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Shushi

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"Shusha" redirects here. For other uses, see Shushi (disambiguation). For the Brazilian entertainer, see Xuxa. For the Persian-born singer and writer, see Shusha Guppy.
Shushi
Շուշի
Coat of arms of Shushi Շուշի
Coat of arms
Location of Shushi in Nagorno-Karabakh
Location of Shushi in Nagorno-Karabakh
UnrecognizedNagorno-Karabakh
RayonShusha (rayon)
Government
 • MayorFelix Hakobyan[1]
Highest elevation
1,800 m (5,900 ft)
Lowest elevation
1,400 m (4,600 ft)
Population
 (2006)
 • Total~3,000


Shushi (Template:Lang-hy), known as Shusha (Template:Lang-az) by Azerbaijanis, is a town in the de-facto independent Nagorno-Karabakh Republic. It serves at the capital of the Shushi province. De jure, it is an administrative division of Azerbaijan and serves as the administrative center of the surrounding rayon of Shusha. However, Azerbaijan presently has no control over the city, as it has been under the control of the Nagorno-Karabakh Republic since its capture in 1992 during the Nagorno-Karabakh War. Situated 1400-1800 meters (4,600-5,900 ft) above sea level on the picturesque Karabakh mountains ridge, it was a popular mountainous-climatic recreation resort in the Soviet Union. It was the only large settlement in the Nagorno-Karabakh Autonomous Oblast with a predominantly non-Armenian population[2][3][4]; the population is now almost exclusively Armenian who use the Armenian equivalent of the town's name - Shushi.

Shusha's fortress was built to serve as the capital of Karabakh khanate, and the city was one of the cultural centers of the South Caucasus after the Russian conquest of the region in first half of the 19th century. It was home to many intellectuals, poets, writers and especially, musicians (e.g, the ashugs, mugham singers, kobuz players).[5] In 1977 it was declared reservation of Azerbaijan architecture and history. The city was often referred to as "musical capital or conservatory of Transcaucasia".[6]

The city was also a major center of Armenian cultural and economic life until the closing years of World War I.[7] Furthermore, it had religious and strategic importance to the Armenians, housing the Ghazanchetsots Cathedral (Cathedral of the Holy Savior; Armenian: Սբ. Ամենափրկիչ), the church of Kanatch Zham (Church of the Holy Mother of God; Armenian: Սբ. Աստվածածին) and serving (along with Lachin district to the west) as a land link to Armenia.

History

Foundation

Shusha was founded in 1750-1752 (according to other sources, 1756-1757) by Panah-Ali khan Javanshir (r. 1748-1763), the founder and the first ruler of the independent[8] Karabakh khanate (1748-1822). Initially the town was named Panahabad, after its founder[9][10]. Later during the rule of Ibrahim-Khalil khan (r. 1763-1806), son of Panah Ali khan, the town was renamed to Shusha, apparently after the name of the nearest village of Shosh also known as Shushikent.[11]

The first capital of the Karabakh khanate was castle of Bayat, built in 1748 in the district of Kebirli. However, soon afterwards Panah Ali khan realized that in order to secure himself and his newly-established khanate from external threats, and especially from the invasions from Iran, he needed to build a new more reliable castle.

According to Mirza Jamal Javanshir Karabagi (1773-1853), the author of Karabakh-nameh ('History of Karabakh'), one of the most significant chronicles on the history of Karabakh in 18-19th centuries, the Karabakh nobility assembled to discuss the danger of invasion from Persia (Iran) and told Panah Ali khan: "We must build among the impassable mountains such an inviolable and inaccessible fort, so that no strong enemy could take it". Melik Shahnazar of Varanda, who was the first of Armenian meliks to accept suzerainty of Panah-khan and always remained his loyal supporter, suggested a location for the new fortress. Thus, Panahabad-Shusha was founded. According to the aforementioned chronicle, prior to construction of the fortress by Panah Ali khan there were no buildings at that location and it was used as a cropland and pasture by the people of the nearby Shushakend village.[12]

Conflict with Persia

A Shushavian from a noble family. Picture by V.V. Vereschagin, a Russian traveller to Shusha in 1865.

In less than a year after Shusha was founded, the Karabakh khanate was attacked by Muhammed Hassan khan Qajar, one of the major claimants to the Iranian throne. During the Safavid Empire Karabakh was for almost two centuries ruled by Ziyad-oglu family of the clan of Qajar (of Turkic origin)[13], and therefore, Muhammed Hassan khan considered Karabakh his hereditary estate.[10][14][12][15]

Muhammed Hassan khan besieged Shusha (Panahabad at that time) but soon had to retreat, because of the attack on his khanate by his major opponent to the Iranian throne, Kerim khan Zend. His retreat was so hasty that he even left his cannons under the walls of Shusha fortress. Panah Ali khan counterattacked the retreating troops of Muhammad Hassan khan and even briefly took Ardabil across the Aras River in Iranian Azerbaijan.

In 1756 (or 1759) Shusha and the Karabakh khanate underwent a new attack from Fatali khan Afshar, ruler of Urmia. With his 30,000 strong army Fatali khan also managed to gain support from the meliks (feudal vassals) of Jraberd and Talish (Gulistan), however melik Shahnazar of Varanda continued to support Panah Ali khan. Siege of Shusha lasted for six months and Fatali khan eventually had to retreat.

After Panah Ali khan's death his son Ibrahim Khalil khan became the ruler of the Karabakh khanate. Under him Karabakh khanate became one of the strongest state formations and Shusha grew. According to travelers who visited Shusha at the end of 18th-early 19th centuries the town had about 2,000 houses and approximately 10,000 population.

In summer 1795 Shusha underwent a major attack by Aga Muhammad khan Qajar, son of Muhammad Hassan khan who attacked Shusha in 1752. Aga Muhammad khan Qajar's goal was to end with the feudal fragmentation and to restore the old Safavid State in Iran. For this purpose he also wanted to proclaim himself shah (king) of Iran. However, according to the Safavid tradition, shah had to take control over the whole of South Caucasus before his coronation. Therefore, Karabakh khanate and its fortified capital Shusha, were the first and major obstacle to achieve these ends.

Aga Muhammad khan Qajar besieged Shusha with his 80,000 strong army. Ibrahim Khalil khan mobilized the population for a long-term defense. The number of militia in Shusha reached 15,000. Women fought together with men. The Armenian population of Karabakh also actively participated in this struggle against the invaders and fought side by side with the Muslim population jointly organizing ambushes in the mountains and forests.

The siege lasted for 33 days. Not being able to capture Shusha, Agha Muhammad khan ceased the siege and advanced to Tiflis (present-day Tbilisi), which despite desperate resistance was occupied and exposed to unprecedented destruction.

In 1797 Agha Muhammad shah Qajar, who by that time has already managed to declare himself shah (albeit he did not succeed in conquering the Caucasus as the tradition required) decided to carry out a second attack on Karabakh.

Trying to avenge the previous humiliating defeat Qajar devastated the surrounding villages near Shusha. The population could not recover from the previous 1795 attack and also suffered from serious drought which lasted for three years. The artillery of the enemy also caused serious losses amongst the city defenders. Thus, in 1797 Aga Muhammed shah succeeded in seizing Shusha and Ibrahim Khalil khan had to flee to Dagestan.

However, several days after seizure of Shusha, Aga Muhammed shah was killed in enigmatic circumstances by his bodyguards. The Iranian troops left and soon afterwards, Ibrahim Khalil khan returned to Shusha and restored his authority as khan of Karabakh.

Shusha within the Russian Empire

Construction of the Ghazanchetsots Cathedral was completed in 1887.
File:Shusha-coat-of-arms-1843.gif
Coat of Arms used during the Elisabethpol Governorate

From the early 19th century Russian influence in the Caucasus began to rise. Following Georgia, many khanates accepted Russian protectorate. In 1805, a Kurekchay Treaty was signed between the Karabakh khanate and the Russian Empire on the transfer of the Karabakh khanate to Russia.

The Russian Empire consolidated its power in the Karabakh khanate following the Treaty of Gulistan in 1813 and Treaty of Turkmenchay of 1828, when following two Russo-Persian wars, Iran recognized belonging of the Karabakh khanate, along with many other khanates, to Russia.

The Karabakh khanate was eliminated in 1822. During the Russo-Persian War of 1826–1828, the citadel at Shusha held out for several months and never fell. After this Shusha ceased to be a capital of a khanate and instead became an administrative capital of first the Karabakh province (1822-1840) and then of the Shusha district (uyezd) of the Elisabethpol Governorate (1840-1923). Shusha grew and developed, with successive waves of immigrants, particularly Armenians following the Treaty of Turkmenchay when Russian authorities urged many Armenians to migrate from Persia to the region.[16]

Beginning from 1830s the town was divided into two parts: Turkic-speaking Muslims lived in the eastern lower quarters, while Armenian Christians settled in the relatively new western upper quarters of the town. The Muslim part of the town was divided to 17 quarters. Each quarter had its own mosque, Turkish bath, water-spring and also a quarter representative, who would be elected among the elderlies (aksakals), and who would function as a sort of head of present-day municipality. The Armenian part of the town consisted of 12 quarters, five churches, town and district school and girls' seminary.

The population of the town primarily dealt with trade, horse-breeding, carpet-weaving and wine and vodka production. Shusha was also the biggest center of silk production in the Caucasus. Most of the Muslim population of the town and of Karabakh in general was engaged in sheep and horse-breeding and therefore, had a semi-nomadic lifestyle, spending wintertime in lowland Karabakh in wintering pastures and spring and summer in summering pastures in Shusha and other mountainous parts.

Early 20th century

Main article: Armenian-Azeri war 1918
See also: Shusha pogrom
Late nineteenth to early twentieth-century Azeri girl from Shusha.
A photo taken in 1918 of the Karabakh reconciliation commission which was comprised of religious leaders and elders of both Azeri and Armenian communities.
Ruins of the Armenian quarters of Shusha after the anti-Armenian pogroms in March 1920.

The beginning of the 20th century marked the first Armenian-Tartar clashes throughout Azerbaijan. This new phenomenon had two reasons. First, it was the result of increasing tensions between the local Muslim population and Armenian settlers, which significantly increased in numbers throughout the 19th century. Second, by the beginning of the 20th century peoples of the Caucasus, similar to other non-Russian peoples in the periphery of the Russian Empire began to seek cultural and territorial autonomy. That is why, in the beginning of the 20th century in Russia itself was a period of bourgeois and Bolshevik revolutions, in the peripheries these movements have acquired a character of the national liberation movement.

First clashes between the Armenians and Azerbaijanis took place in Baku in February 1905. Soon, the conflict spilled over to other parts of the Caucasus, and on August 5, 1905 first conflict between the Armenian and Azeri population of Shusha took place. As a result of mutual pogroms and killings, hundreds of people died, more than 200 houses were burned.

After World War I and subsequent collapse of the Russian Empire, Karabakh was declared part of the Azerbaijan Democratic Republic (1918-1920), a decision hotly disputed by neighboring Armenia.

In August 1919, the Karabakh National Council entered into a provisional treaty agreement with the Azerbaijani government, recognizing the authority of the Azerbaijan government until the issue of the mountainous part of Karabakh would be settled at the Paris Peace Conference. Despite signing the Agreement, the Azerbaijani government continuously violated the terms of the treaty [17]. Ethnic conflict began to erupt in the region. In summer of 1919, 700 Christian inhabitants of Shusha were massacred by Tartars.[18] The strife culminated with Armenian revolt,[19][20][21][22] suppressed by the Azerbaijani army, leading to the pogrom of March 1920, in which between 500[23] and 20,000 of the Armenian population of Shusha was killed, and many of the rest forced to flee. According to the historian Giovanni Guaita, the Azerbaijani and Soviet authorities "during the decades will deny and try to hush up the mass killings of about 30,000 Armenians."[24]

Nadezhda Mandelstam wrote about Shusha in the 1920s: "...in this town, which formerly of course was healthy and with every amenity, the picture of catastrophe and massacres was terribly visual... They say after the massacres all the wells were full of dead bodies. ...We didn't see anyone in the streets on the mountain. Only at downtown- in the market-square there were a lot of people, but there wasn't any Armenian among them, all were Muslims".[25]

Soviet era

In 1920 Russian Red Army first invaded Azerbaijan and then Armenia and put an end to the national de facto governments existing in these two countries. Beginning from this period, conflict over control of Karabakh and its central town of Shusha, moved from the battlefields to diplomatic sphere.

In order to attract Armenian public support[citation needed], Bolsheviks promised to resolve the issue of the disputed territories, including Karabakh, in favor of Armenia. However, on July 5, 1921 the Caucasus Bureau (Kavburo) of the Communist Party adopted the following decision regarding the future status of Karabakh: "Proceeding from the necessity of national peace among Muslims and Armenians and of the economic ties between upper (mountainous) and lower Karabakh, of its permanent ties with Azerbaijan, mountainous Karabakh is to remain within AzSSR, receiving wide regional autonomy with the administrative center in Shusha, which is to be included in the autonomous region." As a result, Mountainous Karabakh Autonomous Region was established within the Azerbaijan SSR in 1923.

The decision favoring Azerbaijan has been largely possible by a firm position of the then Soviet Azerbaijan leader Nariman Narimanov, who resisted pressures from Stalin to concede Karabakh and Nakhichevan to Armenia[citation needed]. According to another version, Stalin knew that by including the disputed and by then majority Armenian-populated region within the boundaries of Azerbaijan, it would ensure Moscow’s position as power broker[26][27].

Following 1920 pogrom and burning of the town, Shusha was reduced to a small provincial town of some 10,000. Khankendi (renamed Stepanakert after an Armenian communist Stepan Shaumyan), which previously was a small village, became a new regional capital and soon turned into the largest town within Mountainous Karabakh Autonomous Region.

The town remained half-ruined until 1960s, when the town began to gradually revive due to its recreation potential. In 1977 Shusha was declared reservation of Azerbaijan architecture and history and became one of the major resort-towns in former USSR.

With the start of Nagorno-Karabakh War in 1988 Shusha became the most important Azeri stronghold in Karabakh, where from Azeri forces shelled permanently capital Stepanakert. On May 9, 1992 the town was captured by Armenian forces and Azeri population fled (see Battle of Shusha). In accordance with information from the Institute for War and Peace Reporting, the city was looted and burnt by Armenians.[28] Today a large part of the town remains in ruins.

Since the end of the war, the town was repopulated by Armenians, most refugees from Azerbaijan and other parts of Karabakh, as well as members of the Armenian diaspora. While the population of the town is barely half of the pre-war number, and the demographic of the town has changed from completely Azeri to Armenian, a slow recovery can be seen. The Goris-Stepanakert Highway passes through the town, and is a transit and tourist destination for many. There are some hotels in the city, and reconstruction work continues, in particular, the Ghazanchetsots Cathedral recently finished going through the restoration process.

The Armenian quarter continued to lie in ruins until the beginning of the 1960s. In 1961, Baku’s communist leadership finally passed a decision to clear away the ruins, even though many old buildings still could have been renovated. Three Armenians and one Russian churches were demolished and the town was built up with plain buildings typical of the Khrushev’s era.[citation needed]

Cultural life

The town of Shusha is extremely popular with the musical traditions of Azerbaijani people. Shusha is home to one of the most renowed schools of mugham, traditional Azeri genre of vocal and instrumental arts. Shusha is particularly renowned for this art.[29]

Shusha is also well-known for sileh rugs - floor coverings from the South Caucasus and parts of eastern Turkey. Those from the Caucasus may have been woven in the vicinity of Shusha. A similar Eastern Anatolian type usually shows a different range of colours.[30]

The Eastern Armenian version of four Gospels (Holy Bible) was completed in 1830 in Shusha, and then was published in Moscow for the first time.[31]

Demographics

When the city was founded in the middle of 18th century, it had predominantly Muslim population. In the late 19th - early 20th century, the Armenian Christian population increased and prevailed in number over the Muslim, and in Soviet times Shusha became the second largest town in Nagorno-Karabakh.

George Keppel, the earl of Albemarle, who in 1824 on his way back to England from India arrived to Karabakh from Persia, wrote that “Sheesha contains two thousand houses: three parts of the inhabitants are Tartars, and the remainder Armenians”.[32]

The 19th century also brought significant alterations to the ethnic demographics of the region. Following the invasions from Iran (Persia), Russo-Persian wars and subjection of Karabakh khanate to Russia, many Muslim families emigrated to Iran while many Armenians were induced by the Russian government after the Treaty of Turkmanchay to emigrate from Iran to Karabakh.[16] According to the statistics of 1832, the population of Shusha comprised 762 Armenian and 936 Mohammedan families.[16]

In 1851 the population of Shusha was 15,194 people,[33] in 1886 - 30,000,[34] in 1910 - 39,413[35] and in 1916 - 43,864.[36]

According to first Russian-held census of 1823 conducted by Russian officials Yermolov and Mogilevsky, the number of Muslim families in Shusha was 1,111 (72.5%) whereas the number of Armenian families reached 421 (27.5%).[37] Seven years later, according to 1830 data, the number of Muslim families in Shusha decreased to 963 and the number of Armenian families increased to 762.[38] By the end of the 1880s the percentage of Muslim population living in the Shusha district (part of earlier Karabakh province) decreased even further and constituted only 41.5%, while the percentage of the Armenian population living in the same district increased to 58.2% in 1886.

By the second half of the 19th century Shusha became the largest town in the territory of present-day Azerbaijan republic and the second largest town in the Caucasus after Tbilisi. By March 1920 there were 12 thousand houses in Shusha, with approximate population of 60,000.[39] However, after the pogrom against the Armenian population in 1920 and the burning of the town, Shusha was reduced to a small provincial town of some 10,000 people. Armenians did not begin to return until after World War II. It was not until the 1960s that the Armenian quarter began to be rebuilt.

According to the last population census in 1989, the town of Shusha had a population of 17,000 and Shusha district had a population of 23,000. 91.7% of population of Shusha district and 98% of Shusha town were Azerbaijani.[40]

Following the Armenian capture of Shusha in 1992, the Azeri population of the town fled and currently the population consists of roughly 3,000 Armenians,[28] mainly refugees from other parts of Azerbaijan and some immigrants from Armenia and the Diaspora. As a result of the war, there are no Azeris living in the Shusha region today.[40]

See also

EB1911 article name required (help);
select an article title from: Wikisource:1911 Encyclopædia Britannica

References

  1. ^ Armenian Catholic Church News and Events
  2. ^ Azerbaijani SSR: Excerpt from Soviet 1989 Census. (Chapter: Nagorno-Karabakh Autonomous Region. Moscow.) 1990.
  3. ^ Azerbaijani SSR: Excerpt from Soviet 1979 Census. (Chapter: Nagorno-Karabakh Autonomous Region. Moscow.) 1980
  4. ^ Michael P. Croissant. The Armenia-Azerbaijan Conflict: Causes and Implications, Praeger Publishers, 1998, pp. 1-20
  5. ^ "Azerbaijan" (2007) In Encyclopædia Britannica Retrieved February 3, 2007, from Encyclopædia Britannica Online: http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-44296
  6. ^ Template:Ru icon Azerbaijan: The Art of Khanandas. Eurasia.org
  7. ^ Chrysanthopoulos, Leonidas (2002). Caucasus Chronicles: Nation-Building and Diplomacy in Armenia, 1993-1994. Gomidas Institute. pp. p. 8. ISBN 1884630057. {{cite book}}: |pages= has extra text (help)
  8. ^ Encyclopaedia Britannica Online: History of Azerbaijan [1]
  9. ^ Template:Ru icon Great Soviet Encyclopedia, "Nagorno-Karabakh Autonomous Oblast", 3rd edition, Moscow, 1970
  10. ^ a b Template:Ru icon Abbas-gulu Aga Bakikhanov. Golestan-i Iram
  11. ^ "Shusha" Encyclopedic Dictionary of Brokgauz and Efron
  12. ^ a b Template:Ru icon Mirza Jamal Javanshir Karabagi. The History of Karabakh.
  13. ^ Encyclopædia Britannica, Qajar Dynasty, Online Academic Edition, 2007.
  14. ^ Template:Ru icon Mirza Adigezal bey. Karabakh-name
  15. ^ Encyclopedia Iranica. C. Edmund Bosworth. Ganja.
  16. ^ a b c The Penny Cyclopædia of the Society for the Diffusion of Useful Knowledge. 1833.
  17. ^ "The Nagorno-Karabagh Crisis:A Blueprint for Resolution" (PDF). Public International Law & Policy Group and the New England Center for International Law & Policy. June, 2000. p. p. 3. {{cite web}}: |page= has extra text (help); Check date values in: |date= (help); External link in |work= (help)
  18. ^ s:The New York Times/Nurses stuck to post
  19. ^ Tim Potier. Conflict in Nagorno-Karabakh, Abkhazia and South Ossetia: A Legal Appraisal
  20. ^ Benjamin Lieberman. Terrible Fate: Ethnic Cleansing in the Making of Modern Europe. ISBN-10: 1566636469
  21. ^ Michael P. Croissant. The Armenia-Azerbaijan Conflict: Causes and Implications. ISBN 0275962415
  22. ^ Conciliation Resources. Nagorny Karabakh: Chronology
  23. ^ Thomas de Waal. Black Garden: Armenia and Azerbaijan through Peace and War. ISBN 0814719449
  24. ^ Giovanni Guaita (2001). "Armenia between the Bolshevik hammer and Kemalist anvil". 1700 Years of Faithfulness: History of Armenia and its Churches. Moscow: FAM. ISBN 5898310134. {{cite book}}: External link in |chapterurl= (help); Unknown parameter |chapterurl= ignored (|chapter-url= suggested) (help)
  25. ^ (in Russian) Н. Я. Мандельштам. Книга третья. Париж, YMCA-Ргess, 1987, с.162-164.
  26. ^ Nagorno-Karabakh Searching for a Solution, US Institute for Peace report
  27. ^ Groups: Azerbaijanian, Centre for Russian Studies
  28. ^ a b Thomas de Waal, "Shusha Armenians recall their bittersweet victory", Institute of War and Peace Reporting (IWPR), May 10, 2002
  29. ^ Encyclopædia Britannica, Azerbaijan:Cultural life, Online Academic Edition, 2007.
  30. ^ Encyclopædia Britannica, "sileh rug", Online Academic Edition, 2007.
  31. ^ An Introduction to the Critical Study and Knowledge, by Thomas Hartwell Horne, 1841, J. Whetham & Son, v.2, p. 51
  32. ^ George Thomas Keppel; earl of Albemarle. Personal Narrative of a Journey from India to England. ISBN 1402191499.
  33. ^ "Caucasus Calendar" ("Kavkazskiy kalendar" in Russian) of 1853, p. 128
  34. ^ "Caucasus Calendar" ("Kavkazskiy kalendar" in Russian) of 1886, p. 319
  35. ^ "Review of the Yelizavetpol goubernia as of 1910" ("Obzor Yelizavetpolskoy goubernii za 1910 g." in Rissian) Tbilisi, 1912 p. 141
  36. ^ "Caucasus Calendar" ("Kavkazskiy kalendar" in Russian) of 1917, p. 190
  37. ^ "Description of the Karabakh province prepared in 1823 according to the order of the governor in Georgia Yermolov by state advisor Mogilevsky and colonel Yermolov 2nd" ("Opisaniye Karabakhskoy provincii sostavlennoye v 1823 g po rasporyazheniyu glavnoupravlyayushego v Gruzii Yermolova deystvitelnim statskim sovetnikom Mogilevskim i polkovnikom Yermolovim 2-m" in Russian), Tbilisi, 1866.
  38. ^ "Review of Russian possessions in Transcaucasus" ("Obozreniye Rossiyskih vladeniy za Kavkazom"), vol. III, St.-Petersburg, 1836, p. 308
  39. ^ "Nagorny Karabakh" (in Russian), 1927, p. 39
  40. ^ a b Amirbayov, Elchin. "Shusha's Pivotal Role in a Nagorno-Karabagh Settlement" in Dr. Brenda Shaffer (ed.), Policy Brief Number 6, Cambridge, MA: Caspian Studies Program, Harvard University, December 2001, [2].

Template:Azerbaijan

39°45′N 46°45′E / 39.750°N 46.750°E / 39.750; 46.750

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