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Stalking is a legal term for repeated harassment or other forms of invasion of a person's privacy in a manner that causes fear to its target. Statutes vary between jurisdiction but may include such acts as:

repeated following;
unwanted contact (by letter or other means of communication);
observing a person's actions closely for an extended period of time; or
contacting family members, friends, or associates of a target inappropriately
cyberstalking

According to the National Center for Victims of Crime, 1 out of every 12 women will be stalked during her lifetime. 1 out of 45 men will be stalked during his lifetime. Over one million women and nearly 380,000 men are stalked annually. [1]

Psychology and behaviors

Exactly like any other crime or clinical disorder, stalking exists on a continuum of severity. The stalking may be so subtle that the victim may not even be aware that it is happening, or the perpetrator may have no malicious intent. They may even have a sincere belief that the victim would like them, or have a desire to help the victim.[2] Contrary to other crimes that usually consist of a single act, stalking consists of a series of actions, which in themselves can be legal, such as calling on the phone, sending gifts, or sending emails.[3] Most cases of stalking do not ever rise to extreme levels of violence or harassment. [4]

The stalker will often derogate the victim which reduces them to an object. This allows the stalker to feel angry at them without experiencing empathy, or feel they are entitled to behave as they please toward the victim. Viewing the victim as "lesser," "weak" or otherwise seriously flawed can support delusions that the victim needs to be rescued, or punished, by the stalker. They may slander or defame the character of the victim which helps to isolate them and give the stalker more control, or a feeling of power.

Stalkers may use manipulative behavior such as bringing legal action against the victim, or threatening to commit suicide in order to coerce the victim to intervene--all methods of forcing contact with the stalker.

Stalkers may use threats and violence to frighten the victim. They may engage in vandalism and property damage (usually to the victims car). They may use physical attacks that leave abrasions and bruises which are mostly meant to frighten. Less common are physical attacks that leave serious physical injuries, or sexual assaults. [5]

Types of stalkers

Psychologists tend to group stalkers into two categories: psychotic and nonpsychotic. Many stalkers have pre-existing psychotic disorders such as delusional disorder, schizoaffective disorder, or schizophrenia. Most stalkers are nonpsychotic and exhibit disorders such as major depression, adjustment disorder, or substance dependence, as well as a variety of Axis II personality disorders, such as antisocial, avoidant, borderline, dependent, narcissistic, or paranoid. The nonpsychotic stalkers' pursuit of victims can be influenced by various psychological factors, including anger and hostility, projection of blame, obsession, dependency, minimization and denial, and jealousy. [6]

In "A Study of Stalkers," Mullen et al (2000) [7] identify six types of stalkers:

Rejected stalkers: pursue their victims in order to reverse, correct, or avenge a rejection (e.g. divorce, separation, termination).
Resentful stalkers: pursue a vendetta because of a sense of grievance against the victims - motivated mainly by the desire to frighten and distress the victim.
Intimacy seekers: The intimacy seeker seeks to establish an intimate, loving relationship with their victim. To them, the victim is a long sought-after soul mate, and they were meant to be together. Intimacy seekers do not always assume the victim is their soulmate, but sometimes just as a potential mate out of lonliness.
Eroto-manic stalker: This stalker believes that the victim is in love with them. The erotomaniac reinterprets what their victim says and does to support the delusion, and is convinced that the imagined romance will eventually become a permanent union. They often target a celebrity or a person of a higher social status. Though it is important to note, not all celebrity stalkers are eroto-maniacs.
Incompetent suitor: despite poor social/courting skills, possess a sense of entitlement to an intimate relationship with those who have attracted their amorous interest.
Predatory stalker: spy on the victim in to prepare and plan an attack - usually sexual – on the victim.

The 2002 National Victim Association Academy define an additional form of stalking. The Terrorism stalker also known as the political stalker, uses stalking as a means to accomplish a political agenda, often by using threats and intimidation to force their taget to refrain and/or become involved in some particular activity, regardless of the victim's consent.[8]

Many stalkers fit categories with paranoid disorders. Intimacy-seeking stalkers often have delusional disorders that are secondary to preexisting psychotic disorders such as schizophrenia. With rejected stalkers, the continual clinging to a relationship of an inadequate or dependant person couples with the entitlement of the narcissistic personality, and the persistent jealousy of the paranoid personality. In contrast, resentful stalkers demonstrate an almost “pure culture of persecution,” with delusional disorders of the paranoid type, paranoid personalities, and paranoid schizophrenia. [9]

Gender

Most stalkers are male, but women can also become stalkers. Women are more likely to target someone they have known such as a professional contact, and are more likely to target other females. Men usually do not target other men. The majority of female stalkers are intimacy seekers, whereas men show a broader range of motivations. Women are as likely to use violence as men, and there does not tend to be a difference between genders regarding the duration of a stalking. Thus, while the contexts and motives for stalking may differ between men and women, the intrusiveness of the behaviors and potential for harm does not.[10][11]

Laws on stalking

The first law to criminalise stalking in developed countries is the one in California, enacted in 1990. ^{[citation needed]} Within seven years thereafter, every state in the United States and some other common-law jurisdictions followed suit to create the crime of stalking, perhaps under different names such as criminal harassment or criminal menace. ^{[citation needed]} The laws against stalking in different jurisdictions vary, and so do the definitions. (see U.S. Stalking Laws) Some make the act illegal as it stands, while others do only if the stalking becomes threatening or endangers the receiving end. In England and Wales, liability may arise in the event that the victim suffers either mental or physical harm as a result of being stalked (see R. v. Constanza).^{[citation needed]} Many states in the US also recognize stalking as grounds for issuance of a civil restraining order. Since this requires a lower burden of proof than a criminal charge, laws recognizing non-criminal allegations of stalking suffer the same risk of abuse seen with false allegations of domestic violence. ^{[citation needed]}

In 2000, Japan enacted a national law to combat this behaviour. However, the nature of the acts of stalking can be viewed as acts "interfering the tranquility of others' lives", and are prohibited under petty offence laws in China, made in 1987 (replaced by a new law, but the substance is preserved). ^{[citation needed]} Stalking, as in the context of organised crimes suppression, is expressly forbidden under Macau's laws.^{[citation needed]}

The United Nations in 2003 regarded stalking a crime against humanity.^{[citation needed]}

Effects of Stalking

Stalking does not consist of single incidents, but is a continuous process. Stalking can be a terrifying experience for victims, placing them at risk of psychological trauma, and possible physical harm. As Rokkers writes, "Stalking is a form of mental assault, in which the perpetrator repeatedly, unwantedly, and disruptively breaks into the life-world of the victim, with whom he has no relationship (or no longer has)....Moreover, the separated acts that make up the intrusion cannot by themselves cause the mental abuse, but do taken together (cumulative effect)."[12]

Common effects of stalking on a victim's mental and emotional health include:

Denial and self-doubt (the victim does not believe what is happening to them, and will doubt their perceptions)
Self-blame
Guilt, shame or embarrassment
Frustration
Low self-esteem
Self-consciousness or insecurity
Shock and confusion
Irritability
Fear and anxiety; phobias and panic attacks
Anger; feeling violent towards the stalker
Depression
Emotional numbness
Flashbacks
Isolation/disconnection from other people
Feeling on guard most of the time (hypervigilance); being easily startled
Difficulties with concentration or attention
Feeling suicidal
A loss of trust in others
Problems with intimacy
Decreased ability to perform at work or school, or accomplish daily tasks
Post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) or complex post-traumatic stress disorder (C-PTSD)

Common effects of stalking on a victim’s physiological health:

References for the above lists: [13],[14],[15], [16]

Stalking in popular culture

The 1983 single Every Breath You Take by The Police describes the motivations of a stalker. While the song sounds like a sedate and seemingly harmonious love ballad, it was actually written during the collapse of Sting's marriage to Frances Tomelty; the lyrics describe not well-meaning love, but the motivations of a stalker, who is watching "every breath you take/every move you make".^{[citation needed]}

For a detailed list of stalked celebrities, see List of stalked celebrities.

For further reading

Australian Institute of Criminology stalking articles
How To Stop A Stalker. Proctor, Mike. Prometheus Books, 2000.
The Psychology of Stalking. Meloy, J. Reid. Academic Press, 2000.
Stalkers and Their Victims. Mullen,Paul E., Pathe, Michele, Purcell, Rosemary. Cambridge University Press, 2000.
Surviving a Stalker: Everything You Need to Know to Keep Yourself Safe. Gross, Linda. Marlowe & Company, 2000.
Anotated Stalking Bibliography

Stalking in media and literature

The Executioners: novel by John D. MacDonald, and later two fim adaptations titled Cape Fear; a lawyer and his family are stalked by a former client bent on revenge. (resentful stalker)
Fatal Attraction: film starring Michael Douglas and Glenn Close, man is stalked by a woman with whom he had a brief affair (rejected stalker)
Hostile Advances: The Kerry Ellison Story: television movie about a woman stalked by a coworker, and the case that set the "Reasonable Woman" precedent in sexual harassment law
Les Miserables: novel by Victor Hugo, with several film adaptations and a broadway musical, ex-convict Jean Valjean, is stalked for years by an obsessed police inspector
Play Misty for Me: Clint Eastwood movie about eroto-manic stalking of a radio celebrity
Sleeping with the Enemy: novel by Nancy Price, and later a movie starring Julia Roberts; a women escapes an abusive marriage, and is subsequently stalked by her violent husband. (rejected stalker)
The Stalking of Laurie Show: television movie based on the real-life account of the brutal murder of a Lancaster, Pennsylvania teenager, who was stalked by a jealous schoolmate

External links

@@ Line 26: / Line 26: @@
 *'''Rejected stalkers:''' pursue their victims in order to reverse, correct, or avenge a rejection (e.g. divorce, separation, termination).
 *'''Resentful stalkers:''' pursue a vendetta because of a sense of grievance against the victims - motivated mainly by the desire to frighten and distress the victim.
-*'''Intimacy seekers:''' The intimacy seeker seeks to establish an intimate, loving relationship with their victim. To them, the victim is a long sought-after soul mate, and they were meant to be together.
+*'''Intimacy seekers:''' The intimacy seeker seeks to establish an intimate, loving relationship with their victim. To them, the victim is a long sought-after soul mate, and they were meant to be together. Intimacy seekers do not always assume the victim is their soulmate, but sometimes just as a potential mate out of lonliness.
 *'''Eroto-manic stalker:''' This stalker believes that the victim is in love with them.  The erotomaniac reinterprets what their victim says and does to support the delusion, and is convinced  that the imagined romance will eventually become a permanent union.  They often target a celebrity or a person of a higher social status. Though it is important to note, not all celebrity stalkers are eroto-maniacs.
 *'''Incompetent suitor:''' despite poor social/courting skills, possess a sense of entitlement to an intimate relationship with those who have attracted their amorous interest.