Battle of al-Qadisiyyah
| Battle of Qaddasiyyah | |||||||||
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| Part of the Muslim conquest of Sassanid empire | |||||||||
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| Belligerents | |||||||||
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Sassanid Persian Empire (Sassanid army) |
Rashidun Caliphate (Rashidun army) | ||||||||
| Commanders and leaders | |||||||||
| Mihran |
Caliph Umar | ||||||||
| Strength | |||||||||
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60,000 (medieval estimates)[1] |
30,000 (medieval estimates)[citation needed] | ||||||||
| Casualties and losses | |||||||||
| 30,000 – 40,000 | 6,000[2] | ||||||||
The Battle of al-Qādisiyyah (Arabic: معركة القادسيّة; transliteration, Ma'rakat al-Qādisiyyah; Persian: نبرد قادسيه; alternative spellings: Qadisiyya, Qadisiyyah, Kadisiya) was the decisive engagement between the Arab Muslim army and the Sassanid Persian army during the first period of Muslim expansion. It resulted in the Islamic conquest of Persia, and was key to the conquest of Iraq. The battle also saw the alleged alliance of Emperor Yazdegerd III with Emperor Heraclius, who then married off his grand daughter Manyanh to Yazdegerd as a symbol of alliance.
Background
During Mohammad's lifetime, Persia was ruled by Emperor Khosrau II. Khosrau II nominally favored Christians, but waged a war against the Byzantines to avenge Maurice's death. Therefore, the Sassanid army invaded and captured Syria, Egypt and Anatolia and the True Cross was carried away in triumph.[3] The early defeat and eventual victory of the Romans was supposedly foretold in the Quran in Surah Ar-Room, The Romans:
The Roman Empire has been defeated-In a land close by; but they, (even) after (this) defeat of theirs, will soon be victorious-Within a few years. With Allah is the Decision, in the past and in the Future: on that Day shall the Believers rejoice-With the help of Allah. He helps whom He will, and He is Exalted in Might, Most Merciful.(It is) the Promise of Allah. Never does Allah depart from His Promise: but most men understand not.
– Quran 030:2–6
Emperor Heraclius, who succeeded Phocas in 610, united the Byzantine empire and began a war of reconquest. He successfully regained territory lost to the Sassanid Empire. He also defeated the Persians at the final and decisive Battle of Nineveh and advanced towards Ctesiphon. Khosrau fled, and Heraculis ordered his armies to retreat only after a pact was signed with the newly appointed Emperor Kavadh II.[3] According to the pact, the True Cross would be given back to Heraclius and all Byzantine territory that the Persians had captured would be evacuated.
Internal conflicts of succession
Khosrau II was murdered in his palace by his son Kavadh II in 629, while the Persian Empire sank into hopeless anarchy [citation needed]. Kavadh II put his 18 brothers to death and began negotiations with Heraclius, but died after a reign of a few months[4]. Ardashir III (c. 621–630), son of Kavadh II (628), was raised to the throne as a boy of 7 years, but was killed 18 months later by his general Farrokhan. Farrokhan was called Shahrbaraz, a title meaning "the Boar of the Empire"[4]. Shahrbaraz took Damascus and Jerusalem from the Byzantine Empire in 613 and 614 respectively, during the Byzantine-Persian War when the True Cross was carried away in triumph[4]. Following the Persian surrender, Shahrbaraz was heavily involved in the intrigues of the Sassanian court. He made peace with Heraclius and returned a relic that was accepted as the True Cross[4]. In April 630 he failed to deal with the invasion of Armenia by a Khazar-Gokturk force under Chorpan Tarkhan[4]. Then on 9 June 630 Shahrbaraz was slain, and succeeded by Purandokht, the daughter of the King Khosrau II of Persia (590–628) [4]. She was one of only two women to sit on the throne of the Sassanid dynasty, the other being her sister Azarmidokht. She was the 26th sovereign Monarch of Persia, from 629 to 631. When Purandokht ascended to the throne after the murder of the general Shahrbaraz, who had killed her nephew Ardashir III, she was made Queen of Persia on the understanding that she would vacate the throne on Yazdgerd III attaining majority. She attempted to bring stability to the empire by the implementation of justice, reconstruction of the infrastructure, lowering of taxes, minting coins, and a peace treaty with the Byzantine Empire. She also appointed Rostam Farrokhzād as the commander in chief of the Persian army[4]. She was, however, largely unsuccessful in her attempts to restore the power of the central authority, which was weakened considerably by civil wars, and she resigned or was murdered soon after. She was replaced by her sister Azarmidokht who in turn was replaced by Hormizd VI, a noble of the Persian court [4]. After 5 years of internal power struggle and the assassination of Khosrau II[4], Yazdgerd III (the grandson of Khosrau) became emperor at the age of 16. However, the real pillars of the state were generals Rostam Farrokhzād and Firoz[4]. There was violent friction between these two, although pressure from the Persian courtiers pushed this backstage. The coronation of Yazdgerd III infused new life into the Sassanid Persians[4].
Rise of Caliphate and invasion of Iraq
After Prophet Muhammad, the Caliph Abu Bakr re-established control over Arabia through the Ridda Wars, and then launched campaigns against the remaining Arabs of Syria and Palestine. Although it is not certain whether he intended a whole scale imperial conquest, he triggered the trajectory that would in few decades form the largest empire the world had ever seen.[5] He thus put the nascent Islamic empire on a collision course with the Byzantine and Sassanid empires, which had been disputing these territories for centuries. The wars soon became a matter of conquest that would eventually result in the ultimate demise of the Byzantine empire and the Sassanid empire, as well as the annexation of 80% of their respective territories.[6] To make certain of victory, Abu Bakr decided that the invading army would consist entirely of volunteers and it would be commanded by his best general, Khalid ibn al-Walid. Khalid won quick victories in four consecutive battles: the Battle of Chains, fought in April 633; the Battle of River, fought in the 3rd week of April 633; the Battle of Walaja, fought in May 633; followed by the decisive Battle of Ullais, fought in the mid of May, 633. By now the Persian Empire was struggling and in the last week of May 633, the capital city of Iraq, Al-Hirah, fell to the Muslims after the Battle of Hira.[5] Thereafter, the Siege of Al-Anbar during June–July 633 resulted in surrender of the city after strong resistance. Khalid then moved towards the south and conquered the city of Ein ul Tamr after the Battle of Ein ul Tamr in the last week of July, 633. In November 633, the Persian counter-attack was repulsed by Khalid and in December 633, Muslim forces reached the border city of Firaz, where Khalid defeated the combined forces of the Sassanid Persians, Byzantine Romans and Christian Arabs in the Battle of Firaz.
[6] This was the last battle in his conquest of Iraq. By now, with the exception of Ctesiphon, Khalid had captured whole of Iraq. However, circumstances changed on the western front. The Byzantine forces soon came in direct conflict in Syria and Palestine, and Khalid was sent to deal with this new development along with half of his army. Soon after, Caliph Abu Bakr died in August 634 and was succeeded by Caliph Umar ibn al-Khattāb. Muslim forces in Iraq but were now too few to control the region. After the devastating invasion by Khalid, Persians took time to recover. Moreover, the political instability was at its peak at Ctesiphon. Once the Persians recovered they concentrated more troops and mounted a counter attack. Musanna ibn Haris, who was now commander in chief of the Muslim forces in Iraq, pulled his troops back from all outposts and evacuated Al-Hirah. He then retreated to the region near to Arabian Desert.[5] Meanwhile, Umar sent reinforcements from Madinah under the command of Abu Ubaid. The reinforcements reached Iraq in October 634 and Abu Ubaida assumed the command of the army and defeated the Sassanids at the Battle of Namaraq near modern day Kufa. Then in the Battle of Kaskarhe recaptured Hira with out any resistance.
Persians then launched another counter attack, and were successful in defeating the Muslims at Battle of the Bridge which killed Abu Ubaid, and the Muslims suffered heavy losses. Musanna then assumed command of the army and retreated the remnant of his army, about 3000 strong across the Euphrates. The Persian commander Bahman was committed to drive the Muslims away from the Persian soil but was restrained from pursuing the defeated Muslims after being called back by Rostum to Ctesiphon to help in putting down the revolt against him. Musanna retreated near the frontiers of Arabia and called for reinforcements. Then after getting sufficient reinforcements he re-entered the fray and camped at the western bank of Euphrates, where a Persian force intercepted him and was defeated.[6]
Persian counter-attack
Since Khalid left Iraq for Syria, Suwad, the fertile area between the Euphrates and the Tigris, remained unstable. Sometimes it was occupied by the Persians and sometimes by the Muslim force., This "tit-for-tat" struggle continued until emperor Yazdgerd III consolidated his power and sought alliance with Byzantine Emperor Heraclius in 635, in an effort to prepare for a massive counter attack. Heraclius married his daughter to Yazdegerd III, according to an old Roman tradition to seal an alliance. Heraclius then prepared for a major offense in Levant. Meanwhile, Yazdegerd ordered a concentration of massive armies to pull back from Iraq for good. This was supposed to be a well coordinated attacks by both emperors to annihilate the power of their common enemy, Caliph Umar.
When Heraclius launched his offense in May of 636, Yazdegerd could not coordinate with Heraclius, and the plan did not come off. Umar, allegedly having intelligence of this alliance, devised his own plan. He wanted to finish off business first with the Byzantines and then reinforce the Muslim army at Yarmouk. He sent 6000 soldiers in small bands to give the impression of a continuous stream of reinforcements. Meanwhile, Umar engaged Yazdegerd III in tactics of deception, ordering Saad ibn Abi Waqqas to enter in peace negotiations with Yazdegerd III by inviting him to Islam.[7] Heraclius had instructed his general Vahan, to not engage in battle with Muslims until his orders. However, fearing more reinforcement for the Muslims from Madinah and their growing strength, the Byzantines felt compelled to attack the Muslim forces before they get stronger. Heraclius's imperial army was annihilated at Battle of Yarmouk in August of 636, three months before Qadisiyyah, ending the power of the Roman Emperor for good. Nevertheless, Yazdegerd continued to execute his ambitious offensive plan and concentrated armies near his capital Ctesiphon. A large force was put under the control of veteran general Rostam and was cantoned at Sabat near Ctesiphon. Getting news of the preparations of this massive counter-attack, Umar ordered Muthana to retreat to the edge of Arabian Desert and abandon Iraq. The campaign of Iraq was now to be started again from the beginning. .[6]
Muslim battle preparation
Caliph Umar raised new armies from all over Arabia to send a large enough force to re-invade Iraq. Umar Sa`d ibn Abī Waqqās, an important member of the Quraysh tribe, and cousin of Prophet Mohammad, as commander of this army. In May 636, Saad marched from his camp at Sisra (near Madinah) with an army of 4,000 men and was instructed to join other armies, concentrated in northern Arabia, on his way to Iraq. Saad, being less experienced in the matter of war, was instructed by Caliph Umar to seek the advise of the experienced commanders. Once Saad entered Iraq, Umar sent orders to him to halt at al-Qadisiyyah, a small town, 30 miles from Kufah. Muslims marched to Qadisiyyah and camped there on July 636. During the whole campaign Umar kept on issuing strategic orders and commands to the army. Umar wanted victory on Persian front but he ran short of the manpower and decided to lift the ban on the ex-apostate tribes of Arabia of not participating in state affairs. Because of this, the army raised was not the professional army, but was instead composed of newly recruited contingents from all over Arabia. Due to this fact, Umar was more concerned about providing it strategic aid. Umar, however was quite satisfied with the developments on Byzantine front, as the army there was a veteran, and was commanded by Abu Ubaidah ibn al-Jarrah, and Khalid ibn Walid, a military genius. After they won a decisive victory against the Byzantine army at the Battle of Yarmouk, Umar sent orders to Abu Ubaidah to immediately send a contingent of veterans to Iraq. Later, a force of 5,000 strong veterans of Yarmouk were also sent and arrived on second day of the battle. This proved to be the turning point in the battle. The battle fought was more between Caliph Umar and Rostam Farrokhzād, rather than between Saad and Rostam. On the other hand, the bulk of the Sassanid army was also made of new recruits since as bulk of the regular Sassanid forces was destroyed during the Battle of Walaja and the Ullais .[6]
Battlefield
Qadisiyya was a small town on the west bank of the river Ateeq, a branch of the Euphrates. Al-Hira, ancient capital of Lakhmid Dynasty, was laid about thirty miles west. According to present day geography it is situated at southwest of al-Hillah and Kufah in Iraq.
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Troop deployment
Modern estimates suggest that the size of Sassanid forces was about 60,000 strong and Muslims around 30,000 strong after being reinforced by the Syrian contingent on second day of the battle. These figures come from studying the logistical capabilities of the combatants, the sustainability of their respective bases of operations, and the overall manpower constraints affecting the Sassanids and Arabs. Most scholars, however, agree that the Sassanid army and their allies outnumbered the Muslim Arabs by a sizable margin.
Sassanid Persian
The Persian army reached Qaddasiyyah in July 636 and established their highly fortified camps on the eastern bank of the Ateeq river. There was a strong bridge over the Ateeq river, and it was the only crossing to the main Sassanid camps, although they had boats available in reserve to cross the river.
The Sassanid Persians army, about 60,000 strong, fell in three main categories, infantry, Persians heavy cavalry ,and the Elephant corps. The Elephant corps were also known as Indian corps, as the elephants were trained and brought from the Persians provinces in India. On November 16, 636, the Sassanid army crossed over the west bank of Ateeq, and Rostum deployed his 45,000 strong infantry in four divisions, each about 150 meter apart from the other. 15,000 strong cavalry was divided among four divisions to be used as reserve for counter-attack and offensives. At Qaddasiyyah, about 33 Elephants were present, eight with each of four divisions of army. The battle front was about 4 km long. The Sassanid Persians' right wing was commanded by Hormuzan, right center by Jalinus, left center by Beerzan and left wing by Mihran. Rostam himself was stationed at an elevated seat shaded by a canopy near the west bank of the river, behind the right center, from where he could have a nice view of the battlefield. By his side waved the Derafsh-e-Kāveyān (in Persian: درفش کاویان, the 'flag of Kāveh'), the standard of the Sassanid Persians. Rostam placed men at certain intervals between the battlefield and Capital Ctesiphon to convey intelligence[4].
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Rashidun
In July 636 A.D. the main Muslim army marched from Sharaf to Qadisiyya. After establishing the camp, organizing the defenses, and securing the river heads, Saad sent parties inside the Suwad to conduct raids. Saad was continuously in contact with Caliph Umar, to whom he sent a detailed report of the geographical features of the land where the Muslims encamped and the land between Qaddasiyyah, Madinah and the region where the Persians were concentrating their forces. The Muslim army at this point was about 25,000 strong, including 7,000 cavalry. Its strength rose to 30,000 strong once it was reinforced by the contingent from Syria and local Arabs allies. Saad was suffering from sciatica, and there were boils all over his body. Saad took a seat in the old royal palace at Qaddasiyyah from where he would direct the war operations and could have a good view of the battlefield. He appointed Khalid ibn Arfatah as his Deputy, who would carried out his instructions to the battlefield. The Rashidun infantry was deployed in four corps, with each corps having its own cavalry regiment which was stationed at the rear for counter-attacks. Each corps was about 150 meter apart from the other. The army was all formed on a tribal and clan basis, so that every man would fight next to well-known comrades and so that tribes may be held accountable for any weakness. Saad ibn Abi Waqas was the commander in chief of the army, due to his illness he was unable to participate directly in the battle and thus made Khalid ibn Arfatah his deputy. The Muslims' left wing was commanded by Shurahbeel ibn As-Samt, left center was commanded by Asim ibn Amr while the right center was commanded by Zuhra ibn Al-Hawiyya and right wing was commanded by Abdullah ibn Al-Mut'im. Cavalry of the right wing was commanded by Jareer ibn Abdullah and that of right center by Ath'ath ibn Qais.
Weaponry
The helmets included gilded helmets similar to that of silver helmets of Sassanid empire. Mail was commonly used to protect the face, neck and cheek either as an aventail from the helmet or as a mail coif. Heavy leather sandals as well as Roman type sandal boots were also typical of the early Muslim soldiers. Armor included, hardened leather scale or lamellar armour and mail. Infantry soldiers were more heavily armored than the horsemen. Hauberks and large wooden or wickerwork shields were used as well as long-shafted spears. Infantry spears were about 2.5 meters long and those of the cavalry were up to 5.5 meters long. Swords used were a short infantry weapon like the Roman gladius, and the Sassanid long sword. Both were worn hung from a baldric. Bows were about two meters long when unbraced, about the same size as the famous English longbow– with a maximum range of about 150 meters. Early Muslim archers were infantry archers who proved very effective against the opposing cavalry. The troops at the Sassanid Persian front were lightly armed compared to the Rashidun troops deployed at the Byzantine front.
The battle
The Muslims had encamped at Qadisiyyah with 25,000 men since July 636. Umar ordered Saad to send emissaries to Yasdegerd III and the Persian general, Rostam Farrokhzād inviting them to Islam. For next three months, negotiations between Muslims and Persians continued. This was a delaying tactic employed by Umar, as battle with the Byzantines in Syria was imminent, and he did not wish to battle against two great powers at once; in the event of defeat on either front, the Muslim empire would be paralyzed, as all of its available manpower was deployed in this crucial moment of history. On Caliph Umar's instructions, Saad sent an embassy to Persian court with instructions to convert the Sassanid emperor to Islam or to get him to agree to paying Jaziyah. An-Numan ibn Muqarrin led the Muslim emissary to Ctesiphon and met Emperor Yazdgerd III. However, the mission failed.
During one the meetings, Yazdgerd III, intending to humiliate the Muslims, ordered his menials to place a basket full of earth on Asim ibn Amr’s (one of the member of the emissary) head. The optimistic Muslim ambassador interpreted this gesture with the following words:
Congratulations! The enemy has voluntarily surrendered its territory to us (referring to the earth in the basket)
.[6]
As tensions eased on the Syrian front, Caliph Umar instructed that negotiations be halted. This was an open signal to the Persians to prepare for battle. Rostam Farrokhzād, who was at Sabat, broke camp for Qadisiyyah. Roastam, however was inclined to avoid fighting; he once more opened peace negotiations. Saad sent Rabi bin Amir and later Mughirah bin Zurarah to hold talks. After the negotiations fell through, both sides prepared for battle.[4]. Meanwhile, the Muslims were victorious at the Battle of Yarmouk against the Byzantines.
Day-1
On 16 November 636, an intervening canal was choked up and converted into a road on Rostam’s orders at the dawn of morning [4] and before dawn the entire Persian army crossed the canal[4]. Rostam now armed himself with a double set of complete armour and requisite weapons. Both armies stood face to face about 500 meters apart. Rashidun's army was deployed facing northeast, while the Sassanid army,
had a river at its rear, and was deployed facing southwest. The battle began with personal duels;[3] Muslims Mubarizuns stepped forward and many were slain on both sides. Muslim chronicles record several heroic duels between the Sassanid and Muslim champions. The purpose of these duels were to lower the morale of the opposing army by killing as many champions as possible. Having lost several champions in duels, Rostam began the battle by ordering his left wing to attack the Muslims' right wing. The Persians attack began with heavy showers of arrows,
which caused considerable damage to the Muslims' right wing. Then elephants led a charge. Abdullah ibn Al-mutim, the Muslim commander of right wing, ordered Jareer ibn Abdullah, the Muslim cavalry commander of the right wing, to deal with the Sassanid elephants. As Jareer attempting to halt the advancing elephants, Sassanid heavy cavalry intercepted his force and routed the Muslim cavalry. As the elephants continued to advance, the Muslim infantry began to fall back.[3] Saad sent orders to Ath'ath ibn Qais,
commander of the cavalry of right center to check the Sassanid cavalry advance. Ath’ath then led a cavalry regiment that reinforced the cavalry of right wing and launched a counter attack at the flank of the Sassanid left wing. Meanwhile, Saad sent orders to Zuhra ibn Al-Hawiyya, commander of Muslims right center to dispatch an infantry regiment to reinforce the infantry of right wing, an infantry regiment was sent under Hammal ibn Malik that helped the infantry of right wing in launching a counter attack against Sassanid. The Sassanid left wing retreated under the frontal attack by infantry of Muslims right wing reinforced by infantry regiment from right center and flanking attack by Muslims cavalry reinforced by a cavalry regiment from right center.[4]
With the initial attacks repulsed, Rustam ordered his right center and his right wing to advance against the Muslims' elephants on their front. The Muslim left wing and left center were first subjected to intense archery, followed by charge of Sassanid right wing and right center. Once again, the Elephant corps led the charge. The Muslim cavalry, on left wing and left center, already in panic due to the charge of the elephants, were driven back by the combined action of Sassanid heavy cavalry and the elephants. Saad sent word to Asim ibn Amr, commander of the left center, to overpower the elephants.[3] Asim’s strategy was to overcome the archers on the elephants' back and then cut the girths of the saddles. Asim ordered his archers to kill the men on elephants back and infantry men to cut the girths of the saddles, the Muslims' left wing follow suit. The tactic worked and Persians retired the elephants to the position behind the front lines, followed by a counter attack of Muslims. The Sassanid army's right center retreated followed by the retreat of right wing. By afternoon the Persian attacks on the Muslim left wing and left center were beaten back. Saad, in order to exploit this opportunity, ordered a counter attack. The Muslim front moved forward at once. The Muslim cavalry then charged from the flanks with full force. These repeated charges continued till the dusk a tactics known as Karr wa farr. The Muslim attacks were eventually repulsed by Rostam, who plunged into the foray personally and is said to have received several wounds. The fighting ended at dusk. The battle was inconclusive, with considerable losses on both the sides. In the Muslim chronicles, the first day of the battle of Qaddasiyyah is known as Yaum-ul-Armah ("The Day of Disorder").[4]
Day-2
On 17 November, like the previous day Saad decided to start the day with Mubarizuns to inflict maximum moral damages to the Persian army. At noon, while duelings were still going on, reinforcement from Syria arrived for the Muslim army. First advance guard under Qa’qa ibn Amr arrived followed by the main army under its commander Hashim ibn Utbah, cousin of Saad.[8]. Qa’qa divided his advance guard into several small groups and instructed them to reach the battlefield one after the other giving the impression that a very large reinforcement has arrived. Hashim did the same and for the whole day these regiments kept on arriving, which demoralized Persians.
Qa’qa is said to have killed Persian general Bahman, who commanded the Sassanid army at Battle of Bridge and commander of Persians left center Beerzan, in a duel that day.[8]. As there were no elephants in the Sassanid fighting force today, Saad sought to exploit this opportunity to gain any breakthrough if possible. Saad thus ordered a general attack. All four Muslim corps surged forward, but the Sassanids stood firm against the repeated attacks of the Muslims and repulsed every attack. During these charges, Qa’qa resorted to an ingenious device. The camels were camouflaged to look like weird monsters.[8]. These monsters moved to the Sassanid front and seeing them the Sassanid horses turned and bolted. With the disorganization of the Sassanid cavalry, the Persians infantry at left center became vulnerable. Saad ordered the Muslims to intensify the attack. Qa’qa ibn Amr, now acting as a field commander of the Muslim army, planned to kill the Sassanid commander Rostum, and led a group of Mubarizuns, from his Syrian contingent who were also the veterans of Battle of Yarmouk, through the Sassanids' right center towards Rostam's headquarter. Rustam again personally led a counter attack against the Muslims, and no breakthrough could be achieved. At dusk, the two armies pulled back to their camps.
Day-3
On 18 November, the third day of the battle began. Rostum wanted a quick victory and no more reinforcements to arrive.
The Elephants corps was once again in the front of the Sassanid army, putting advantage to the Sassanid. Pressing this advantage into service, Rostam ordered a general attack on the front of the Muslims using his full force. All four Sassanid corps moved forward and stuck to the Muslims on their front.[8]. The Sassanid Persians' attack began with the volley of arrows and projectiles. The Muslims sustained heavy losses before their archers retaliated. The Persian elephant’s corps once again led the charge supported by their infantry and cavalry. At the approach of the Sassanid elephants, the Muslim riders once again became unnerved and led to confusion in the Muslim ranks. The Sassanids pressed the attack, and the Muslims fell back.[8]. Through the gaps that had appeared in the Muslim ranks as a result of the Sassanid advance, Rostum sent a cavalry regiment to capture the old palace where Saad the Commander-in-Chief of the Muslim forces was stationed. The strategy of Rostum was that the Muslim Commander-in-Chief should be killed or taken captive with a view to demoralizing the Muslims.
However, a strong cavalry contingent of the Muslims rushed to the spot, and drove away the Sassanid cavalry. For Saad, there was only one way to win the battle, to destroy the Sassanid Elephant corps that was causing the greatest havoc among the Muslim ranks.[3] He issued the orders that the elephants should be overpowered by blinding them and severing their trunks. After a long struggle, the Muslims finally succeeded in mutilating the elephants sufficiently to be driven off. The frightened elephant corps rushed through the Sassanid ranks and made for the river. By noon no elephants were left on the battlefield.[8]. The flight of the elephants caused considerable confusion in the Sassanid ranks. To exploit this situation even further, Saad ordered a general attack and the two armies clashed once again.[3] In spite of the Muslim repeated charges, the Sassanid army held their ground. In the absence of Persian elephants, the Muslims once again brought camels camouflaged as monsters. The trick did not work and the Persian horses stood their ground.[9]. The third day of the battle was the hardest day of the war. There were heavy casualties on both sides, and the battlefield was strewn with dead bodies of fallen warriors.[4] In spite of fatigue after three days' battle, the armies continued to fight. Fighting continued during the night until the dawn. It became a war of stamina, with both sides on the verge of breaking. The strategy of Saad was to wear down the Persians, and snatch away victory from them. In the Muslim chronicles the third day of the Battle is known as Yaum-ul-Amas. The night was called Lailat-ul-Harir, meaning the "Night of Rumbling Noises".[8].
Day-4
At the sunrise of 19 November 636, the fighting had ceased, but the battle was still inconclusive.
Qaqa, with the consent of Saad, was now acting as a field commander of the Muslim troops. He is reported to have addressed his men as follows:
"If we fight for an hour or so more, the enemy will be defeated.[8]. So, warriors of the Bani Tameem make one more attempt and victory will be yours."
The Muslims' left center led by Qa’qa surged forward and attacked the Sassanid right center, followed by the general attack of the Muslims' corps. The Sassanids were taken by surprise of the resumption of battle. The Sassanids left wing and left center were pushed back. Qa’qa again led a group of Mubarizuns against the Sassanids' left center and by noon, Qaqa and his men were able to pierce through the Sassanid center.
Qaqa and his men dashed towards the Sassanid Headquarter and killed Rostam, the Commander-in-Chief of the Sassanid Persian forces.[8]. The Persians were not aware of the death of Rustam, and they continued to fight. The Sassanid right wing counterattacked and gained its lost position, as the Muslims' left wing retreated back to their original position. The Muslims' left center, now under Qa’qa’s command, when denied the support of their left wing, also retreated back to its original position.[3] Saad now ordered a general attack on Sassanid front to drive away the Persians, demoralized by the death of their charismatic leader. In the afternoon the Muslims mounted another attack.
By this time even the Persians knew that their Commander-in-Chief had been killed. The Sassanid front, after putting up a last heroic resistance, collapsed. With the collapse, a part of Sassanid army retreated in an organized manner while the other retreated in panic towards the river.[9]. At this stage Jalinus took command of what was left of the Sassanid army. He claimed control of the bridge head, and succeeded in getting bulk of the Sassanid army across the bridge safely. The battle of Qaddisiyyah was over, with Muslims victorious. Saad sent the cavalry regiments in various directions to pursue the fleeing Persians. The stragglers that the Muslims met in the way were either killed or taken captives. Even heavier casualties were suffered by Sassanids during these pursues.[8].
Aftermath
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From this battle, the Arab Muslims gained a large amount of loot, including the famed jewel-encrusted royal standard, called the Derafsh-e-Kāveyān(the 'flag of Kāveh'). The jewel was then cut up and sold in pieces in Medina.[10] The Arab fighters became known as ‘’ahl al-Qādisiyyah’’ and held the highest prestige of the later Arab settlers within Iraq and its important garrison town, Kufa.
As soon as the battle of Qadisiyya was over, Sa'ad sent a report of the victory of the Muslims to Umar. The battle of Qadisiyya shook the Sassanian rule in Iraq to its foundations, but that was not the end of their rule in Iraq. As long as the Sassanids held their capital Ctesiphon, there was always the danger that at some suitable moment they would make an attempt to recover what they had lost, and drive away the Arabs from Iraq. Caliph Umar thus sent instructions to Saad that as a sequel to the battle of Qaddisiyyah, the Muslims should push forward to capture Ctesiphon. The Siege of Ctesiphon continued for two months and the city was finally taken in March 637 A.D.. Muslim forces conquered the Persian provinces up to Khuzistan. However, the conquest was slowed down due to a severe drought in Arabia in 638 and the plague in southern Iraq and Syria in 639. After this, Caliph Umar wanted a break to manage the conquered territories and for then he wanted to leave rest of Persia to the Persians. Umar is reported to have said:
"I wish there were a mountain of fire between us and the Persians, so that neither they could they get to us, nor we to them."
The Persian perspective however, was the polar opposite, one of great embarrassment, humility and scorn. The pride of the imperial Sassanids had been hurt by the conquest of their land by the Arabs. They could not acquiesce in the occupation of their lands by the Arabs and continued the struggle to regain the lost territory. Thus a major Persian counter attack was launched and subsequently repulsed at the Battle of Nihawand fought in December 641.
After which, a whole-scale invasion of the Sassanid Persian empire was planned by Umar to conquer their arch-rival entirely. The last Persian emperor was Yazdgerd III, who was killed in 653 during the reign of the Caliph Uthman. His death officially marks the end of the Sassanid Royal lineage and empire.
See also
- Modern usage of al-Qādisiyyah
- Islamic conquest of Persia
- Muslim conquests
- Sassanid Empire
- Shāh-nāmeh
31°35′N 44°30′E / 31.583°N 44.500°E
Notes
- ^ The Muqaddimah: An Introduction to History By Ibn Khaldūn, Franz Rosenthal, N. J.. Dawood pg, 12,
- ^ The Muqaddimah: An Introduction to History By Ibn Khaldūn, Franz Rosenthal, N. J.. Dawood pg, 12
- ^ a b c d e f g h Ashtiani, Abbas Iqbal and Pirnia, Hassan. Tarikh-e Iran (History of Iran), 3rd ed. Tehran: Kayyam Publishing House, 1973.
- ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r Shadows in the Desert: Ancient Persia at War, By Kaveh Farrokh, Published by Osprey Publishing, 2007 ISBN 1846031087, 9781846031083
- ^ a b c Akram, A. I. The Sword of Allah: Khalid bin al-Waleed, His Life and Campaigns, Nat. Publishing House. Rawalpindi, 1970. ISBN 0-71010-104-X.
- ^ a b c d e f The Battle of Al-Qadisiyyah and the Conquest of Syria and Palestine A.D. 635-637/A.H. 14–15 By Tabari
- ^ The Muslim Conquest of Persia By A.I. Akram. page 133 ISBN 0195977130, 9780195977134
- ^ a b c d e f g h i j The History of Al-Tabari: The Challenge to the Empires, Translated by Khalid Yahya Blankinship, Published by SUNY Press, 1993, ISBN 0791408523, 9780791408520
- ^ a b The countries and tribes of the Persian Gulf, By Samuel Barrett Miles,Published by Garnet & Ithaca Press, 1994, ISBN 187393856X, 9781873938560
- ^ Shahanshah: A Study of Monarchy of Iran By E. Burke Inlow, Inlow, E. Burke, pg. 13