Mahayana

Mahayana (Template:Lang-sa → Template:Lang-en, Chinese: 大乘, Dàshèng; Japanese: 大乗, Daijō; Korean: 대승, Dae-seung; Vietnamese: Đại Thừa) is one of two major branches of Buddhism existing today, the other being Theravada (上座部). Mahayana originated during the first century CE in the Indian subcontinent, and spread to China during the second century CE. Subsequently it spread throughout East Asia. The main countries in which it is practiced today are China, Tibet, Taiwan, Japan, Korea, and Vietnam.

Mahayana is a vast religious and philosophical structure. It constitutes an inclusive faith characterized by the adoption of new sutras, in addition to the traditional Pali canon, and a shift in the understanding of Buddhism, an understanding which sees itself as penetrating further and more profoundly into the Buddha's Dharma. In the Mahaparinirvana Sutra, for instance, the Buddha tells of how his initial teachings on suffering, impermanence and non-Self were given to those who were still like "small children", unable to digest the full "meal" of Truth, whereas when those spiritual students "grow up" and are no longer satisfied by the preliminary ingredients of the Dharmic meal fed to them and require fuller sustenance, they are then ready to assimilate the full and balanced fare of the Mahayana teachings (Tibetan Mahaparinirvana Sutra).

Mahayana Buddhist schools namely Pure Land Buddhism deemphasize the traditional Theravada ideal of the release from suffering and attainment of Awakening, with the Buddha being an eternal, immutable, inconceivable, omnipresent being. In addition, most Mahayana schools believe in a pantheon of quasi-divine Bodhisattvas (菩薩) that devote themselves to personal excellence, ultimate knowledge and the salvation of humanity and all other sentient beings (animals, ghosts, etc.). Some Zen Buddhists deemphasize Bodhisattvas and may dismiss them altogether, favoring instead concentrating their attention on meditation and the present moment. If these particular Zen Buddhists do believe in Bodhisattvas it is usually only in seeing the Bodhisattva qualities as already within themselves. Bodhisattvas to these Zen practioners are more reminders and examples of the ideal and potential that already lies within us all then deities to be worshiped and prayed to. In Mahayana, the Buddha is seen as an idealized example, present in all times, in all beings and in all places, and the Bodhisattvas come to represent the universal ideal of altruistic excellence.

The fundamental principles of Mahayana doctrine were based around the possibility of universal liberation from suffering for all beings (hence "great vehicle") and the existence of Buddhas and Bodhisattva embodying transcendent Buddha-nature (佛性) - the eternal Buddha essence present but hidden and unrecognised in all beings - who strive to achieve such a goal. Some Mahayana schools simplify the expression of faith for the common lay people, by allowing salvation to be alternatively obtained through the grace of the Buddha Amitabha (阿彌陀佛) by having faith and devoting oneself in chanting to Amitabha. This devotional lifestyle of Buddhism is most strongly emphasized by the Pure Land schools and has greatly contributed to the success of Mahayana in East Asia, where spiritual elements traditionally relied upon chanting of a buddha's name, of mantras or dharanis, reading of Mahayana sutras and mysticism.

From Mahayana developed the esoteric Vajrayana found mainly in Tibet, Nepal, Bhutan and Mongolia but also in adjacent areas of China, and even India and Russia. The Vajrayana school claims to encompass all previous schools.

The most complete Mahayana Canon today exists in the Chinese language, mostly in translation from Sanskrit originals. In East Asia, Mahayana scriptures and terminology are traditionally written in classical Chinese. Two mainstream subsets of Mahayana Buddhism today are Amidism or Pure Land (淨土宗) and Zen Buddhism (禪/禅宗).

Doctrine

Mahayana Buddhism can be characterized by:

Universalism, in that everyone will become a buddha (see, for example, the Lotus Sutra);
Bodhicitta as the main focus of realization (see, for example, the Nirvana Sutra and various Prajnaparamita Sutras);
Compassion through the transferral of merit;
Salvation - as opposed to liberation - supported by a rich cosmography, including celestial realms and powers, with a spectrum of bodhisattvas (菩薩), both human and seemingly godlike, who can assist followers.
Transcendental immanence, in that the immortal Buddha Principle (see, for example, Buddha-nature, Mahaparinirvana Sutra, Angulimaliya Sutra, Srimala Sutra, Tathagatagarbha Sutra) is present within all beings.

“Philosophical” Mahayana tends to focus on the first three characteristics (universalism, enlightened wisdom, compassion) and, in some schools, the Buddha-nature, without showing much interest in supernatural constructions, while “devotional” Mahayana focuses mainly on salvation towards other-worldly realms (see, for example, the Sukhavati sutras).

Universalism

Mahayana traditions generally consider that attainment of the level of an arhat is not final. This is based on a subtle doctrinal distinction between the Mahayana and the early Buddhist schools concerning the issues of nirvana-with-remainder and nirvana-without-remainder.

The early schools considered that nirvana-without-remainder always follows nirvana-with-remainder (buddhas first achieve enlightenment and then, at 'death', mahaparinirvana) and that nirvana-without-remainder is final; whereas the Mahayana traditions consider that nirvana-without-remainder is always followed by nirvana-with-remainder – the state of attainment of the Hinayana arhat is not final, and is eventually succeeded by the state of buddhahood, or total Awakening.

This distinction is most evident regarding doctrinal concerns about the capability of a buddha after nirvana (which is identified by the early schools as being nirvana-without-remainder). Most importantly, amongst the early schools, a samyaksambuddha is not able to directly point the way to nirvana after death. This is a major distinction between the early schools and the Mahayana, who conversely state that once a samyaksambuddha arises, he or she continues to directly and actively point the way to nirvana until there are no beings left in samsara (輪迴). Because the views of early schools and Mahayana differ in this respect, this is exactly why the Mahayana do not talk about a bodhisattva postponing nirvana, and exactly why the early schools do.

For example, the early schools held that Maitreya (彌勒菩薩) will not attain nirvana while Gautama Buddha's teachings still exist. In contrast, some Mahayana schools hold that Maitreya will be the next buddha manifest in this world and will introduce the dharma when it no longer exists; he is not postponing his nirvana to do so, and when he dies (or enters mahaparinirvana), he will likewise continue to teach the dharma for all time. Moreover, some Mahayana schools argues that although it is true that for this world-system, Maitreya will be the next buddha to manifest, there are an infinite number of world-systems, many of which have currently active buddhas or buddhas-to-be manifesting.

So, based on the doctrinal distinctions between the early schools and the Mahayana concerning the meaning of nirvana-without-remainder, we see two distinct views concerning the path of the bodhisattva, with the early schools stating that bodhisattvas postpone their own nirvana, whereas the Mahayana schools state that bodhisattvas attempt to reach nirvana as soon as possible, just as sravakas do, but with the motive to continue to effortlessly benefit all beings for all time due to the distinction of views regarding the ability of a buddha after mahaparinirvana.

Because the Mahayana traditions assert that eventually everyone will achieve samyaksambuddhahood or total enlightenment, the Mahayana is labelled universalist, whereas because the Nikaya traditions assert that there are three routes to nirvana, which are distinct, they are considered not to be universalist.

Bodhicitta

According to most Mahayana followers, traditional Buddhism (Theravada)tends to focus on an ascetic, individual approach to the attainment of nirvana: suppression of desire, removal from the world, solitude. Its followers are śrāvakas (聲聞) and pratyekabuddhas (緣覺).

The primary focus of some Mahayana schools is bodhicitta (菩提心), the vow to strive for buddhahood or awakened mind both for oneself and for the benefit of all other sentient beings. Being a high-level bodhisattva involves possessing a mind of great compassion conjoined with insight into reality (prajna, 般若), realizing emptiness (shunyata, 空), and/or the tathagatagarbha (buddhic essence of all things, 如來藏). With this mind the practitioner will realize the final goal of full enlightenment, or buddhahood: an omniscient, blissful mind completely free from suffering and its causes, that is able to work tirelessly for the benefit of all living beings. Six virtues or perfections (paramitas) are listed for the bodhisattva: generosity, morality, patience, energy, meditation, and wisdom.

Many “philosophical” schools and sutras of Mahayana Buddhism have focused on the nature of enlightenment and nirvana itself, from the Madhyamika (中観派) and its rival, Yogacara (瑜伽行), to the Tathagatagarbha (如來藏) teachings and Zen (禪宗).

Compassion

Compassion, or Karuna (悲), is the other key concept of Mahayana, and is a necessity to Bodhicitta. Compassion is important in all schools of Buddhism, but is particularly emphasized in Mahayana. It relies on the idea that acquired merit can be transmitted to others.

The bodhisattvas are the main actors of compassion, Avalokitesvara (known in East Asia as Guan Yin, 觀音菩薩) being foremost among them. Although having reached enlightenment, bodhisattvas usually make a vow to postpone entering into nirvana (涅槃) until all other beings have also been saved. They devote themselves to helping others reach enlightenment.

The Mahayana idea that liberation is universal (see below) also allows for one to focus less on the release of personal suffering and more on humanity's salvation, and is consequently described to be more universally compassionate and caring for the welfare of others than other traditions of Buddhism.^{[citation needed]}

A comparison between Hinayana (the name given by Mahayanists to the earlier Buddhist traditions) and Mahayana made by the 10th century Tibetan author Jé Gampopa in The Jewel Ornament of Liberation follows:

‘Clinging to the well-being of mere peace' signifies the lower capacity [Hinayana] attitude wherein the longing to transcend suffering is focused on oneself alone. This precludes the cherishing of others and hence there is little development of altruism. [...] When loving kindness and compassion become part of one, there is so much care for other conscious beings that one could not bear to liberate oneself alone. [...] Master Manjushriikiirti has said: ‘A Mahayana follower should not be without loving kindness and compassion for even a single moment', and ‘It is not anger and hatred but loving kindness and compassion that vouchsafe the welfare of others'.

Expedient Means

The term Expedient Means is first coined in the Lotus Sutra, but is generally accepted in all Mahayana schools of thought. In the Mahaparinirvana Sutra, for instance, the Buddha tells of how his early teachings on suffering, impermanence and non-Self were given to those who were still like "small children", unable to digest the full "meal" of Truth, whereas when those spiritual students "grow up" and are no longer satisfied by the preliminary ingredients of the Dharmic meal fed to them but require fuller sustenance, they are then ready to assimilate the balanced and complete fare of the Mahayana doctrines (Tibetan Mahaparinirvana Sutra).

Salvation

“Devotional” Mahayana developed a rich cosmography, with various supernatural Buddhas and Bodhisattvas residing in paradisiacal realms. The concept of trinity, or trikaya (三身), supports these constructions, making the Buddha himself into a transcendental god-like figure.

Under various conditions, these realms could be attained by devotees after their death so that when reborn they could strive towards buddhahood in the best possible conditions. Depending on the sect, this salvation to “paradise” can be obtained by faith, imaging, or sometimes even by the simple invocation of the Buddha’s name. This approach to salvation is at the origin of the mass appeal of devotional Buddhism, especially represented by the Pure Land (浄土宗).

This rich cosmography also allowed Mahayana to be quite syncretic and accommodating of other faiths or deities. Various origins have been suggested to explain its emergence, such as “popular Hindu devotional cults (bhakti), and Persian and Greco-Roman theologies, which filtered into India from the northwest” (Tom Lowenstein, “The vision of the Buddha”).

Transcendental Immanence

The teaching of a "Buddha Principle" (Buddha-dhatu) or "Buddha Nature" innate to and inseparable from all sentient beings is a doctrine which is indicated by the Buddha in a number of Mahayana sutras to constitute the "absolutely final culmination" of his Dharma (see Nirvana Sutra). The essential idea (articulated in the Tathagatagarbha sutras, but not accepted by all Mahayana) is that no being is without a concealed but indestructible interior link to Awakening (bodhi), and that this link is an uncreated element [dhatu] or principle deep inside each being which constitutes nothing less than the deathless, diamond-like "essence of the Self" (Nirvana Sutra). In the Mahaparinirvana Sutra, the Buddha declares: "The essence of the Self (atman) is the subtle Tathagatagarbha ..."

"The Buddha-dhatu [Buddha Principle, "Buddha Nature"] of beings inheres / abides within the five skandhas [transitory components of the being]."

"The Buddha-dhatu is the True Self and, like a diamond, for example, it cannot be destroyed".

The actual "seeing and knowing" of this Buddha-dhatu (co-terminous with the Dharmakaya or Self of Buddha) is said to usher in nirvanic Liberation. This Buddha-dhatu or Tathagatagarbha is revealed to be both immanent (found in every single person, ghost, god and creature, etc.) and transcendental (it is uncreated, deathless and ultimately beyond rational grasping or conceptualisation). Yet it is this already real and present, hidden internal element of bodhi (Awakeness) which, according to the Tathagatagarbha sutras, prompts beings to seek after Liberation from worldly suffering and enables them to attain the spotless bliss which lies at the heart of their being. Once the veils of negative thoughts, feelings and unwholesome behaviour (the kleshas) have been eliminated from the mind and character, the indwelling Buddha-dhatu (Buddha Principle / "Buddha Nature") is enabled to shine forth unimpededly and to transform the seer of it into a Buddha. Thus the Buddha-dhatu teaching is both an ontological and a soteriological doctrine: it reveals the immortal, Buddhic "True Self" (as the Buddha in the Mahaparinirvana Sutra repeatedly terms it) which is found to lie at the core of each being when all the obscuring, transient elements of the false ego are seen through and transcended, and it further verbalises the liberative and transformative power inherent in the Tathagatagarbha when once that vision of the innermost essence or svabhava of oneself and all other beings has been secured.

This immanentist and essentialist doctrine is by no means universal in Mahayana Buddhism and has long been a subject of vigorous debate.

Mahayana Scriptures

Like Theravada Buddhism, Mahayana Buddhism takes the scricptures of the Pali Canon and the Agamas as the basis of its teachings. This includes doctrines such as the Four Noble Truths, The Middle Way and the Eightfold Path. While the Theravada branch of Buddhism preserves the scriptures through a collection called the Pali Canon, the Mahayana collection is known as the Agamas or the Sarvastivadin Canon. On top of this (and contrary to Theravada), Mahayana Buddhism maintains additional collections of sutras not found in Theravada Buddhism.

The first of the Mahayana-specific writings were written probably around the 1st century BCE. Some of the Mahayana Sutras, such as certain parts of the Perfection of Wisdom sutras (般若波羅蜜多經), are presented as actual sermons of the Buddha that had been hidden. By some accounts, these sermons were passed on by oral tradition, as with other sutras; other accounts state that they were hidden and then revealed several centuries later by some mythological route. In addition to sutras, some Mahayana texts are essentially commentaries.

Among the earliest major Mahayana scriptures attested to historically are the Perfection of Wisdom (Prajna-Paramita) sutras, the Avatamsaka Sutra (華嚴經), the Lotus Sutra (妙法蓮華經), the Vimalakīrti Sutra (維摩詰經), and the Nirvana Sutra (涅槃經).

The Mahayana sometimes divide Shakyamuni Buddha's teachings into three general categories, known as "turnings of the wheel of dharma (truth)": the Hinayana (小乘), the Prajna Paramita (般若波羅蜜多經), and the Tathagatagarbha (如來藏) teachings.

The Mahayana canon further expanded after Buddhism was transmitted to other countries such as China and Tibet, where the existing texts were translated. New texts, such as the Platform Sutra (六祖壇經) and the Sutra of Perfect Enlightenment (圓覺經) were explicitly not of Indian origin, but were widely accepted as valid scriptures on their own merits. Other later writings included the Linji Lu (臨済錄), a commentary by Chán (禪宗) master Linji Yixuan (臨済義玄). In the course of the development of Korean Buddhism and Japanese Buddhism, further important commentaries were composed. These included, for example, in Korea, some of the writings of Jinul, and in Japan, works such as Dogen's Shobogenzo.

Origins

The earliest origins of Mahayana-like thinking can be placed in the 1st century BCE (approximately 400 years after the Buddha), as a few of the Mahayana Sutras contain some text dated to this period. As a distinct movement Mahayana began around the 1st century CE in the area around the Kushan Empire (now part of Pakistan). Subsequently it was transmitted in a more highly evolved form to China in the second century CE. Mahayana's exact origin is unknown, however, a number of common elements and background are suggested by various scholars and theologians.

The Abhidharma in the modern Theravada Pali canon and a Sarvastivada Abhidharma composed in Sanskrit that survives in both the Chinese and Tibetan traditions, has no common order of composition. This indicates that overall, Buddhism became increasingly fragmented and that this might have led to a widening distance between laity and sangha, who were increasingly preoccupied with theological speculation. The Mahayana movement, on the other hand, was ecumenical, reflecting a wide range of theology from both the Sthaviravada (上座部) and Mahasanghika (大眾部) sects. (Paul Williams, "Mahayana Buddhism", 1989). Moreover, those who believe that Mahayana sutras were invented during this period speculate that the process of reshuffling sutras in terms of relevance to various Abbhidharma eventually led to editing itself. This process slowly eroded the taboo regarding the composition of new sutras. This Mahayana movement was rejected by the Theravada schools as heretical.

Another important element is the lay practice of stupa devotion, which was actively encouraged by Ashoka. According to Akira Hirakawa (A History of Indian Buddhism: From Sakyamuni to Early Mahayana), stupas — which were initially mere monuments to Gautama Buddha — increasingly became the place of devotion and of spreading Buddhism to the masses, the majority of whom were illiterate Hindus. On the inside wall of the stupa, pictures were drawn or sculpted depicting the life of Buddha and his previous lives as a bodhisattva. This has given rise to devotion to the transcendent omnipresent and always-present Buddha and the bodhisattvas, distinct from the purely monastic sangha (see Early Buddhist schools).

Epigraphical evidence

An early Mahayana Buddhist triad. From left to right, a Kushan devotee, the Bodhisattva Maitreya, the Buddha, the Bodhisattva Avalokitesvara, and a Buddhist monk. 2nd-3rd century CE, Gandhara.

One of the first known mentions of the Buddha using the word Bhagavat or Bhagavan ("Supreme Lord") is a dedication on a relic vase inserted in a stupa in Gandhara, written in Kharoshthi by an Indo-Greek meridarch (civil governor of a province) named Theodorus in the 1st century BCE:

"Theudorena meridarkhena pratithavida ime sarira sakamunisa bhagavato bahu-jana-stitiye":

"The meridarch Theodorus has enshrined relics of Lord Shakyamuni, for the welfare of the mass of the people"

(Swāt relic vase inscription of the Meridarkh Theodoros [1])

The earliest stone inscriptions containing recognizably Mahayana formulations and a mention of the Buddha Amitabha were found in the Indian subcontinent in Mathura and dated to around 180 CE. Remains of a statue of a Buddha bear the Brahmi inscription:

"Made in the year 28 of the reign of king Huvishka, ... for the Buddha Amitabha" (Mathura Museum).

Such inscriptions in Indian proper (Mathura) are rather late and few (the next known one is dated to the end of the 3rd century), in comparison to the multiplicity of Mahayana writings transiting from Central Asia to China at that time, and the involvement of Central Asian Buddhist monks, suggesting the focus of Mahayana development was probably in the northwest.

Scriptures

The first known Mahayana texts are translations made into Chinese by the Kushan monk Lokaksema (支娄迦谶) in the Chinese capital of Luoyang, between 178 and 189 CE.

Lokaksema's work includes the translation of the Pratyutpanna Sutra, containing the first known mentions of the Buddha Amitabha and his Pure Land, said to be at the origin of Pure Land practice in China, and the first known translations of the Prajñāpāramitā Sūtra, a founding text of Mahayana Buddhism.

The 4th Buddhist Council

The formal rise of Mahayana Buddhism has been dated to around the middle of the 2nd century CE, when the Kushan (貴霜) emperor Kanishka convened the 4th Buddhist Council in Gandhara, which according to Mahayana legend confirmed the formal scission of Mahayana Buddhism (大乘) from the traditional Nikaya (小部) schools of Buddhism. Scholars however consider this council purely Sarvastivada, if not fictitious.

This was also the time and place of a rich cultural interaction between Buddhism and Hellenistic culture, which influenced the early representations of buddhas, in what is known as Greco-Buddhist art.

Expansion (1st c.CE–10th c.CE)

From the 1st century CE and within the space of a few centuries, Mahayana was to flourish and spread in from India to South-East Asia, and towards the north to Central Asia, China, Korea and Japan.

Mahayana disappeared from India during the 11th century, and consequently lost its influence in South-East Asia where it was replaced by Theravada Buddhism from Sri Lanka.

Mahayana remains, however, the most followed of the Buddhist doctrines to this day in Eastern Asia and the world.

Bibliography

Paul Williams, Mahayana Buddhism, Routledge, 1989
Schopen, G. "The inscription on the Kusan image of Amitabha and the character of the early Mahayana in India", Journal of the International Association of Buddhist Studies 10, 1990
”The Vision of the Buddha”, Tom Lowenstein, ISBN 1-903296-91-9
Kevin Lynch, The Way Of The Tiger: A Buddhist's Guide To Achieving Nirvana, Yojimbo Temple, 2005

Older works

Beal, Catena of Buddhist Scriptures from the Chinese, (London, 1871)
J. J. M. de Groot, Le code de Mahayana en Chine, (Amsterdam, 1893)
S. Kuroda, Outline of Mahayana, (Tokyo, 1893)
D. T. Suzuki, Outline of Mahayana Buddhism, (London, 1907)
Asvaghosa, Sutralamkasa trad. sur la version chinoise par Huber, (Paris, 1908)
Haas, Amida Buddha unsere Zuflucht, (from the Japanese, Leipzig, 1910)
Murdoch, History of Japan, volume i., (Yokohama, 1910)
Walleser, Die mittlere Lehre des Nagarjuna, (translated from the Tibetan, Heidelberg, 1911; from the Chinese, ib., 1912)
D. T. Suzuki, in The Monist, volume xxiv, (Chicago, 1914). The Monist was edited by Paul Carus.

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