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Mount Garibaldi

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Mount Garibaldi
Map
Highest point
Elevation2,678 m (8,786 ft) Edit this on Wikidata

Mount Garibaldi is a potentially active[7] stratovolcano in the Squamish-Lillooet Regional District of British Columbia, Template:Unit km north of Vancouver, Canada. Located in the southernmost Coast Mountains, it is one of the most recognized peaks in the South Coast region, as well as British Columbia's best known volcano.[8][9] It lies within the Garibaldi Ranges of the Pacific Ranges.[1]

This heavily eroded dome complex occupies the southeast corner of Garibaldi Provincial Park overlooking the town of Squamish.[10] It is the only major Pleistocene age volcano in North America known to have formed upon a glacier.[11] Although part of the Garibaldi Volcanic Belt within the Cascade Volcanic Arc, it is not considered part of the Cascade Range.

Human history

Indigenous people

To Sḵwxwú7mesh, the local indigenous people of this territory, the mountain is called Nch'kay. In their language it means "Dirty Place" or "Grimy One".[12][1] This name of the mountain refers to the water in the Cheekye River with its muddy water.[13] This mountain, like other located in the area, are considered sacred for it plays an important part of their history. In their oral history, they passed down a story of the flood covering the land. During this time, only two mountains peaked over the water, and this mountain was one of them. It was here that the remaining survivors of the flood latched their canoes to the peak and waited for the waters to subside.[1][14] The mountain also serves as weather indicator to the people, as when clouds cover the face of the mountain, it signals the coming of rain or snow.[15] Cultural ceremonial use, hunting, trapping and plant gathering occur around the Mount Garibaldi area, but the most important resources was a lithic material called obsidian.[16] Obsidian is a black slate martial used to make knives, chisels, adze’s, and other sharp tools in pre-contact times. This material appears in sites dated 10,000 years ago up to “protohistoric time periods”. The source for this material is found in upper parts of the mountain area in higher elevations that surround the mountain range.[17]

Later history

British Explorer Captain George Vancouver reached Howe Sound in June 1792 and became the first European to see the mountain. During this time George Vancouver met and traded with the local natives in the area.[18]

Mount Garibaldi was named after Giuseppe Garibaldi in 1860

In 1860, while carrying out a survey of Howe Sound on board the Royal Navy survey ship HMS Plumper, Captain George Henry Richards was impressed by a gigantic mountain dominating the view to the northeast. Captain Richards, and his officers, re-named the mountain after the Italian military and political leader Giuseppe Garibaldi, who that year had succeeded in unifying Italy by patriating Sicily and Naples.[19] In August 1907, the Vancouver mountaineers A. Dalton, W. Dalton, A. King, T. Pattison, J.J. Trorey, and G. Warren reached the summit of Mount Garibaldi.[1] The mountain was probably the first of the truly alpine peaks in the Coast Mountains to be climbed by non-indigenous persons.[1] The views from the peak inspired the establishment of summer climbing camps at Garibaldi Lake.[19] This early interest led to the creation in 1920 of a park reserve.[19]

In 1927, Garibaldi was made into a large wilderness park called Garibaldi Provincial Park. Named after Mount Garibaldi, this 194,650 hectare park was established to protect the rich geological history, diverse vegetation, iridescent waters, abundant wildlife, and rugged mountains, many of which are capped by glaciers.[20]

When skiing caught on in the 1940s, Vancouver skiers began to search the glaciers and rugged mountains within the park. Early skiing was limited to the more easily reached area around Garibaldi Lake.[21] In the winter of 1944, a club group completed the first possible ski of Mount Garibaldi.[21] The famous mountaineers Don and Phyllis Munday completed lots of tracks additionally.[21] In the 1944-45 Canadian Alpine Journal, the Mundays reported a ski attempt on Mount Garibaldi with Phil Brook, who was a friend of the Mundays.[21] They skied on Sphinx Glacier and scrabbled Panorama Ridge just north of Garibaldi Lake during the same trip. Most importantly, during this period a road was built on Paul Ridge near the small community of Squamish at the north end of Howe Sound, therefore granted better vehicle approach to the highlands near Mount Garibaldi.[21] With easier access Vancouver skiers spent even more time on the glaciers of Mount Garibaldi. The result of this was the formation in the 1940s of the Garibaldi Névé Traverse, an overnight adventure that (weather permitting) can include a fine descent of Mount Garibaldi.[21]

Subsidiary peaks

The north face of Mount Garibaldi rises above The Table and Garibaldi Lake

The broad top of Mount Garibaldi contains three named peaks, with the highest reaching Template:Unit m above sea level.[1] The seconed highest peak is the sharp pyramid of Atwell Peak, at the southern edge of the summit plateau, which reaches a height of Template:Unit m.[22] This peak is commonly called "Mount Garibaldi" when viewed from Squamish, since the main peak is hidden behind it.[22] The lowest of the three is the rounded Dalton Dome, Template:Unit m high, west of the highest summit.[23]

A feature on the north side of the mountain, known as The Tent, reaches Template:Unit m and is often climbed as part of Garibaldi Névé Traverse.[24] Another minor summit on the south side of the mountain, Template:Unit m high, is known as Diamond Head (sometimes Little Diamond Head) for its pyramid shape.[25] Diamond Head was the site of a ski proposal and small lodge, now derelict.[25] On the west side of Mount Garibaldi, Brohm Ridge is popular with snowmobilers and Garibaldi summiteers.[26] The Sharkfin sticks up out of the Warren Glacier on the northeast side of the mountain with a height of Template:Unit m, just south of the Warren-Pitt River pass in Garibaldi Provincial Park.[27] Pinnacles of volcanic rock Template:Unit km south of Mount Garibaldi's summit, which attain a height of Template:Unit m, have been known as The Gargoyles since the early 20th century.[28]

Glaciers and icefields

Two pocket glaciers lie right below the east side of Atwell Peak, the Diamond Glacier to the southeast and the upper Bishop Glacier to the northeast. Straight north of Atwell toward Mount Garibaldi lies a small, high-elevation ice cap called the Cheekeye Glacier.[29]

A large icefield lies on the eastern flanks of Mount Garibaldi called the Garibaldi Névé, which is a popular objective with the ski touring crowd.[30] Its drainage is to the east into the Pitt River, to the southwest into Garibaldi Lake.[30] It has an area of 35 km2[30] and is an area of substantial snowfall with more than Template:Unit m in many winters. The Garibaldi Névé is usually accessed from the south through the Bishop Glacier or from the north through the Sentinel Glacier.[30]

Climbing and recreation

Mount Garibaldi and The Table as seen from Black Tusk

Mountain climbing on Mount Garibaldi is fairly difficult; it is fairly steep-sided and involves climbing very loose rotten lava and volcanic ash.[6] Fortunately, Mount Garibaldi has large areas of massive glaciation and extensive snowfields. The eastern and northern flanks of the mountain are smothered by the Garibaldi Névé where the finest climbing opportunities exist, making the easiest route a glacial travel or snow climb.[6][8] Routes keep mostly to the glaciers and snow slopes, which are abundant in winter and spring, but eventually melt in late spring and commonly vanish after June or July of most years.[31] After the snow and ice melts, fissures and fractures can pose difficulty and danger, and rockfall is always a hazard.[31] For this reason, early season, cold-weather ascents are recommended for most routes up Garibaldi.[31]

Hiking, photography, and camping are popular in the Garibaldi area. Hiking trails, including the Garibaldi Lake Trail, a Template:Unit km circumnavigation of the peak provide access to the backcountry.[32] Mount Garibaldi is also popular for winter sports, including cross-country skiing. In summer, visitors pass through meadows of wildflowers, on trails emanating from Garibaldi Provincial Park.

Geology

Atwell Peak

Mount Garibaldi lies within the Coast Plutonic Complex, which is the single largest contiguous granite outcropping in the world.[33] The intrusive and metamorphic rocks extend approximately Template:Unit km along the coast of British Columbia, the Alaska Panhandle and southwestern Yukon. This is a remnant of a once vast volcanic arc called the Coast Range Arc that formed as a result of subduction of the Farallon and Kula Plates during the Jurassic-to-Eocene periods.[34] In contrast, Garibaldi, Meager, Cayley and Silverthrone areas are of recent volcanic origin.[33]

Mount Garibaldi is one of the few Cascade volcanoes that is made exclusively of dacite (Glacier Peak is the other).[35] The mountain has a unique asymmetrical shape because its main cone was constructed atop part of a large glacier system that has since melted away.[10] Unlike many of the other Cascade volcanoes to the south, Garibaldi does not dominate the surrounding landscape, which consists of many high, rugged peaks. Many residents of Vancouver are therefore not aware that there is a volcano closer to the city than the more easily visible Mount Baker in Washington State.

Map of the Garibaldi Volcanic Belt centers, including the Mount Garibaldi area.

Origins

Mount Garibaldi began erupting about 250,000 years ago and has grown steadily since then.[35] Like all of the Cascade volcanoes, Mount Garibaldi has its origins in the Cascadia subduction zone—a long convergent plate boundary that stretches from mid-Vancouver Island to Northern California.[36] The subduction zone separates the Juan de Fuca, Explorer, Gorda and North American Plates. Here, the oceanic crust of the Pacific Ocean sinks beneath North America at a rate of 40 millimeters per year.[37] Hot magma upwelling above the descending oceanic plate creates volcanoes, and each individual volcano erupts for a few million years.

The subduction zone has existed for at least 37 million years, and has created a line of volcanoes called the Cascade Volcanic Arc which stretches over Template:Unit km along the subduction zone.[8] Several volcanoes in the arc are potentially active.[38] Lassen Peak in California, which last erupted in 1917, is the southernmost historically active volcano in the arc, while Mount Meager, just north of Mount Garibaldi, which erupted about 2,350 years ago, is generally considered the northernmost.[39] A few isolated volcanic centers northwest of Mount Meager, such as the Silverthrone Caldera, which is a circular Template:Unit km wide, deeply dissected caldera complex, may also be the product of Cascadia subduction, but heavy glaciation has removed most of the evidence including the volcanic peaks themselves, and present glaciers probably obscure any remaining evidence.[40] Some geologists consider the Silverthrone area to be the northernmost member of the arc.[41]

Structure

Topographic map of the Garibaldi area

Mount Garibaldi is the largest volcano in southernmost British Columbia. Like other stratovolcanoes, it is composed of many layers of hardened lava, tephra, and volcanic ash. Eruptions are explosive in nature, and the most common form is the Peléan style, which involves viscous magma, glowing avalanches of hot volcanic ash and pyroclastic flows.[5][3] The source magma of this rock is classified as acidic, having high to intermediate levels of silica (as in rhyolite, dacite, or andesite).[42] The tephra deposits have lower volume and range than the corresponding Plinian and Vulcanian eruptions.[43]

About 3.3 cubic kilometers (0.8 mi³) of material remains in the volcano.[44] In modern times, the apron of material around the volcano's main vent extends at least Template:Unit km from its source in places that were covered by ice. In other areas its extent is less and its slope is steeper.

Stratovolcanoes are a common feature of subduction zones.[45] The magma that forms them arises when water, which is trapped both in hydrated minerals and in the porous basalt rock of the upper oceanic crust, is released into mantle rock of the asthenosphere above the sinking oceanic slab. The release of water from hydrated minerals is termed "dewatering", and occurs at specific pressure/temperature conditions for specific minerals as the plate subducts to lower depths. The water freed from the subducting slab lowers the melting point of the overlying mantle rock, which then undergoes partial melting and rises due to its density relative to the surrounding mantle rock, and pools temporarily at the base of the lithosphere. The magma then rises through the crust, incorporating silica rich crustal rock, leading to a final intermediate composition. When the magma nears the surface it pools in a magma chamber under the volcano. The relatively low pressure of the magma allows water and other volatiles (CO2, S2-, Cl-) dissolved in the magma to begin to come out of solution, much like when a bottle of carbonated water is opened.[46] Once a critical volume of magma and gas accumulates, the obstacle provided by the volcanic cone is overcome, leading to a sudden explosive eruption.[46]

Ancestral stages of eruptive activity

Mount Garibaldi

The mountain grew in three phases. Garibaldi's first phase resulted in the creation of a broad composite cone made of dacite and breccia that has been potassium-argon dated to 250,000 years old.[35] Parts of this ancestral volcano are exposed on Garibaldi's lower northern and eastern flanks and on the upper Template:Unit m of Brohm Ridge. Around where Columnar Peak and possibly Glacier Pikes are now located, a series of coalescing dacite lava domes were constructed. During the ensuing long period of dormancy, the Cheekye River cut a deep valley into the cone's western flank that was later filled with a glacier.[35]

After reaching its maximum extent the Cheekye Glacier along with part of the area's ice sheet were covered with volcanic ash and fragmented debris from Garibaldi. This period of growth began with the eruption of a dacite dome from a ridge surrounded by the several thousand foot ice sheet. As the plug dome rose, massive sheets of broken lava crumbled as talus down its sides. Numerous pyroclastic flows (consisting of a super-heated mix of gas, ash, and pumice) accompanied these cooler avalanches, forming a fragmental cone 6.3 cubic kilometers (1.5 mi³) in volume and an overall slope of 12 to 15 degrees. (Erosion has since steepened this slope.)[35] Some of the glacial ice was melted by the eruptions, forming a small lake against Brohm Ridge's southern arm. The volcanic sandstones seen today atop Brohm Ridge were created by ash settling in this lake.[47]

The Table and Mount Garibaldi as seen from Black Tusk Meadows

Glacial overlap was most significant on the west and somewhat to the south.[47] Subsequent melting of the ice sheet and its component glaciers initiated a series of avalanches and mudflows on Garibaldi's western flank that moved nearly half of the original cone's volume into the Squamish Valley.[2] This series of debris flows carried 2.5 cubic kilometers (0.6 mi³) of the mountain into the Squamish Valley where it covers 26 square kilometers (10 mi²) to a thickness of about Template:Unit m.[48] Gaps left by melting ice caused minor to moderate cone distortion where the ice sheet was thin and major distortion where it was thick. The ice was thickest in and thus cone distortion was greatest over the buried Cheekye valley.

Soon before or after the buried ice had melted away, dacite lava quietly erupted from Opal Cone north of the Atwell Peak plug dome 10,700 to 9,300 years ago[5] and flowed down Garibaldi's northern and northwestern flanks.[49] One of the lava flows traveled down a 30% to 35% grade over the landslide scar on the western flank.[49] About 0.6 cubic kilometers (0.15 mi³) of dacite erupted in Garibaldi's third period of activity.[50] This lava forms a thin layer of solid rock on the northern and western sides of the volcano.

Volcanic hazards

Mount Garibaldi is one of the eleven Canadian volcanoes most strongly associated with recent seismic activity; the others are Castle Rock,[9] Mount Edziza,[9] Mount Cayley,[9] Hoodoo Mountain,[9] Lava Fork,[9] Crow Lagoon,[9] Silverthrone Caldera,[9] Mount Meager,[9] Wells Gray-Clearwater Volcanic Field[9] and Nazko Cone.[51] The mountain is informally described as "dormant" ("asleep") or "extinct" ("dead") by the general public, because the mountain has not erupted in historic times, nor does it display fumarolic activity like nearby Mount Baker.[52] However, seismic data suggests that these volcanoes still contain living magma plumbing systems, indicating possible future eruptive activity.[53] Although the available data does not allow a clear conclusion, these observations are further indications that some of Canada's volcanoes are potentially active, and that their associated hazards may be significant.[7] The seismic activity correlates both with some of Canada's most youthful volcanoes, and with long-lived volcanic centers with a history of significant explosive behavior, such as Mount Garibaldi.[7] No hot springs are known in the Garibaldi area like those found at Mount Meager and Mount Cayley, the other major volcanic complexes in the Garibaldi belt, although there are hints of anomalously high local heat flow in Table Meadows and elsewhere.[54]

Elfin Lakes and Opal Cone on Garibaldi's southeast flank

Future volcanic activity from Mount Garibaldi would pose a severe threat to the nearby communities of Whistler and Squamish. Although no Plinian eruptions have been identified in Garibaldi's eruptive history, even Peléan eruptions could create large amounts of ash that could significantly affect these local communities.[3] Ash columns may rise to several hundred meters above the volcano, and due to its close proximity to Vancouver this could pose a threat for air traffic.[3] The hazard from lava flows would be low to moderate because the nature of the lavas would prevent them from travelling far from their source, even though the Ring Creek lava flow ends only Template:Unit km from Squamish.[3]

Melting of leftover glacial ice covering the Mount Garibaldi area may cause floods, lahars, or debris flows that could possibly threaten small communities such as Brackendale.[3] Highway 99 is already plagued by landslides and debris flows from the steep rugged Coast Mountains.[3] An eruption creating floods could demolish sections of the highway. Flooding and debris flows could also have severe issues for the salmon fishery on the Squamish, Cheakamus, and Mamquam rivers.[3]

In addition, explosive eruptions and the associated ash column could cause short- and long-term water supply difficulties for Vancouver and most of the lower mainland.[3] The catchment area for the Greater Vancouver watershed is close to the Garibaldi area.[3] Pyroclastic fall could also have a deleterious effect on the ice fields to the east of Mount Garibaldi, causing more melting and spring flooding.[3] This in turn could endanger water supplies from Pitt Lake as well as fisheries on the Pitt River.[3]

Monitoring

Currently Mount Garibaldi is not monitored closely enough by the Geological Survey of Canada to ascertain how active the volcano's magma system is.[55] The existing network of seismographs has been established to monitor tectonic earthquakes and is too far away to provide a good indication of what is happening beneath the mountain.[55] It may sense an increase in activity if the volcano becomes very restless, but this may only provide a warning for a large eruption.[55] It might detect activity only once the volcano has started erupting.[55]

A possible way to detect an eruption is studying Garibaldi's geological history since every volcano has its own pattern of behaviour, in terms of its eruption style, magnitude and frequency, so that its future eruption is expected to be similar to its previous eruptions.[55]

Garibaldi Lake Volcanic Field

Mount Garibaldi, The Table and Garibaldi Lake viewed from Template:Unit m
Main article: Garibaldi Lake Volcanic Field

Mount Garibaldi is associated with a group of small volcanoes that form the Garibaldi Lake volcanic field. An unusual volcanic structure called The Table is located Template:Unit km north of Garibaldi.[56] This several hundred foot high flat-topped volcano is made of layers of andesitic dacite that are arranged like a stack of more or less equal sized pancakes. The Table was formed in the early Holocene at a time when the Cordilleran ice sheet covered the region.[57] As the volcano's lava rose it melted the part of the ice sheet above The Table's vent, creating space for the lava to move into. Repeated eruptions constructed the steep-walled stack of lava seen today.[56]

Black Tusk is a large spire of extensively eroded dark volcanic rock that is shaped like a Walrus tusk. It is considered to be the remnant of an extinct andesitic stratovolcano which formed between about 1.3 and 1.1 million years ago.[57]

Mount Price, west of Garibaldi Lake, 5 km south of Black Tusk, was formed in three stages of activity, dating back 1.1 million years, the latest of which produced two large lava flows from Clinker Peak during the early Holocene that ponded against the retreating continental ice sheet and formed The Barrier, containing Garibaldi Lake.[57]

Cinder Cone stands Template:Unit m above a gap between two arms of Helmet Glacier on Garibaldi's flanks. During summer its crater is filled with a snow melt lake. The volcano is surrounded by cinder flats.[58] Opal Cone is the source of a Template:Unit km long broad dacite lava flow with prominent wrinkled ridges. The lava flow is unusually long for a silicic lava flow.[3]

See also

Notes

  1. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k "Mount Garibaldi". The Canadian Mountain Encyclopedia. Bivouac.com. Retrieved 2008-05-11.
  2. ^ a b c Template:VNUM Template:Accessdate
  3. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n "Garibaldi volcanic belt: Garibaldi Lake volcanic field". Catalogue of Canadian volcanoes. Geological Survey of Canada. 2008-02-13. Retrieved 2008-04-29.
  4. ^ "Garibaldi volcanic belt". Catalogue of Canadian volcanoes. Geological Survey of Canada. 2008-02-13. Retrieved 2008-05-10.
  5. ^ a b c Edwards, Ben (November 2000). "Mt. Garibaldi, SW British Columbia, Canada". VolcanoWorld. Retrieved 2008-05-10.
  6. ^ a b c "Mount Garibaldi - July 17-19, 2006". Outdoors & Travel. alavigne.net. 2008-02-09. Retrieved 2008-04-28.
  7. ^ a b c Etkin, David (2003-04-30). An Assessment of Natural Hazards and Disasters in Canada. Springer. ISBN 978-1402011795. {{cite book}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
  8. ^ a b c "Mt. Garibaldi". Canada West Mountain School. 2008-03-07. Retrieved 2008-05-13. Cite error: The named reference "ASD" was defined multiple times with different content (see the help page).
  9. ^ a b c d e f g h i j Hickson, C.J. (2006-01-03). "Volcanoes of Canada" (PDF). Natural Resources Canada. Retrieved 2007-01-10. {{cite web}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
  10. ^ a b Harris 1988, 283
  11. ^ "Excerpt from Chapter 1: The Sea To The Sky". Harbour Publishing: Books of the Pacific Northwest. Retrieved 2008-04-27.
  12. ^ "Squamish Traditional Use Study DRAFT" (PDF). First Heritage Archaeological Consulting. Retrieved 2008-04-27.
  13. ^ "BCGNIS Query Results". BC Geographical Names. Retrieved 2008-04-27.
  14. ^ "Squamish Traditional Use Study DRAFT" (PDF). First Heritage Archaeological Consulting. Retrieved 2008-04-27.
  15. ^ Squamish Nation Cognitive Landscapes, p4,5 Retrieved on May 19, 2008
  16. ^ Squamish Traditional Use of Nch’kay Or the Mount Garibaldi and Brohm Ridge Area, p8 Retrieved May 19, 2008
  17. ^ Squamish Nation Cognitive Landscapes, p4,5 Retrieved on May 19, 2008
  18. ^ "Welcome To Squamish - British Columbia Canada". Squamish BC Canada. Retrieved 2008-04-26.
  19. ^ a b c "Garibaldi Provincial Park, BC". Bill McComish. Retrieved 2008-04-27.
  20. ^ "BC Parks - Garibaldi Provincial Park, Sea to Sky Hwy, Whistler, British Columbia". Shangaan Webservices Inc. Retrieved 2008-04-27.
  21. ^ a b c d e f "Wild Snow: A Historical Guide to North American Ski Mountaineering". Eric Blehm. Retrieved 2008-05-06.
  22. ^ a b "Atwell Peak". Bivouac.com - The Canadian Mountain Encyclopedia. Retrieved 2008-04-27.
  23. ^ "Dalton Dome". Bivouac.com - The Canadian Mountain Encyclopedia. Retrieved 2008-05-09.
  24. ^ "The Tent". Bivouac.com - The Canadian Mountain Encyclopedia. Retrieved 2008-05-09.
  25. ^ a b "Diamond Head". Bivouac.com - The Canadian Mountain Encyclopedia. Retrieved 2008-05-09.
  26. ^ "Brohm Ridge". Bivouac.com - The Canadian Mountain Encyclopedia. Retrieved 2008-05-09.
  27. ^ "The Sharkfin". Bivouac.com - The Canadian Mountain Encyclopedia. Retrieved 2008-05-09.
  28. ^ "The Gargoyles". Bivouac.com - The Canadian Mountain Encyclopedia. Retrieved 2008-05-15.
  29. ^ "Atwell Peak - North Ridge". Bivouac.com - The Canadian Mountain Encyclopedia. Retrieved 2008-04-27.
  30. ^ a b c d "Garibaldi Neve". Bivouac.com - The Canadian Mountain Encyclopedia. Retrieved 2008-04-27.
  31. ^ a b c "Mount Garibaldi: British Columbia Climbs". Jeff Smoot. Retrieved 2008-04-28.
  32. ^ "Garibaldi Provincial Park: Black Tusk/Garibaldi Lake Area". Government of British Columbia. Retrieved 2008-05-09.
  33. ^ a b "Coast Mountains". Bivouac.com - The Canadian Mountain Encyclopedia. Retrieved 2008-04-26.
  34. ^ "The Coast Range Episode (115 to 57 million years ago)". Burke Museum of Natural History and Culture. Retrieved 2008-04-09.
  35. ^ a b c d e Harris 1988, 284
  36. ^ "The Cascadia Subduction Zone - What is it? How big are the quakes? How Often?". The Pacific Northwest Seismic Network. Retrieved 2008-05-13.
  37. ^ "1906 Earthquake A Reminder to Be Prepared". State of California: Department of Conservation. Retrieved 2008-05-11.
  38. ^ "Living With Volcanic Risk in the Cascades". Dan Dzurisin, Peter H. Stauffer, James W. Hendley II. Retrieved 2008-04-27.
  39. ^ "Meager". Smithsonian Institution Global Volcanism Program. Retrieved 2008-05-11.
  40. ^ "Skiing the Cascade Volcanoes: The 50 Highest Cascade Volcanoes". Amar Andalkar. Retrieved 2008-05-11.
  41. ^ "Preliminary petrography and chemistry of the Mount Cayley volcanic field, British Columbia" (PDF). Geological Survey of Canada. Retrieved 2008-05-11.
  42. ^ "Pelean Eruptions". Types of Eruptions. Retrieved 2008-05-15.
  43. ^ "Kinds Of Volcanic Eruptions". VolcanoWorld. Retrieved 2008-05-15.
  44. ^ Given as 0.8 mi³ in Harris 1988, 286
  45. ^ "Stratovolcanoes". University of Wisconsin-Eau Claire. Retrieved 2008-04-27.
  46. ^ a b "Composite Volcanoes and Stratovolcanoes, Subduction-Zone Volcanoes". USGS. Retrieved 2008-04-27.
  47. ^ a b Harris 1988, 285.
  48. ^ Given as 10 mi² and 300 feet in Harris 1988, 286.
  49. ^ a b Harris 1988, 286
  50. ^ Given as 0.15 mi³ in Harris 1988, 286.
  51. ^ "Chronology of Events in 2007 at Nazko Cone". Natural Resources Canada. Retrieved 2008-04-27.
  52. ^ "Mount Garibaldi". Tara Chirico. Retrieved 2008-04-28.
  53. ^ "Volcanoes of Canada: Volcanology in the Geological Survey of Canada". Geological Survey of Canada. Retrieved 2008-05-09.
  54. ^ "Geology and Geothermal Potential of the AWA Claim Group, Squamish, British Columbia" (PDF). Glenn J. Woodsworth, P. Geo. Retrieved 2008-04-27.
  55. ^ a b c d e "Volcanoes of Canada: Monitoring volcanoes". Natural Resources Canada. Retrieved 2008-05-19.
  56. ^ a b "The Table". Bivouac.com - The Canadian Mountain Encyclopedia. Retrieved 2008-04-27.
  57. ^ a b c "Garibaldi Lake". Smithsonian Institution Global Volcanism Program. Retrieved 2008-04-27.
  58. ^ "Cinder Cone". Bivouac.com - The Canadian Mountain Encyclopedia. Retrieved 2008-05-08.

References

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