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</ref> The dam was expected to be fully operational in 2009, but due to additional projects such as the underground [[powerplant]] with 6 additional generators, and due to the complexity of the ship lift, the dam is not expected to become fully operational until about 2009.<ref name="WPhist"/> this is retarded.
</ref> The dam was expected to be fully operational in 2009, but due to additional projects such as the underground [[powerplant]] with 6 additional generators, and due to the complexity of the ship lift, the dam is not expected to become fully operational until about 2009.<ref name="WPhist"/>


==Scale of the project==
==Scale of the project==

Revision as of 01:21, 25 April 2008

Template:Future power plant Template:Infobox Dam The Three Gorges Dam (simplified Chinese: 长江三峡大坝; traditional Chinese: 長江三峽大壩; pinyin: Chángjiāng Sānxiá Dà Bà) is a Chinese hydroelectric river dam that spans the Yangtze River in Sandouping, Yichang, Hubei, China. The aproximation of the hydroelectric potential of the dam reach 22,500 megawatts,[1] at which point it will be, in the world, the largest hydro-electric power station. This is the biggest project that has been undertaken in China since the Great Wall and the Grand Canal. Several generators are yet to be installed; the dam is not expected to become fully operational until about 2011.[citation needed]

As with many dams, there is a debate over costs and benefits. Although there are potential economic benefits such as flood control and hydroelectric power, there are also concerns about the relocation of over 1,500,000 people who have been or will be displaced by the rising waters; siltation that could limit the dam's useful life; loss of numerous valuable archaeological and cultural sites; and significant adverse effects upon animal life.[2]

Vị trí của đập Tam Hiệp và các thành phố chính trên sông Dương Tử.
Vị trí của đập Tam Hiệp và các thành phố chính trên sông Dương Tử.

Project history

The dam was originally envisioned by Sun Yat-sen in The International Development of China in 1919.[3] [4] In 1944, involvement from the United States began when the Bureau of Reclamation engineer J.L. Savage surveyed the area and drew up a dam proposal. Around 54 Chinese engineers were sent to the U.S. for training. Some exploration, survey, economic study, and design work was done, but the government, in the midst of the Chinese Civil War, halted work in 1947.[5]

After the 1949 communist victory, the leader Mao Zedong supported the project, but the Gezhouba Dam project was begun first and economic problems including The Great Leap Forward and the Cultural Revolution slowed progress. In 1958, after the Hundred Flowers Campaign, some engineers who spoke out against the project were imprisoned.[6]

During the 1980s plans were revived. Pushed through by Li Peng, the dam was approved by the National People's Congress in 1992, there were a record number of abstentions and dissenting votes. The construction started on December 14, 1994.[7] The dam was expected to be fully operational in 2009, but due to additional projects such as the underground powerplant with 6 additional generators, and due to the complexity of the ship lift, the dam is not expected to become fully operational until about 2009.[6]

Scale of the project

The dam wall is made of concrete and is about 2,309 metres (7,575 ft) long, and 185 metres (607 ft) high. The wall is 115 metres (377.3 ft) wide on the bottom and 40 metres (131.2 ft) wide on top. The project used 27,200,000 cum[convert: unknown unit] of concrete, 463,000 metric tons of steel, enough to build 63 Eiffel Towers, and moved about 10,260,000 cum[convert: unknown unit] of earth.[8]

When the water level is maximum at 175 metres (574 ft), the reservoir created by the Three Gorges Dam is about 660 kilometres (410 mi) in length and 1.12 kilometres (0.70 mi) in width on average, and contains 39,300,000,000 cum[convert: unknown unit] of water.The total surface area of the reservoir is 1045 sq km. The reservoir will flood total area of 632 sq km of land comparing to 1,350 sq km of the reservoir created by the Itaipu Dam. Comparing to Lake Superior, the Three Gorges Dam reservoir is longer than the lake(560 km), 1.1 % of the surface area of Lake superior(82,400 sq km) and about 1/700 of the volume of the lake(28700 cu km).[9]

The dam will raise the water level the third time to its designed maximium water level(175m above sea level) by the end of 2008.[10]

Economics

Three Gorges Dam Francis Turbine

When finished, the project will have cost no more than 180 billion yuan, over 20 billion yuan less than the initial estimated budget of 203.9 billion yuan, just under 30 billion USD. This is because the calculation accounts for the effect of inflation, and the lower costs are attributed to a low inflation rate in recent years.[11] It is estimated that the cost of construction will be recovered when the dam generates 1000 TWh of the electricity, which will be sold at the price of 250 billion yuan. This will take 10 more years after the dam starts full operation.[3]

Sources for funding include the Three Gorges Dam Construction Fund, revenue from Gezhouba Dam, policy loans from the China Development Bank, loans from domestic and foreign commercial banks, corporate bonds, and revenue from Three Gorges Dam before and after it is fully operational, with additional charges for electricity contributing to the Three Gorges Construction Fund. The additional charges are as follows: Every province receiving power from the Three Gorges Dam has to pay an additional charge of ¥7.00 per MWh. Provinces that will not receive power from the Three Gorges Dam have to pay an additional charge of ¥4.00 per MWh. Tibet does not have to pay any additional money.[12]

Hydroelectricity generation and distribution

Total generating capacity

File:Electricity production in China.PNG
Electricity production in China by source. Compare: The fully completed Three Gorges dam will contribute about 100 TWh of generation per year.
  thermofossil
  hydroelectric
  nuclear

The Three Gorges Dam is the world’s largest hydro-electric power station by total capacity, which will be 22,500 MW.[3] It will have 34 generators in total. 32 of them are main generators, each with a capacity of 700 MW, and the other two are plant power generators to power other 14 generators, each with capacity of 50 MW. Fourteen are installed in the north side of the dam, twelve in the south side and the remaining six in the underground power plant in the mountain south of the dam. After completion, the expected annual electricity generation would be over 100 TWh, 18% more than originally predicted 84.7 TWh, since six more generators were added to the project in 2002.

Generators

There will be total 32 generators in the Three Gorges Dam Project. Each of the generator weights about 6000 tonnes and is designed to produce at least 700 MW of power, which is enough to power 350,000 households. The designed head of the generator is 80.6 m. The flow rate various between 600 cu m to 950 cu m depending on the head available. The Three Gorges Dam project installs Francis Turbine, which is the most efficient turbine in the world. The diameter of the turbine is 9.709/10.427m(VGS design/Alstom's design). It rotates at a speed of 75 rpm. The normal rated power of the generator is 778 MVA. The maximium power is 840 MVA. The power factor is 0.9. The generator prodces electrical power at 20 kV. The outer diameter of the generator stator is 21.42/20.9m. The inner diameter is 18.5/18.8m. The height of the stator is 3.13/2.95m. It is the biggest stator in the world. The load at the bearing is 5050/5500 tonne.
The efficiency of the generator is above 90%.
The generators are manufactured by two joint ventures. One of them includes Alstom , ABB , Kvaerner and the Chinese company Haerbin Motor. The other includes Voith , General Electric , Siemens (abbreviated as VGS), and the Chinese company Oriental Motor. The technology transfer agreement was signed together with the contract. More than 8 of the 32 generators are made in China.
Most of the generators are water-cooled. Some newer ones are air-cooled, which are simpler in design,manufacture and easier to maintain..[13]

Generator installation progress

The 14 generators in north side of the dam have already been installed. The first one (No.2 ) started to power on July 10, 2003. The last one (No.9)started to power on September 7, 2005.All the 14 generators first ran to full power (9800 MW) on October 18, 2006 after the water level had been raised to 156 m.[14]

The first generator (No. 22) in the south side of the dam started working on June 11, 2007. Five generators on the south side of the dam are currently being installed, with another 7 already completed. The sixth generator in the south side (No. 17) started working on December 18 2007. It brought the total capacity of the dam to 14.1 GW, surpassing the generating capacity of Itaipu (14.0 GW), to become the largest hydroelectric power plant in the world. The seventh generator in the south side (No. 17) started working on December 27 2007. The underground power plant and its six generators are still under construction. The Three Gorges Dam project also set the record of having most generators being installed in one year, that is 7 units with a capacity of more than 5000 MW.[15] [16]

Total power generated

Until December 7, 2007, the Three Gorge Dam Project had generated over 207 TWh of electricity, more than one fifth of the 1000 TWh it needs to generate to cover the cost (see Economics section).[17][16]

Three Gorges Dam (left), Gezhouba Dam (right).
Annual Production of Energy
Year Number of
installed units 		GWh
2003 6 8,607
2004 11 39,155
2005 14 49,090
2006 14 49,250
2007 21 61,600
2008 21 9,036
Total 21(32) 216,500

Power distribution

The electricity generated by the Three Gorges Dam project is sold to the State Grid Corporation and China South Power Grid Corporation at a rate of ¥250 per MWh ($35.7 US). Nine provinces and two cities consume the power from it, including Shanghai.[18]

The power distribution and transmission of the Three Gorges Dam project cost about 34.387 billion Yuan. It was completed in December 2007, one year ahead of time.[19]

Power is sent in three directions. The 500 kV DC transmission line to the East China Grid has a capacity of 7,200 MW. There are three 500 kV DC transmission lines: HVDC Three Gorges-Shanghai(3,000 MW), HVDC Three Gorges-Changzhou(3,000 MW) and HVDC Gezhouba - Shanghai(1,200 MW). The 500 kV AC transmission line to Central China Grid has a capacity of 12,000 MW. The other 500 kV DC transmission line HVDC Three Gorges-Guangdong to South China Grid has a capacity of 3,000 MW and supplies Guangdong.[20]

In the original plan, it was expected to provide 10% of electricity consumption in China. However, China’s demand for electricity has increased at a higher rate than was planned, and if fully operational now, it would support about 3% of the total electricity consumption in China.[21]

Environmental Contribution of the dam

Pollutant and greenhouse gas emission reduction

According to The National Development and Reform Commission of China, the average consumption of coal to produce one kWh of electricity in China is 366 grams (2006).[22] Therefore, the Three Gorges Dam will potentially reduce the coal consumption by 31 million tons per year, cutting the emission of 100 million tons of greenhouse gas,[23] millions of tons of dust, 1 million tons of sulfur dioxide, 370 thousand tons of nitric oxide, 10 thousand tons of carbon monoxide and a significant amount of mercury into the atmosphere.[24]

Flood control and drought relief

The most significant function of the dam is to control flooding, which is a major problem of a seasonal river like the Yangtze. Millions of people live downstream of the dam, and many large and important cities like Wuhan, Nanjing and Shanghai lie next to the river. Plenty of farm land and the most important industrial area of China are built beside the river.

In 1954, the river flooded 47.75 million acres (193,000 km²) of land, killing 33,169 people and forcing 18,884,000 people to move. The flood covered Wuhan, a city with 8 million people, for over three months, and the Jingguang Railway was out of order for more than 100 days.[3]

In 1998, a flood in the same area caused billions of dollars in damage. The Chinese government asked for support from its military to fight the flooding. Two thousand and thirty-nine square kilometers of farm land was flooded. The flood affected more than 2.3 million people, and 1,526 were killed.[25]

The reservoir's flood storage capacity is 22 cubic kilometers (18 million acre feet). This capacity will reduce the frequency of major downstream flooding from once every 10 years to once every 100 years. With the dam, it is expected that major floods can be controlled. If a "super" flood comes, the dam is expected to minimize its effect.[3]

Ship locks for river traffic to bypass the Three Gorges Dam, May 2004

The installation of ship locks is intended to increase river shipping from 10 million to 50 million tonnes annually, with transportation costs cut by 30 to 37%. Shipping will become safer, since the gorges are notoriously dangerous to navigate. Each of the two ship locks are made up of 5 stages taking around 4 hours in total to complete and have a capacity of 10,000 tons.[26] Critics argue, however, that heavy siltation will clog ports such as Chongqing within a few years based on the evidence from other dam projects.

The locks are designed to be 280 m long, 35 m wide, and 5 m deep (918 x 114 x 16.4 ft).[27][28] That is 30 m longer than those on the St Lawrence Seaway, but half as deep.

In addition to the canal locks, the Three Gorges Dam will be equipped with a ship lift, a kind of elevator for vessels.[29] The ship lift will be capable of lifting ships of up to 3,000 tons.[30][31][32] In the original plan its capacity was to be 10,000  The ship lift was not yet complete when the rest of the project was officially opened on May 20 2006.[33][34] On October 3 2006, China Daily predicted that the shiplift would be completed in 2008.[35]

Relocation of local residents

The relocation of local residents is the central part of the Three Gorges Dam Project. It is considered as important as the construction of the dam. During the planning stages in the 1990s, it was estimated that 1.13 million residents would be forced to relocate; new developments have doubled that number to 2.3 million.[36] That estimate has been increased and as of 13 October, 2007, 1,400,000 citizens have been displaced, which is about 1.5% of the total population of Hubei Province (60.3 million) and Chongqing City (31.44 million) where the reservoir is located.[37] About 140,000 residents will be relocated out of Hubei province to eastern provinces and some central provinces, and the majority of the remaining people will be relocated within Hubei Province.[38]

On October 11, 2007, Chinese state media announced that under a development plan of Chongqing city, an additional 4 million people will be encouraged to move from their homes near the dam to the Chongqing metropolitan area by the year 2020.[39][40][41]

On one hand, the massive relocation demonstrates the Chinese government's determination and will to complete the huge project. On the other hand, there have been accusations that corruption in the government has kept residents from getting proper assistance. For instance, millions of tax money sent to the town of Gaoyang for the purpose of relocation 13,000 farmers disappeared after it was sent to the local government, and residents were denied compensation.[42]

Criticism

Environmental impact

Main article: Environmental issues with the Three Gorges Dam

Of the 3,000 to 4,000 remaining critically endangered Siberian Crane, a large number currently spend the winter in wetlands that will be destroyed by the Three Gorges Dam. The dam also contributed to the functional extinction of the Baiji, the Yangtze river dolphin. In addition, populations of the Yangtze sturgeon are guaranteed to be "negatively affected" by the dam.

While logging in the area was required for construction which adds to erosion, stopping the periodic and uncontrolled flooding of the river will lessen bank erosion in the long run. The build up of silt in the reservoir will, however, reduce the amount of silt transported by the Yangtze River to the Yangtze Delta and could reduce the effectiveness of the dam for electricity generation and, perhaps more importantly, the lack of silt deposited in the peninsula could result in erosion and sinking of coastal areas.

Effect on local culture and aesthetic values

The 600 kilometer (375 mi) long reservoir has or will flood some 1,300 archaeological sites and alter the appearance of the Three Gorges as the water level rises over one hundred meters at various locations.[43] Cultural and historical relics are being moved to higher ground as they are discovered but the flooding of the Gorge will undoubtedly cover some undiscovered relics. Some other sites cannot be moved because of their location, size or design. For example the hanging coffins site high in the Shen Nong Gorge is inherently part of the sheer cliffs themselves.[44]

These historical sites contain remnants of the homeland of the Ba, an ancient people who settled in the region more than 3000 years ago.[45] One of the traditions of the Ba was to bury the dead in coffins in caves high on the cliff, some of which are submerged and others will soon be submerged.[44]

Sedimentation

There are two hazards uniquely identified with the dam. One is that sedimentation projections are not agreed upon, and the other is that the dam sits on a seismic fault.[46]

Excessive sedimentation can block the sluice gates which can cause dam failure under some conditions. This was a contributing cause of the Banqiao Dam failure in 1975 that precipitated the failure of 61 other dams and resulted in over 20,000 deaths. Critics believe that the Yangtze will add 530 million tons of silt into the reservoir on average per year; in time, this silt could accumulate behind the walls of the dam, clogging the turbines' entranceway. Further, the absence of silt down stream would have two dramatic effects:

  • Some hydrologists think that this could make downstream riverbanks more vulnerable to flooding.[citation needed]
  • The city of Shanghai, more than one thousand miles (1600 km) away from the dam, rests on a massive plain of sediment. The "arriving silt -- so long as it does arrive -- strengthens the bed on which Shanghai is built... the less the tonnage of arriving sediment the more vulnerable is this biggest of Chinese cities to inundation..."[47]

Also, the weight of the dam and reservoir can cause induced seismicity, which occurred with the Katse Dam in Lesotho. The Benthic sediment build up is a cause of biological damage and reduction in aquatic biodiversity.[48]

National Security Concerns

In an annual report to the United States Congress, the Department of Defense cited that in Taiwan, “proponents of strikes against the mainland apparently hope that merely presenting credible threats to China’s urban population or high-value targets, such as the Three Gorges Dam, will deter Chinese military coercion.”[49] The notion that the Military of the Republic of China would seek to destroy the Dam provoked an angry response from the mainland China media. People’s Liberation Army General Liu Yuan was quoted in the China Youth Daily saying that the People’s Republic of China would be "seriously on guard against threats from Taiwan independence terrorists".[50]

Future projects upstream

In order to maximize the utility of the Three Gorges Dam and cut down on sedimentation from the Jinsha, a tributary of the Yangtze river, China plans to build a series of dams upstream of the Yangtze river, including Wudongde Dam, Baihetan Dam, Xiluodu Dam, Xiangjiaba Dam, and downstream of Jinsha. The total capacity of those four dams is 38,500 MW,[51] almost double the capacity of the Three Gorges.[52] There are also another eight dams in the midstream of the Jinsha and eight more upstream of it.[53]

Fictional appearances

  • In Max Brooks’ novel World War Z, the large artificial lake upstream of the dam is the site of the initial zombie outbreak before the war; a superstitious character suggests that the outbreak is a retribution for the destruction of ancient holy sites. Later in the novel, the Dam is overrun by zombie hordes, which make the emergency pressure release valves impossible to reach. This eventually results in the Three Gorges Dam rupturing, resulting in a massive tsunami which races to the ocean, destroying what remains of Wuhan, Nanjing, and Shanghai.[54][3]
  • In the novel Dragon Bones by Lisa See, a murder investigation takes place at the Three Gorges Dam.[55]
  • In the video game Civilization IV the dam is a World Wonder, providing power to the entire continent.[3]
  • In the video game Command & Conquer: Generals, the dam is blown up by both the Chinese government and a terrorist organization under plot lines. The series is banned in China.[3]
  • Jia Zhangke’s film, Still Life, describes the destiny of two couples with connections to the dam.[3]
  • Construction of main dam including cranes
    Construction of main dam including cranes
  • Nearly completed Three Gorges Dam, downstream side
    Nearly completed Three Gorges Dam, downstream side
  • Downstream side at night
    Downstream side at night
  • Upstream side before filling
    Upstream side before filling
  • Locks under construction (view from above)
    Locks under construction (view from above)
  • Inside a lock of the Three Gorges Dam
    Inside a lock of the Three Gorges Dam

Model of dam:

  • Spillway view
    Spillway view
  • Ship locks
    Ship locks
  • South dam
    South dam

See also

Part of a series on
Renewable energy

References

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  53. ^ "Beyond Three Gorges in China". Water Power Magazine. 2007-01-10. Retrieved 2007-10-13. {{cite news}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
  54. ^ Matthew S. Muller. Amazon.com review of World War Z: An Oral History of the Zombie War.
  55. ^ "Lisa See - Dragon Bones". Retrieved 2008-01-19.
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