Jump to content

Mary Mallon

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

This is an old revision of this page, as edited by Chocohall (talk | contribs) at 23:03, 2 August 2021 (→Biography: Fixed typo). The present address (URL) is a permanent link to this revision, which may differ significantly from the current revision.

"Typhoid Mary" redirects here. For the fictional character, see Typhoid Mary (comics). For the book, see Typhoid Mary: An Urban Historical.

Mary Mallon
A white woman with dark hair is lying in a hospital bed; she is looking at the camera
Mallon in 1909
Born(1869-09-23)September 23, 1869
Cookstown, Ireland
DiedNovember 11, 1938(1938-11-11) (aged 69)
North Brother Island, New York, U.S.
Resting placeSaint Raymond's Cemetery, The Bronx, New York, U.S.
Other names
  • Mary Brown
  • Typhoid Mary
OccupationCook
Known forAsymptomatic carrier of typhoid fever

Mary Mallon (September 23, 1869 – November 11, 1938), also known as Typhoid Mary, was an Irish-born cook believed to have infected 53 people with typhoid fever, three of whom died, and the first person in the United States identified as an asymptomatic carrier of the disease, Salmonella typhi.[1][2] Because she persisted in working as a cook, by which she exposed others to the disease, she was twice forcibly quarantined by authorities, eventually for the final two decades of her life. Mallon died after a total of nearly 30 years in isolation.[3][4]

Biography

Early life

Mary Mallon was born in 1869 in Cookstown, County Tyrone, in what is now Northern Ireland. Presumably, she was born with typhoid because her mother was infected during pregnancy.[5][6][7] At the age of 15, she immigrated to the United States.[6][8] She lived with her aunt and uncle for a time and worked as a maid, but eventually became a cook for affluent families.[9][10]

Career

From 1900 to 1907, Mallon worked as a cook in the New York City area for eight families, seven of whom contracted typhoid.[11][12] In 1900, she worked in Mamaroneck, New York, where within two weeks of her employment, residents developed typhoid fever. In 1901, she moved to Manhattan, where members of the family for whom she worked developed fevers and diarrhea, and the laundress died. Mallon then went to work for a lawyer and left after seven of the eight people in that household became ill.[13][14]

In June 1904, she was hired by a prosperous lawyer, Henry Gilsey. Within a week, the laundress was infected with typhoid, and soon four of the seven servants were ill. No members of Gilsey's family were infected, because they resided separately, and the servants lived in their own house. The investigator Dr. R. L. Wilson concluded that the laundress had caused the outbreak, but he failed to prove it. Immediately after the outbreak began, Mallon left and moved to Tuxedo Park,[15] where she was hired by George Kessler. Two weeks later, the laundress in his household was infected and taken to St. Joseph's Regional Medical Center, where her case of typhoid was the first in a long time.[10]

In August 1906, Mallon took a position in Oyster Bay on Long Island with the family of a wealthy New York banker, Charles Henry Warren. Mallon went along with the Warrens when they rented a house in Oyster Bay for the summer of 1906. From August 27 to September 3, six of the 11 people in the family came down with typhoid fever. The disease at that time was "unusual" in Oyster Bay, according to three medical doctors who practiced there. The landlord, understanding that it would be impossible to rent a house with the reputation of typhoid, hired several independent experts to find the source of infection. They took water samples from pipes, faucets, toilets, and the cesspool, all of which were negative for typhoid.[1][16][17]

Investigation

In late 1906, Mallon was hired by Walter Bowen, whose family lived on Park Avenue. Their maid got sick on January 23, 1907, and soon Charles Warren's only daughter got typhoid and died. This case helped to identify Mallon as the source of the infections. George Soper, an investigator hired by Warren after the outbreak in Oyster Bay, had been trying to determine the cause of typhoid outbreaks in well-to-do families, when it was known that the disease typically struck in unsanitary environments. He discovered that a female Irish cook, who fit the physical description he had been given, was involved in all of the outbreaks. He was unable to locate her because she generally left after an outbreak began, without giving a forwarding address. Soper then learned of an active outbreak in a penthouse on Park Avenue and discovered Mallon was the cook. Two of the household's servants were hospitalized, and the daughter of the family died of typhoid.[13]

Soper first met Mallon in the kitchen of the Bowens and accused her of spreading the disease. Though Soper himself recollected his behavior "as diplomatic as possible", he infuriated Mallon and she threatened him with a carving fork.[13][18] When Mallon refused to give samples, Soper decided to compile a five-year history of her employment. He found that of the eight families that had hired Mallon as a cook, members of seven claimed to have contracted typhoid fever.[19] Then Soper found out where Mallon's boyfriend lived and arranged a new meeting there. He took Dr. Raymond Hoobler in an attempt to persuade Mary to give them samples of urine and stool for analysis. Mallon again refused to cooperate, believing that typhoid was everywhere and that the outbreaks had happened because of contaminated food and water. At that time, the concept of healthy carriers was unknown even to healthcare workers.[10][20][21]

Soper published his findings on June 15, 1907, in the Journal of the American Medical Association.[22] He wrote:

It was found that the family changed cooks on August 4. This was about three weeks before the typhoid epidemic broke out. The new cook, Mallon, remained in the family only a short time and left about three weeks after the outbreak occurred. Mallon was described as an Irish woman about 40 years of age, tall, heavy, single. She seemed to be in perfect health.[23]

First quarantine (1907–1910)

Mallon (foreground) in a hospital bed

Soper notified the New York City Health Department, whose investigators realized that Mallon was a typhoid carrier. Under sections 1169 and 1170 of the Greater New York Charter, Mallon was arrested as a public health threat. She was forced into an ambulance by five policemen and Dr. Josephine Baker, who at some point had to sit on Mallon to restrain her.[20] Mallon was transported to the Willard Parker Hospital, where she was restrained and forced to give samples. For four days, she was not allowed to get up and use the bathroom on her own.[24] The massive numbers of typhoid bacteria that were discovered in her stool samples indicated that the infection center was in her gallbladder. Under questioning, Mallon admitted that she almost never washed her hands. This was not unusual at the time; the germ theory of disease still was not fully accepted.[13][25]

On March 19, 1907, Mallon was sentenced to quarantine on North Brother Island. While quarantined, she gave stool and urine samples three times per week. Authorities suggested removing her gallbladder, but she refused because she did not believe she carried the disease. At the time, gallbladder removal was dangerous, and people had died from the procedure.[26] Mallon was also unwilling to stop working as a cook, a job that earned her more money than any other. Having no home of her own, she was always on the verge of poverty.

After the publication of Soper's article in the Journal of the American Medical Association, Mallon attracted extensive media attention and received the nickname "Typhoid Mary".[27] Later, in a textbook that defined typhoid fever, she again was called "Typhoid Mary".[28]

Soper visited Mallon in quarantine, telling her he would write a book and give her part of the royalties.[29] She angrily rejected his proposal and locked herself in the bathroom until he left.[30] She hated the nickname and wrote in a letter to her lawyer:

I wonder how the said Dr. William H. Park would like to be insulted and put in the Journal and call him or his wife Typhoid William Park.[27]

Not all medical experts supported the decision to forcibly quarantine Mallon. For example, Milton J. Rosenau and Charles V. Chapin both argued that she just had to be taught to carefully treat her condition and ensure that she would not transmit the typhoid to others. Both considered isolation to be an unnecessary, overly strict punishment.[31] Mallon suffered from a nervous breakdown after her arrest and forcible transportation to the hospital. In 1909, she tried to sue the New York Health Department, but her complaint was denied and the case closed by the New York Supreme Court.[32] In a letter to her lawyer, she complained that she was treated like a "guinea pig". She was obliged to give samples for analysis three times a week, but for six months was not allowed to visit an eye doctor, even though her eyelid was paralyzed and she had to bandage it at night. Her medical treatment was hectic: she was given urotropin in three-month courses for a year, threatening to destroy her kidneys. That was changed to brewers yeast and hexamethylenamin in increasing doses.[33][27][34] She was first told that she had typhoid in her intestinal tract, then in her bowel muscles, then in her gallbladder.[27]

Mallon herself never believed that she was a carrier. With the help of a friend, she sent several samples to an independent New York laboratory. All came back negative for typhoid.[31] On North Brother Island, almost a quarter of her analyses from March 1907 through June 1909 were also negative.[24] After 2 years and 11 months of Mallon's quarantine, Eugene H. Porter, the New York State Commissioner of Health, decided that disease carriers should no longer be kept in isolation and that Mallon could be freed if she agreed to stop working as a cook and take reasonable steps to avoid transmitting typhoid to others. On February 19, 1910, Mallon said she was "prepared to change her occupation (that of a cook), and would give assurance by affidavit that she would upon her release take such hygienic precautions as would protect those with whom she came in contact, from infection."[35] She was released from quarantine and returned to the mainland.[34][36][37]

Release and second quarantine (1915–1938)

Poster depiction of "Typhoid Mary"

Upon her release, Mallon was given a job as a laundress, which paid less than cooking—$20 per month instead of $50. At some point, she wounded her arm and the wound became infected, meaning that she could not work at all for six months.[38] After several unsuccessful years, she started cooking again. She used fake surnames like Breshof or Brown, and took jobs as a cook against the explicit instructions of health authorities. No agencies that hired servants for upscale families would offer her employment, so for the next five years, she moved to the mass sector. She worked in a number of kitchens in restaurants, hotels, and spa centers. Almost everywhere she worked, there were outbreaks of typhoid.[35] However, she changed jobs frequently, and Soper was unable to find her.[13]

In 1915, Mallon started working at Sloane Hospital for Women in New York City. Soon 25 people were infected, and two died. The head obstetrician, Dr. Edward B. Cragin, called Soper and asked him to help in the investigation. Soper identified Mallon from the servants' verbal descriptions and also by her handwriting.[35][38]

Mallon again fled, but the police were able to find and arrest her when she took food to a friend on Long Island.[13][36] Mallon was returned to quarantine on North Brother Island on March 27, 1915.[36][38]

Little is known about her life during the second quarantine. She remained on North Brother for more than 23 years, and the authorities gave her a private one-story cottage. As of 1918, she was allowed to take day trips to the mainland. In 1925, Dr. Alexandra Plavska came to the island for an internship. She organized a laboratory on the second floor of the chapel and offered Mallon a job as a technician. Mallon washed bottles, did recordings, and prepared glasses for pathologists.[39][40]

Death

Mallon spent the rest of her life in quarantine at Riverside Hospital on North Brother Island. Mallon was quite active until suffering a stroke in 1932; afterwards, she was confined to the hospital.[1] She never completely recovered, and half of her body remained paralyzed.[41] On November 11, 1938, she died of pneumonia at age 69.[2] Mallon's body was cremated, and her ashes were buried at Saint Raymond's Cemetery in the Bronx.[42] Nine people attended the funeral.[43][44]

Some sources claim that a post-mortem found evidence of live typhoid bacteria in Mallon's gallbladder.[1][13][45] Soper wrote, however, that there was no autopsy, a claim cited by other researchers to assert a conspiracy to calm public opinion after her death.[46][1]

Legacy

A historical poster warning against acting like Typhoid Mary

Aftermath

Research by a reliable source led to an estimate that Mallon had contaminated "at least one hundred and twenty two people, including five dead".[1] Other sources attribute at least three deaths to contact with Mallon, but because of health officials' inability to persuade her to cooperate, the exact number is not known. Some have estimated that contact with her may have caused 50 fatalities.[13]

In a 2013 article in the Annals of Gastroenterology, the authors concluded:

The history of Mary Mallon, declared “unclean” like a leper, may give us some moral lessons on how to protect the ill and how we can be protected from illness...By the time she died New York health officials had identified more than 400 other healthy carriers of Salmonella typhi, but no one else was forcibly confined or victimized as an “unwanted ill”.[1]

Other healthy typhoid carriers identified in the first quarter of the 20th century include Tony Labella, an Italian immigrant, presumed to have caused over 100 cases (with five deaths); an Adirondack guide dubbed "Typhoid John", presumed to have infected 36 people (with two deaths); and Alphonse Cotils, a restaurateur and bakery owner.[47]

The health technology of the era did not have a completely effective solution: there were no antibiotics to fight the infection, and gallbladder removal was a dangerous, sometimes fatal operation. Some modern specialists claim that the typhoid bacteria can become integrated in macrophages and then reside in intestinal lymph nodes or the spleen.[48][49]

Mary Mallon's case became the first in which an asymptomatic carrier was discovered and forcibly isolated. The ethical and legal issues raised by her case are still discussed.[6][50][51]

Two scholarly sources combined to provide this conclusion:[52] 

"This case highlighted the problematic nature of the subject and the need for an enhanced medical and legal-social treatment model aimed at improving the status of disease carriers and limiting their impact on society".

In culture

Today, the phrase "Typhoid Mary" is a colloquial term for anyone who, knowingly or not, spreads disease or some other undesirable thing.[53]

Mallon's urban legend status in New York inspired the name of the rap group Hail Mary Mallon.[54]

References

  1. ^ a b c d e f g Marineli et al. 2013.
  2. ^ a b "'Typhoid Mary' Dies Of A Stroke At 68. Carrier of Disease, Blamed for 51 Cases and 3 Deaths, but Immune". The New York Times. November 12, 1938. Archived from the original on June 5, 2011. Retrieved February 28, 2010. Mary Mallon, the first carrier of typhoid bacilli identified in America and consequently known as Typhoid Mary, died yesterday in Riverside Hospital on North Brother Island.
  3. ^ The Gospel of Germs: Men, Women, and the Microbe in American Life, ISBN 0674357086
  4. ^ Typhoid Mary: An Urban Historical, ISBN 160819518X
  5. ^ Adler & Mara 2016, pp. 137–145.
  6. ^ a b c Walzer Leavitt 1996, p. 14.
  7. ^ Elsevier 2013, p. 189.
  8. ^ Cliff & Smallman-Raynor 2013, p. 86.
  9. ^ Kenny 2014, p. 187.
  10. ^ a b c Adler & Mara 2016, p. 137.
  11. ^ Elsevier 2013, p. 56.
  12. ^ Walzer Leavitt 1996, p. 16.
  13. ^ a b c d e f g h Dex; McCaff (August 14, 2000). "Who was Typhoid Mary?". The Straight Dope. Archived from the original on December 30, 2017. Retrieved June 7, 2011.
  14. ^ Adler & Mara 2016, pp. 140–141.
  15. ^ Soper 1939, p. 703.
  16. ^ Soper 1939, p. 699.
  17. ^ "Dinner With Typhoid Mary" (PDF). FDA. Archived from the original (PDF) on December 21, 2019. Retrieved July 1, 2018.
  18. ^ Soper, George A. (June 15, 1907). "The work of a chronic typhoid germ distributor". J Am Med Assoc. 48 (24): 2019–22. doi:10.1001/jama.1907.25220500025002d. Archived from the original on December 21, 2019. Retrieved July 5, 2019.
  19. ^ Satin, Morton (2007). Death in the Pot. New York: Prometheus Books. p. 169.
  20. ^ a b Soper 1939, pp. 704–705.
  21. ^ Rogers 2017, pp. 72–74.
  22. ^ Ochs, Ridgely (2007). "Dinner with Typhoid Mary". Newsday.
  23. ^ "Dinner With Typhoid Mary" (PDF). FDA. Archived from the original (PDF) on December 21, 2019. Retrieved July 1, 2018.
  24. ^ a b Alexander 2004.
  25. ^ Adler & Mara 2016, p. 143.
  26. ^ Brooks, J (March 15, 1996). "The sad and tragic life of Typhoid Mary". CMAJ: Canadian Medical Association Journal. 154 (6): 915–916. ISSN 0820-3946. PMC 1487781. PMID 8634973.
  27. ^ a b c d "In Her Own Words". NOVA PBS. Archived from the original on April 26, 2010. Retrieved May 14, 2020.
  28. ^ Satin, Morton (2007). Death in the Pot. New York: Prometheus Books. p. 171.
  29. ^ Soper 1939, p. 709.
  30. ^ "The Most Dangerous Woman In America". Nova. Episode 597. October 12, 2004. Event occurs at 28:42-29:52. PBS. Archived from the original on July 21, 2014. Retrieved August 31, 2014.
  31. ^ a b Walzer Leavitt & Numbers 1997, p. 560.
  32. ^ "Topics in Chronicling America - Typhoid Mary". The Library of Congress. October 9, 2014. Archived from the original on April 25, 2020. Retrieved May 11, 2020.
  33. ^ Walzer Leavitt & Numbers 1997, p. 561.
  34. ^ a b Adler & Mara 2016, pp. 143–145.
  35. ^ a b c Soper 1939, pp. 708–710.
  36. ^ a b c "Food Science Curriculum" (PDF). Illinois State Board of Education. p. 118. Archived from the original (PDF) on December 18, 2010. Retrieved February 9, 2011.
  37. ^ Marion Daily Mirror 1910, p. 2.
  38. ^ a b c Leavitt, Judith (October 12, 2004). "Typhoid Mary: Villain or Victim?". PBS Online. Archived from the original on May 17, 2020. Retrieved May 11, 2020.
  39. ^ Walzer Leavitt 1996, p. 195.
  40. ^ Campbell Bartoletti 2015, p. 141.
  41. ^ Campbell Bartoletti 2015, p. 143.
  42. ^ Satin, Morton (December 2, 2009). Death in the Pot: The Impact of Food Poisoning on History. Prometheus Books. p. 174. ISBN 978-1-615-92224-6.
  43. ^ "'TYPHOID MARY' DIES OF A STROKE AT 68; Carrier of Disease, Blamed for 51 Cases and 3 Deaths, but She Was Held Immune Services This Morning Epidemic Is Traced". The New York Times. November 12, 1938. Archived from the original on April 21, 2020. Retrieved May 14, 2020.
  44. ^ "Typhoid Mary's tragic tale exposed the health impacts of 'super-spreaders'". National Geographic. March 18, 2020. Archived from the original on May 1, 2020. Retrieved May 14, 2020.
  45. ^ "Bad Blood". Drunk History. Season 6. Episode 16.
  46. ^ Soper 1939, p. 712.
  47. ^ "Epidemiology". March 2001. Archived from the original on March 3, 2016.
  48. ^ Singer, Emily (August 16, 2016). "The Strange Case of Typhoid Mary". Quanta Magazine. Archived from the original on May 13, 2020. Retrieved May 26, 2020.
  49. ^ Monack, Denise (August 14, 2013). "Scientists get a handle on what made Typhoid mary's infectious microbes tick". Stanford University School of Medicine. Archived from the original on May 23, 2020. Retrieved May 26, 2020.
  50. ^ Walzer Leavitt & Numbers 1997, p. 559.
  51. ^ Women and Early Public Health 1995, pp. 154–156.
  52. ^ The Other Islands of New York City: A History and Guide (Third ed.). The Countryman Press. June 6, 2011. ISBN 9780881509458.
  53. ^ "Dictionary Reference Website: Typhoid Mary". Dictionary.reference.com. Retrieved March 23, 2020.
  54. ^ Breihan, Tom. "Aesop Rock Launches New Group Hail Mary Mallon, Tours and Works With Kimya Dawson". Pitchfork. Archived from the original on August 16, 2018. Retrieved May 24, 2020.

Sources

Further reading

See also

Wikimedia Commons has media related to Mary Mallon.
Look up Typhoid Mary in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Mary_Mallon&oldid=1036827603"