of the attack, at the Charlie Company briefing, Captain Ernest Medina informed his men that nearly all the civilian residents of the hamlets in Sơn Mỹ village would have left for the market by 07:00 and that any who remained would be NLF or NLF sympathizers. He was also asked whether the order included the killing of women and children; those present at the briefing later gave different accounts of Medina's response. Some of the company soldiers, including platoon leaders, later testified that the orders as they understood them were to kill all guerilla and North Vietnamese combatants and "suspects" (including women and children, as well as all animals), to burn the village, and pollute the wells.

Charlie Company was to enter the hamlet, spearheaded by its 1st Platoon. The other two companies that made up the task force were to cordon off the village.

The massacre

Dead man and child. Photo by Ronald L. Haeberle

Some of the people were trying to get up and run. They couldn't and fell down. This one woman, I remember, she stood up and tried to make it — tried to run — with a small child in her arms. But she didn't make it.

— Army photographer Ronald Haeberle

Charlie Company landed following a short artillery and helicopter gunship preparation. The soldiers found no enemy fighters in the village on the morning of March 16. Many suspected there were NLF troops in the village, hiding underground in the homes of their elderly parents or their wives. The U.S. soldiers, one platoon of which was led by Second Lieutenant William Calley, went in shooting at "suspected enemy position". After the first civilians were killed and wounded by the indiscriminate fire, the soldiers soon began attacking anything that moved, humans and animals alike, with firearms, grenades and bayonets. The scale of the massacre only spiraled as it progressed, the brutality increasing with each killing. BBC News described the scene:

Soldiers went berserk, gunning down unarmed men, women, children and babies. Families which huddled together for safety in huts or bunkers were shown no mercy. Those who emerged with hands held high were murdered. ... Elsewhere in the village, other atrocities were in progress. Women were gang raped; Vietnamese who had bowed to greet the Americans were beaten with fists and tortured, clubbed with rifle butts and stabbed with bayonets. Some victims were mutilated with the signature "C Company" carved into the chest. By late morning word had got back to higher authorities and a cease-fire was ordered. My Lai was in a state of carnage. Bodies were strewn through the village.

More victims at My Lai. Photo by Ronald L. Haeberle

Dozens of people were herded into an irrigation ditch and other locations and killed with automatic weapons. A large group of about 70 to 80 villagers, rounded up by the 1st Platoon in the center of the village, were killed personally by Calley and by soldiers he had ordered to fire. Calley also shot two other large groups of civilians with a weapon taken from a soldier who had refused to do any further killing.

Members of the 2nd Platoon killed at least 60-70 Vietnamese men, women, and children, as they swept through the northern half of My Lai 4 and through Binh Tay, a small subhamlet about 400 meters north of My Lai 4.

After the initial "sweeps" by the 1st and the 2nd Platoons, the 3rd Platoon was dispatched to deal with any "remaining resistance". They immediately began killing every still-living human and animal they could find, including shooting the Vietnamese who emerged from their hiding places, and finishing off the wounded found moaning in the heaps of bodies. The 3rd Platoon also rounded up and killed a group of 7 to 12 women and children.

Since Charlie Company had encountered no enemy opposition, 4th Battalion, 3rd Infantry Regiment, was moved into its landing zone between and attacked the subhamlet of My Khe 4, killing as many as 90 people. U.S. forces lost one man killed and seven wounded from mines and booby traps. During the next two days, both battalions were involved in additional burning and destruction of dwellings, and in the mistreatment of Vietnamese detainees.

Most of the soldiers had not participated in the crimes, but neither did they protest or complain to their superiors.

Helicopter rescue

It looks like a bloodbath down there! What the hell is going on?

— Unidentified helicopter pilot over My Lai

Warrant Officer Hugh Thompson, Jr., a 24-year-old helicopter pilot from an aero-scout team, witnessed a large number of dead and dying civilians as he began flying over the village - all of them infants, children, women and old men, with no signs of draft-age men or weapons anywhere. Thompson and his crew witnessed an unarmed passive woman kicked and shot at point-blank range by Captain Medina (Medina later claimed that he thought she had a grenade). The crew made several attempts to radio for help for the wounded. They landed their helicopter by a ditch, which they noted was full of bodies and in which there was movement. Thompson asked a Sergeant he encountered there if the Sergeant could help get the people out of the ditch, and the Sergeant replied that he would "help them out of their misery". Thompson was shocked and confused but took it as some kind of a joke at the time. As the helicopter took off one of the crew members said "My God, he's firing into the ditch".

Thompson then saw a group of civilians (again consisting of children, women and old men) at a bunker being approached by ground personnel. Thompson landed and told his crew that if the U.S. soldiers shot at the Vietnamese while he was trying to get them out of the bunker that they were to open fire at these soldiers. Thompson later testified that he spoke with a Lieutenant (identified as Calley) and told him there were women and children in the bunker, and asked if the Lieutenant would help get them out. According to Thompson, "he [the Lieutenant] said the only way to get them out was with a hand grenade". Thompson testified that he then told Calley to "just hold your men right where they are, and I'll get the kids out". He found 12 to 16 people in the bunker, coaxed them out and led them to the helicopter, standing with them while they were flown out in two groups.

Returning to My Lai, Thompson and other air crew members noticed several large groups of bodies. Spotting some survivors in the ditch Thompson landed again and one of the crew members entered the ditch. The crew member returned with a bloodied but apparently unharmed child who was flown to safety. The child was thought to be a boy, but later investigation found that it was a 4-year-old girl. Thompson then reported what he had seen to his company commander, Major Watke, using terms such as "murder" and "needless and unnecessary killings". Thompson's reports were confirmed by other pilots and air crew.

In 1998, three former U.S. servicemen who stopped their comrades from killing a number of villagers, significantly reducing casualties at My Lai, were awarded the Soldier's Medal awards in Washington D.C. The veterans also made contact with the survivors of My Lai.

Aftermath

Dead bodies outside a burning dwelling. Photo by Ronald L. Haeberle

I did not see anyone alive when we left the village.

— Private First Class Robert Maples

Owing to the chaotic circumstances and the Army's decision not to undertake a definitive body count, the number of civilians killed at My Lai cannot be stated with certainty. Estimates vary from source to source, with 347 and 504 being the most commonly cited figures. The memorial at the site of the massacre lists 504 names, with ages ranging from one to eighty-two years. A later investigation by the U.S. Army arrived at a lower figure of 347 deaths, the official U.S. estimate.

Cover-up and investigations

The first reports claimed that "128 Vietcong and 22 civilians" were killed in the village during a "fierce fire fight". General William C. Westmoreland, MACV commander, congratulated the unit on the "outstanding job". As related at the time by the Army's Stars and Stripes magazine, "U.S. infantrymen had killed 128 Communists in a bloody day-long battle."

Initial investigations of the My Lai operation were undertaken by the 11th Light Infantry Brigade's commanding officer, Colonel Henderson, under orders from the Americal Division's executive officer, Brigadier General George H. Young. Henderson interviewed several soldiers involved in the incident, then issued a written report in late April claiming that some 22 civilians were inadvertently killed during the operation. The army at this time was still describing the events at My Lai as a military victory that had resulted in the deaths of 128 enemy combatants.

Six months later, Tom Glen, a 21-year-old soldier of the 11th Light Infantry Brigade, wrote a letter to General Creighton Abrams, the new overall commander of U.S. forces in Vietnam, accusing the Americal Division (and other entire units of the U.S. military) of routine and pervasive brutality against Vietnamese civilians. The letter was detailed and its contents echoed complaints received from other soldiers.

Colin Powell, then a 31-year-old Army Major, was charged with investigating the letter, which did not specifically reference My Lai (Glen had limited knowledge of the events there). In his report Powell wrote: "In direct refutation of this portrayal is the fact that relations between American soldiers and the Vietnamese people are excellent." Powell's handling of the assignment was later characterized by some observers as "whitewashing" the atrocities of My Lai. In May 2004, Powell, then United States Secretary of State, told CNN's Larry King, "I mean, I was in a unit that was responsible for My Lai. I got there after My Lai happened. So, in war, these sorts of horrible things happen every now and again, but they are still to be deplored."

The carnage at My Lai might have gone unknown to history if not for another soldier, Ron Ridenhour, a former member of Charlie Company, who, independently of Glen, sent a letter detailing the events at My Lai to President Richard M. Nixon, the Pentagon, the State Department, the Joint Chiefs of Staff, and numerous members of Congress. The copies of this letter were sent in March 1969, a full year after the event. Most recipients of Ridenhour's letter ignored it, with the notable exception of Congressman Morris Udall (D-Arizona). Ridenhour learned about the events at My Lai secondhand, by talking to members of Charlie Company while he was still enlisted.

Eventually, Calley was charged with several counts of premeditated murder in September 1969, and 25 other officers and enlisted men were later charged with related crimes. It was another two months before the American public learned about the massacre and trials.

Independent investigative journalist Seymour Hersh, after extensive conversations with Calley, broke the My Lai story on 12 November 1969; on 20 November, Time, Life and Newsweek magazines all covered the story, and CBS televised an interview with Paul Meadlo. The Cleveland Plain Dealer published explicit photographs of dead villagers killed at My Lai. As is evident from comments made in a 1969 telephone conversation between United States National Security Advisor Henry Kissinger and Secretary of Defense Melvin Laird, revealed recently by the National Security Archive, the photos of the war crime were too shocking for senior officials to stage an effective cover-up. Secretary of Defense Laird was heard to say, "There are so many kids just lying there; these pictures are authentic."

In November 1969, General William R. Peers was appointed to conduct a thorough investigation into the My Lai incident and its subsequent cover-up. Peers' final report, published in March 1970, was highly critical of top officers for participation in a cover-up and the Charlie Company officers for their actions at My Lai 4. According to Peers's findings:

[The 1st Battalion] members had killed at least 175-200 Vietnamese men, women, and children. The evidence indicates that only 3 or 4 were confirmed as Viet Cong although there were undoubtedly several unarmed VC (men, women, and children) among them and many more active supporters and sympathizers. One man from the company was reported as wounded from the accidental discharge of his weapon.

Courts martial

On 17 March, 1970, the United States Army charged 14 officers, including Major General Samuel W. Koster, the Americal Division's commanding officer, with suppressing information related to the incident. Most of those charges were later dropped. Brigade commander Henderson was the only officer who stood trial on charges relating to the cover-up; he was acquitted on December 17, 1971.

After a 10-month-long trial, in which he claimed that he was following orders from his commanding officer, Captain Medina, Calley was convicted, on September 10, 1971, of premeditated murder for ordering the shootings. He was initially sentenced to life in prison. Two days later, however, President Nixon made the controversial decision to have Calley released from prison, pending appeal of his sentence. Calley's sentence was later adjusted, so that he would eventually serve four and one-half months in a military prison at Fort Leavenworth, Kansas, during which time he was allowed routine and unrestricted visits by his girlfriend.

In a separate trial, Captain Medina denied giving the orders that led to the massacre, and was acquitted of all charges, effectively negating the prosecution's theory of "command responsibility", now referred to as the "Medina standard". Several months after his acquittal, however, Medina admitted that he had suppressed evidence and had lied to Colonel Henderson about the number of civilian deaths.

Most of the enlisted men who were involved in the events at My Lai had already left military service, and were thus legally exempt from prosecution. In the end, of the 26 men initially charged, Calley's was the only conviction.

Some have argued that the outcome of the My Lai courts martial was a reversal of the laws of war that were set forth in the Nuremberg and Tokyo War Crimes Tribunals. Those tribunals set a historic precedent, establishing the principle that no one may be excused from responsibility for war crimes because they were "following orders". Secretary of the Army Howard Callaway was quoted in the New York Times as stating that Calley's sentence was reduced because Calley honestly believed that what he did was a part of his orders — a rationale that stands in direct contradiction of the standards set at Nuremberg and Tokyo, where German and Japanese soldiers were executed for similar acts.

Survivors

In the spring of 1972, the camp (at My Lai 2) where the survivors of the My Lai Massacre had been relocated was largely destroyed by Army of the Republic of Vietnam artillery and aerial bombardment. The destruction was officially attributed to "Viet Cong terrorists". However, the truth was revealed by Quaker service workers in the area, through testimony (in May 1972) by Martin Teitel at hearings before the Congressional Subcommittee to Investigate Problems Connected with Refugees and Escapees. In June 1972, Teitel's account of the events was published in the New York Times.

Effects and analysis

The explosive news of the massacre fueled the outrage of the antiwar movement, which demanded the withdrawal of American troops from Vietnam. It also led more potential draftees to file for conscientious objector status. Those who had always argued against the war felt vindicated; those on the fringes of the movement became more vocal.

The more pivotal shift, however, was in the attitude of the general public toward the war. People who previously had not been interested in the peace/war debates began to analyze the issue more closely. The horrific stories of other soldiers began to be taken more seriously, and other abuses came to light.

Some military observers concluded that My Lai showed the need for more and better volunteers to provide stronger leadership among the troops. As the Vietnam combat dragged on, the number of well-educated and experienced career soldiers on the front lines dropped sharply as casualties and combat rotation took their toll. These observers claimed the absence of the many bright young men who did not participate in the draft owing to college attendance or homeland service caused the talent pool for new officers to become very shallow. They pointed to Calley, a young, unemployed college dropout, as an example of the raw and inexperienced being rushed through officer training.

In February 2008 the Scottish Parliament considered the following motion: Motion number S3M-1354 Christine Grahame MSP: Reflecting on 40 Years of US Military Justice—That the Parliament notes that next month will mark the 40th anniversary of the My Lai massacre in Vietnam when between 350 and 500 Vietnamese civilians, the majority of them women and children, were shot dead by US troops who launched a deliberate and unprovoked attack on the village of My Lai; notes the international condemnation of this atrocity and war crime when this incident finally reached the public domain nearly 18 months later; notes that the US forces’ commanding officer Captain Ernest Medina who allegedly planned, ordered and carried out the massacre was subsequently acquitted by US military authorities and that Lieutenant William Calley served only three and a half years under house arrest despite being found guilty by a US court martial of taking a leading role in the massacre; contrasts that to the trials of detainees held at Guantanamo Bay who have already served several years of torture, interrogation and detainment and now face a series of US military tribunals, a process involving questionable prospects of a fair trial and in which even the American Bar Association, representing US attorneys, refuses to participate, and believes that, notwithstanding the seriousness of the charges made against the detainees, in true democracies only the application of law through an open, accountable and truly independent judicial process awards the right to claim authority and leadership in a cynical world increasingly torn apart by conflict, war and terrorism.

Supported by: Rob Gibson MSP, Mike Pringle MSP, Bill Wilson MSP, Bill Kidd MSP

Those involved

Calley and Meadlo were firing at the people. They were firing into the hole. I saw Meadlo firing into the hole.

Q: Well, tell me, what was so remarkable about Meadlo that made you remember him?
A: He was firing and crying.
Q: He was pointing his weapon away from you and then you saw tears in his eyes?

A: Yes.

— Private First Class Robert Maples

Commanders

• Frank A. Barker - Lieutenant-Colonel, commander of the Task Force Barker, ordered the destruction of the village, controlled the artillery preparation and combat assault from his helicopter, was killed in Vietnam on Jun 13 1968, before the investigation had begun.
• William L. Calley, Jr. - Lieutenant who led the 1st Platoon, the only person convicted of murder.
• Oran K. Henderson - Colonel, brigade commander who ordered the attack, had been in the helicopter over My Lai.
• Eugene Kotouc - Captain from the military intelligence, provided some of the information on which the My Lai combat assault was based; together with Medina and a Vietnamese police officer, tortured and executed suspects later that day.
• Ernest Medina - Captain commanding Charlie Company who planned, ordered, and supervised the execution by his company of an unlawful operation against inhabited hamlets in Sơn Mỹ village.

1st Platoon

Some of the soldiers of the 1st Platoon, Charlie Company, included:

• Michael Bernhardt - enlisted man with rank of Sergeant, refused to participate in the killings of civilians and was threatened by Medina to not attempt to expose the massacre by writing to his congressman, and as a result he was allegedly given more dangerous duties such as point duty on patrol. Later he would help expose and detail the massacre in numerous interviews with the press, and also served as a prosecution witness in the trial of Ernest Medina where he was subjected to intense cross examination by defense council F Lee Bailey. Recipient of 1970 'Ethical Humanist Award'
• Herbert Carter - platoon tunnel rat, claimed he shot himself in the foot in order to be MEDEVACed out of the village.
• Dennis Conti - testified he initially refused to shoot but later fired some M79 grenade launcher rounds at a group of fleeing people with unknown effect.
• James Dursi - killed a mother and child, refused to kill anyone else even when ordered.
• Ronald Grzesik - team leader, said he followed orders to round up civilians but refused to kill them.
• Robert Maples - stated to have refused to participate.
• Paul Meadlo - said he was afraid of being shot if he did not participate. Lost his foot to a land mine the next day, later publicly admitted his part in the massacre.
• David Mitchell - Staff Sergeant accused by witnesses of shooting people at the ditch site; pleaded not guilty.
• Varnado Simpson - committed suicide in 1997, citing guilt over several murders committed in My Lai.
• Charles Sledge - radio operator, later prosecution witness.
• Harry Stanley - claimed to have refused to participate.
• Esequiel Torres - In February of the same year he had tortured and hanged an old man because Torres found his bandaged leg suspicious. He and Roschevitz were involved in the shooting of a group of ten women and five children in a hut, later he was ordered by Calley to shoot a number of people with M60 machine gun he fired a burst before he refused to fire again, and his weapon taken over by Calley.

Other soldiers

Charlie Company, the unit deployed in My Lai 4 on the day of the massacre led by Lt. Calley, was one of at least three that swept My Lai 4.

• William Doherty and Michael Terry - soldiers in the 3rd Platoon who killed the wounded in the ditch.[3]
• Ronald L. Haeberle - photographer attached to the llth Brigade information office who accompanied C Company.
• Nicholas Capezza - chief medic in Charlie Company, insisted he saw nothing unusual.
• Gary Roschevitz - according to various witnesses he forced 7 women to undress and perform sex with him, when the women refused he reportedly shot them.

Rescue helicopter

Intervention helicopter's crew consisted of:

• Hugh Thompson, Jr. - Warrant Officer
• Glenn Andreotta - helicopter crew chief
• Lawrence Colburn - helicopter door-gunner

30 years later the crew was decorated for their actions at My Lai with Soldier's Medals, the U.S. non-combat heroism awards. Andreotta, who was killed in action shortly after the events at My Lai, received the medal posthumously.

Photographs

• 
  Unidentified dead Vietnamese woman.
• 
  Unidentified dead Vietnamese man.
• 
  Unidentified dead body thrown down a well.
• 
  Nicholas Capezza burning a dwelling.

All unauthorized photos taken by Ronald L. Haeberle were secretly smuggled out of My Lai, and later sold to Life magazine for $50,000.

Motion picture

Oliver Stone planned to start production on a film titled Pinkville about the investigation of General Peers into the My Lai Massacre, featuring Bruce Willis (as General William Peers), Woody Harrelson (as Col. Henderson). However, United Artists halted its December 2007 production start because of the writers' strike.

See also

• Human Rights Record of the United States
• List of military scandals
• Massacre at Huế
• Phoenix Program
• Tiger Force
• Vietnam War Crimes Working Group Files
• List of massacres

Further reading

• Vietnamese Wikipedia; Thảm sát Sơn Mỹ, cited 7 June 2006. (Vietnamese Wikipedia article on the subject)
• 161st Assault Helicopter Company. Unit History of the 161st Assault Helicopter Company (who intervened in the massacre)
• Americal Division Veterans Association; Americal Locations in Vietnam, cited 3 June 2006.
• Anderson, David L. (1998) Facing My Lai: Moving Beyond the Massacre University Press of Kansas: Lawrence, Kansas — extensive interviews with trial participants and soldiers.
• Becker, Elizabeth. Kissinger Tapes Describe Crises, War and Stark Photos of Abuse., The New York Times, May 27 2004 (mirrored)
• Belknap, Michal R. (2002) The Vietnam War on Trial: The My Lai Massacre and the Court-Martial of Lieutenant Calley. University Press of Kansas. ISBN 0-7006-1211-4.
• Bilton, Michael and Sim, Kevin. (1992) Four Hours in My Lai New York: Viking, 1992 — a recent re-examination, draws extensively on interviews with participants and contains detailed bibliographic references.
• Chomsky, Noam. After Pinkville, Bertrand Russell War Crimes Tribunal on Vietnam, 1971
• Chomsky, Noam and Edward S. Herman. Counter-Revolutionary Violence: Bloodbaths in Fact & Propaganda, 1973 and 2004
• Colburn, Lawrence and Paula Brock. The Choices Made — Lessons from My Lai on Drawing the Line, Seattle Times, March 10 2002
• Gershen, Martin. (1971) Destroy or Die: The True Story of My Lai New York: Arlington House.
• Goldstein, Joseph. (1976) The My Lai Massacre and its Cover-Up New York: Free Press.
• Hammer, Richard. (1971) The Court-Martial of Lt. Calley New York: Coward.
• Hersh, Seymour M. (1972). Cover-up: the Army's secret investigation of the massacre at My Lai 4. Random House. ISBN 0-394-47460-0.
• Hersh, Seymour M. (1970). My Lai 4: A Report on the Massacre and Its Aftermath. Random House. ISBN 0-394-43737-3.
• Hersh, Seymour M. The original, Pulitzer-Prize winning articles about the My Lai massacre for the St. Louis Post Dispatch, 13 November, 20 November and 25 November 1969.
• My Lai and Why It Matters: Review of Ron Ridenhour's Videotaped Lecture
• O'Brien, Tim. (1994) In the Lake of the Woods, McClelland & Stewart. ISBN 1-895246-31-8 — a haunting work of historical fiction about a Vietnam Vet who can't escape his own experience of My Lai.
• Olson, James S. and Roberts, Randy (eds.) (1998) My Lai: A Brief History with Documents, Palgrave MacMillan. ISBN 0-312-17767-4
• Peers, William. (1979) The My Lai Inquiry New York: Norton.
• Raimondo, Maj. Tony, JA. The My Lai Massacre: A Case Study, Human Rights Program, School of the Americas, Fort Benning, Georgia
• Ridenhour, Ron. "Jesus Was a Gook"
• Sack, John. (1971) Lieutenant Calley: His Own Story New York: Viking.
• University of Missouri-Kansas City Law School. The My Lai Courts-Martial, 1970
• Teitel, Martin. Again, the Suffering of Mylai, article preview, New York Times, 7 June 1972, pg. 45.
• Texas Tech University. The Vietnam Oral History Project
• The Toledo Blade. Special Report: Tiger Force
• Valentine, Douglas. The Phoenix Program, 1990. [4]. Chapter 24, "Transgressions" (deals with the My Lai massacre), online: [5]. Author permission further explained: [6]

External links

• An American Tragedy
• The My Lai Courts-Martial 1970
• Into the Dark: The My Lai Massacre
• 1969 TIME article
• The My Lai Courts-Martial 1970
• 'Blood and fire' of My Lai remembered 30 years later
• My Lai Peace Park Project