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Culture of Malaysia

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The Culture of Malaysia is, due to the multiracial nature of Malaysia, affected by a large number of different cultures. The original culture of the area stemmed from indigenous tribes that lived there, along with the Malays who later moved there. Substantial influence exists from Chinese and Indian culture, dating back to when trade began in the area. Other cultures that heavily influenced the culture of Malaysia include Persian, Arabic, and British culture. Currently, the many different ethnicities that exist in Malaysia have their own unique cultural identities, which have managed to retain a unique identity while slightly influencing each other.

Arts and Music have a long tradition in Malaysia, with Malay art dating back to the Malay sultanates. Islamic Taboos over art have only been overcome recently, similarly Malaysian literature has only expanded beyond traditional stories in more modern times. Each major religious group has its major holy days declared as official holidays. Some cultural overlap has occurred, evident in some areas such as cuisine and modern music.

The Malaysian government has taken the step of defining Malaysian Culture, issuing the "1971 National Culture Policy" which defined what was considered official culture. This especially affected language, with only Malay texts being considered official cultural texts. Factors such as the position of Islam as the religion of the Federation, language and division of citizens into categories such as Bumiputra (indigenous, including Malays) and non-Bumiputra (non-indigenous) infused in many government policies, makes it difficult to identify a unified Malaysian culture. Therefore, a Malaysian culture is more of a collection of many different cultures.

Background

Malaysia consists of two distinct geographical regions, Peninsular Malaysia and East Malaysia. Malaysia was formed when the Federation of Malaya merged with North Borneo (Sabah), Sarawak and Singapore (seceded 1965) in 1963.[1] Cultural differences between Peninsular and East Malaysia until today. During the formation of Malaya, executive power was vested in the Perikatan (later Barisan Nasional) coalition of three racial-based political parties, namely, United Malays National Organisation (UMNO), Malaysian Chinese Association (MCA) and Malaysian Indian Congress (MIC).[2] UMNO has dominated the coalition from its inception until the present.[3] Although Islam is the official state religion, the Constitution of Malaysia guarantees freedom of religion.[4]

Ethnic groups

See also: Demographics of Malaysia

Malaysia is a multi–ethnic, multicultural and multilingual society, and the many ethnic groups in Malaysia construct different cultural identities based on this.[5] The society of Malaysia has been described as "Asia in miniature".[6] The original culture of the area stemmed from indigenous tribes that lived there, along with the Malays who later moved there. Substantial influence exists from Chinese and Indian culture, dating back to when trade began in the area. Other cultures that heavily influenced the culture of Malaysia include Persian, Arabic, and British culture. Due to the political structure of the government coupled with the social contract theory, there has been minimal cultural assimilation of ethnic minorities in Malaya and Malaysia.[7] The government has historically made little difference between "Malay Culture" and "Malaysian Culture".[8]

The Malays, who account for over half the Malaysian population,[1] play a dominant role politically and are included in a grouping identified as bumiputra. Their native language, Bahasa Malaysia, is the national language of the country.[9] By definition of the Malaysian constitution, all Malays are Muslims. The Orang Asla, the earliest inhabitants of Malaya, formed only 0.5 percent of the total population in Malaysia in 2000,[10] but represented a majority in East Malaysia. In Sarawak, most of the non-Muslim indigenous groups are classified as Dayaks and they constitute about 40 percent of the population in the state.[11] Many of these tribes have converted to Christianity.[12] The 140,000 Orang Asli, or aboriginal peoples, comprise a number of different ethnic communities living in peninsular Malaysia.[13]

The Chinese have been settling in Malaysia for many centuries, and form the second largest ethnic group.[1] The first Chinese to settle in the Straits Settlements, primarily in and around Malacca, gradually adopted elements of Malaysian culture and intermarried with the Malaysian community and with this, a new ethnic group called emerged, the "Straits Chinese" (Peranakan). These Chinese have adopted Malay traditions while maintaining elements of Chinese culture such as religion.[7] The more common dialects of Chinese spoken in Peninsular Malaysia are Cantonese, Mandarin, Hokkien, Hakka, Hainanese, and Foochow.[1]

The Indian community in Malaysia is the smallest of the three main ethnic groups, accounting for about 10 percent of the country's population, and speaks a variety of South Asian languages.[1] Tamils, Malayalees-speaking, and Telugu people make up over 85 percent of the people of Indian origin in the country. The Indians who came to Malaysia brought with them the Hindu and Sikh culture. This included its temples and Gurdwaras, cuisine, and clothing. Hindu tradition remains strong until today in the Indian community of Malaysia. A community of Indians who have adopted Malay cultural practices also exists in Malacca. Though they remain Hindu, the Chitties speak Bahasa Malaysia and dress and act as Malays.[7]

A small number of Eurasians of mixed European and Malay descent live in Malaysia, with a small community existing in Malacca who are descended from former Portuguese colonists who married Malay women. While they have adopted Malay culture, they speak their own language and are Catholics.[7] Of the remaining minorities, Malaysian Siamese, Khmers, Chams and Burmese live mostly in the northern peninsular states of Perlis, Kedah, Penang, Perak, Kelantan and Terengganu.

Policies and controversies

The Malaysian government has taken the step of defining Malaysian Culture, issuing the "1971 National Culture Policy".[14] It defines three principles as guidelines for "national culture":

  1. The national culture of Malaysia must henceforth be based on the cultures of the people indigenous to the region
  2. Elements from other cultures which are judged suitable and reasonable may be incorporated into Malaysia’s national culture
  3. Islam will be an important element in the national culture

[14]

Some cultural disputes exist between Malaysia and neighbouring countries, notably Indonesia. The two countries share a similar cultural heritage, sharing many traditions and items. However, disputes have arisen over things ranging from culinary dishes to Malaysia's national anthem. Strong feelings exist in Indonesia about protecting their national heritage.[15] The Malaysian government and the Indonesian government have met to diffuse some of the tensions resulting from the overlaps in culture.[16] Feelings are not as strong in Malaysia, where most recognise that many cultural values are shared.[15]

One dispute, known as the Pendet controversy, was raised due to the claim of the use of the Pendet Dance in a Malaysian tourism ad campaign, causing official protests.[17] This Balinese dance was however used only in a Discovery Channel ad, not an official Malaysian ad.[18] Other songs such as the Rasa Sayange song have caused similar controversies.[17] The Malaysian national anthem, Negaraku, was claimed to be based on a similar Indonesian song written a year earlier. Both tunes are derived from a 19th century French song, which caused the similarity.[19]

Arts

Two black shadow puppets facing right
A shadow puppet show

Traditional Malaysian art was mainly centred around the areas of carving, weaving, and silversmithing.[20] Traditional art ranges from handwoven baskets from rural areas to the silverwork of the Malay courts. Common artworks included ornamental kris and beetle nut sets. Luxurious textiles known as Songket are made, as well as the traditional patterned batik fabrics. Indigenous East Malaysians are known for their wooden masks. Malaysian art has expanded only recently, as before the 1950s Islamic taboos about drawing people and animals were strong.[21]

Carved wood is used as ornamentation for many items, such as doors and window-panels.[21] Woodcarving was never an industry, but an art. Traditional woodcarvers spent years simply preparing the wood, due to a belief that woodcarvers need to be a perfect match with their wood. The wood also had to match the buyer, so woodcarving was a very ritualised task.[22]

Each ethnic group has distinct performing arts, with little overlap between them. However, Malay art does show some North Indian influence due to the historical influence of India.[23] Most of the older Malayan-Thai performing arts have declined in popularity due to their Hindu-Buddhist origin, most notably mak yong. Since the Islamisation period, the arts and tourism ministry have focused on newer dances of Portuguese, Middle Eastern, or Mughal origin. In recent years, dikir barat has grown in popularity, and it actively promoted by state governments as a cultural icon.[24] Shadow puppet theatre (wayang kulit) has been popular in Malaysia for centuries.[23] Plays done with shadow puppets emerged from traditional stories,[25] and most often portray episodes from either the Ramayana or the Mahabharata. Traditionally, theatrical music is performed only by men.[23]

Music

Main article: Music of Malaysia

Traditional Malay music and performing arts appear to have originated in the Kelantan-Pattani region with influences from India, China, Thailand and Indonesia. The music is based around percussion instruments,[23] the most important of which is the gendang (drum). There are at least 14 types of traditional drums.[26] Drums and other traditional percussion instruments and are often made from natural materials.[26] Besides drums, other percussion instruments (some made of shells) include: the rebab (a bowed string instrument), the serunai (a double-reed oboe-like instrument), the seruling (flute), and trumpets. Music is traditionally used for storytelling, celebrating life-cycle events, and times like harvest.[23] It was once used as a form of long-distance communication.[26]

In East Malaysia, gong-based musical ensemble such as agung and kulintang are commonly used in ceremonies such as funerals and weddings.[27] These ensembles are also common in neighbouring regions such as in the southern Philippines, Kalimantan in Indonesia and Brunei.[27] Chinese and Indian Malaysians have their own forms of music, and the indigenous tribes of Peninsula and East Malaysia have unique traditional instruments.[21]

Within Malaysia, the largest performing arts venue is the Petronas Philharmonic Hall. The resident orchestra is the Malaysian Philharmonic Orchestra (MPO).[28] Malay popular music is a combination of the music from all ethnicities in the country.[21] The Malaysian government has taken steps in controlling what music is available in Malaysia; rap music has been criticised,[29] heavy metal has been limited,[30] and foreign bands must submit a copy of a recent concert before playing in Malaysia.[31] It is believed that this music is a bad influence on youth.[30]

Literature

Main article: Literature of Malaysia

The strong oral tradition that has existed since before the arrival of writing to what is now Malaysia continues today. This orals were heavily influenced by early Indian epics.[32] Oral literature such as folktales flourished even after printed works appeared.[21] With the coming of Islam to the peninsula in the late 15th century, the Arabic Jawi script arrived.[32] At this point, stories which previously had given lessons in Hinduism and Buddhism were taken to have more universal meanings, with their main story lines remaining intact.[25] Each of the Malay Sultanates created their own literary tradition, influenced by preexisting oral stories and by the stories that came with Islam.[32] The arrival of the printing press in Malaysia was key in allowing literature to be accessed by more than those rich enough to afford handwritten manuscripts.[25] However there was still a division between the royal Malays, who knew English, and the lower classes, who only read Malay.[21] In the early years of the 20th century, literature began to change to reflect the changing norms of Malaysians.[25] In 1971 the government took the step of defining the literature of different languages. Literature written in Malay was called "The National Literature of Malaysia", literature in other bumiputra languages was called "regional literature", while literature in other languages was called "sectional literature".[33]

Malay poetry is highly developed, and uses many forms.[32] A Hikayat is a traditional narrative, and stories written in that fashion are named using Hikayat followed by the name(s) of the protagonist(s). The pantun is a form of poetry used in many aspects of Malay culture. The Syair is another form of narrative, once very popular.[25] The Hikayat form remains popular, and the pantun has spread from Malay to other languages.[32] Until the 19th century, literature produced in Malaysia focused mainly on tales of royalty,[25] as it was produced just for royalty.[21] It was after this point that it expanded to other areas.[25] The race riots of 1969 strongly influenced literature, as did the improvements of the economy in the 1980s brought about social changes and new forms of literature.[21]

The first Malay literature was in Arabic script. The earliest known Malay writing is on the Terengganu Inscription Stone, made in 1303.[21] One of the more famous Malay works is the Sulalatus al-Salatin, also known as the Sejarah Melayu (meaning "The Malay Annals"). It was originally recorded in the 15th century, although it was edited after then;[32] the known version is from the 16th century. The Hikaya Rajit Pasai, written in the 15th century, is another significant literary work.[21] The Hikayat Hang Tuah, or story of Hang Tuah, told the story of Hang Tuah and his devotion to his Sultan.[21] This is the most famous Hikayat;[25] it drew from the Sejarah Melayu when it was written. Both have been nominated as world heritage items under the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) 'Memory of the World' programme.[32] Folktales, such as the Hikayat Sang Kancil about a clever mouse deer, are popular, as are adventures such as Ramayana adapted from Indian epics. Munshi Abdullah (Abdullah bin Abdul Kadir), alive from 1797–1854, is regarded as the father of Malay literature. Hikayat Abdullah, his autobiography, is about everyday life in the time when British influence was spreading. Female Malay writers began becoming popular in the 1950s.[21]

Different ethnic and linguistic groups have produced works in their own languages.[21] Chinese and Indian literature became common as the numbers of speakers increased in Malaysia, and locally produced works based in languages from those areas began to be produced in the 19th century.[32] Beginning in the 1950s, Chinese literature expanded; however homemade literature in Indian languages has failed to emerge. English has also become a common literary language.[21]

Architecture

Large intricate wooden house facing right, forest in background
Replica of the palace of the Malacca Sultanate, built from information and data in the Malay Annals

Architecture in Malaysia is a combination of many styles, from the Islamic and Chinese styles to those brought by European colonists.[21] Malay architecture has changed due to these influences. Houses in the north are similar to those in Thailand, while those in the south are similar to those in Java. New materials, such as glass and nails, were brought in by Europeans, changing architecture.[34] Wood has been the main building material for much of Malaysia's history, used for everything from the simple kampung to royal palaces.[21] Besides wood, other common materials such as bamboo and leaves were used.[34]

Malacca, which was a traditional centre of trade, has a large variety of building styles. Large wooden structures such as the Palace of Sultan Mansur Shah exist from early periods. Chinese influence can be seen in brightly decorated temples and terraced shop houses. The Colonial town contains brick buildings built by the Dutch, and buildings built by the British such as the Memorial Hall, which has a combination of Baroque and Islamic architecture.[21]

The shapes and sizes of houses differ between each state. Common elements in Peninsular Malaysia include pitched roofs, verandahs, and high ceilings. Houses were built to be ventilated, they were often raised on timber stilts to increase air flow. The woodwork in the house is often intricately carved. The floors in the house are at different levels, indicating the function of the room.[34] Mosques have traditionally been based on Javanese architecture.[21] In modern times, the government has promoted different projects, from the tallest twin buildings in the world, the Petronas Twin Towers, to a whole garden city, Putrajaya. Malaysian firms are developing skyscraper designs that are made for tropical climates.[21]

Holidays

Main article: Public holidays in Malaysia
A malay girl and two malay boys dressed in green traditional clothing
Malay children dressed for Hari raya

Malaysians observe a number of holidays and festivities throughout the year. Some holidays are federally gazetted public holidays and some are public holidays observed by individual states.[35] Other festivals are observed by particular ethnic or religion groups, but are not public holidays. The main holy days of each major religion are public holidays, celebrated either on the western calendar or religious ones.[21]

The most celebrated holiday is the "Hari Kebangsaan" (Independence Day), otherwise known as "Merdeka" (Freedom), on 31 August commemorating the independence of the Federation of Malaya. This, as well as Labour Day (1 May), the King's birthday (first Saturday of June) and some other festivals are major national public holidays. Federal Territory day is celebrated in the three Federal territories.[21] Malaysia Day, held on 16 September to commemorate the formation of Malaysia, is only celebrated in the state of Sabah.

Muslim holidays are highly prominent in Malaysia. The most celebrated festival is Hari Raya Puasa (also called Hari Raya Aidilfitri),[36] which is the Malay translation of Eid al-Fitr. It is generally a festival honoured by the Muslims worldwide marking the end of Ramadan, the fasting month. In addition to Hari Raya Puasa, they also celebrate Hari Raya Haji (also called Hari Raya Aidiladha, the translation of Eid ul-Adha), Awal Muharram (Islamic New Year) and Maulidur Rasul (Birthday of the Prophet).[21]

Malaysian Chinese typically celebrate the same festivals observed by Chinese around the world. Chinese New Year is the most celebrated among the festivals, lasting for 15 days[21] and ending with Chap Goh Mei (十五瞑). The Vietnamese new year, or Tết, falls on the same day. Other festivals celebrated by Chinese are the Qingming Festival, the Dragon Boat Festival and the Mid-Autumn Festival.

Hindus in Malaysia celebrate Diwali/Deepavali, the festival of light,[21] while Thaipusam is a celebration in which pilgrims from all over the country celebrate at the Batu Caves.[37] Sikhs celebrate the Sikh new year or Baisakhi. Because it falls during the month of Vaisakh, the occasion is more commonly known as the Vaisakhi festival. They also celebrate Lodi and Gurpurab. Other Indian and Indochinese communities observe their new year celebrations at around the same time, such as Pohela Boishakh of the Bengalis and Songkran (water festival) of the Thais. People in the northern states also celebrate the thai festival of Loy Kratong.[38]

Malaysian Buddhists celebrate Wesak (Malay for Vesak), the day of Buddha's birth, which is a public holiday.[21] Malaysia's Christian community celebrates most of the holidays observed by Christians elsewhere, most notably Christmas[21] and Easter. Good Friday, however, is only a public holiday in the two Bornean states. East Malaysians also celebrate the harvest festivals of Gawai in Sarawak and Kaamatan in Sabah.[35]

New Years day, Chinese New Year, and the start of the Islamic calendar are all public holidays.[21] Despite most of the festivals being identified with a particular ethnic or religious group, all Malaysians celebrate the festivities together, regardless of their background. One example of this is the celebration of Kongsi Raya which is used when Hari Raya Puasa and Chinese New Year coincide. The term Kongsi Raya (which means "sharing the celebration" in Malay) was coined because of the similarity between the word kongsi and the Chinese New Year greeting of Gong xi fa cai. Similarly, the portmanteau Deepa Raya was coined when Hari Raya Puasa and Deepavali coincided.[39]

A practice known as "open house" (rumah terbuka) is common during the festivities, especially during Hari Raya Aidilfitri, Deepavali, Chinese New Year and Christmas. Open house means that all well-wishers are received and that everyone regardless of background is invited to attend.[12] Open houses are normally held at the home of the host and food are also prepared by the host, however, there are also open houses held at larger public venues especially when hosted by government agencies or corporations. Also during the festivities, most Malaysians would take the time off work or school to return to their hometowns to celebrate the festivities with their extended relatives. This practice is commonly known as balik kampung and this would usually cause vehicle crawls on most highways in the country.[40]

Cuisine

Main article: Cuisine of Malaysia
4 dishes on a table traditionally used to celebrate Hari Raya Puasa or Hari Raya Haji.
Clockwise from bottom left: beef soup, ketupat (compressed rice cubes), beef rendang and sayur lodeh

Malaysia's cuisine reflects the multiethnic makeup of its population,[41] and is defined by its diversity.[42] Many cultures have greatly influenced the cuisine, from in Malaysia and the surrounding areas. Much of the influence comes from Malay, Chinese, Indian, Thai, Javanese, and Sumatran culture.[21] Much of this is due to Malaysia being a part of the ancient spice route.[42] The cuisine is very similar to that of Singapore and Brunei,[43] and also bears resemblance to Filipino cuisine.[21] The different states of Malaysia have varied dishes.[43]

Sometimes food not found in its original culture is assimilated into another, for example Chinese restaurants in Malaysia often serve Malaysian dishes.[44] Food from one culture is sometimes also cooked using styles taken from another culture,[43] This means that although much of Malaysian food can be traced back to a certain culture, they have their own identity.[42] Often the food in Malaysia is different from the original dishes,[45] for example Chinese food is often sweeter in Malaysian versions than the original.[21] The Peranakans, Chinese who moved to Malaysia centuries ago, have their own unique food, blending Chinese cooking techniques with Malay ingredients.[42]

During a dinner food is not served in courses, but all at once.[21] Rice is popular in many Malaysian dishes. Chilli is commonly found in Malaysian dishes, although this does not make them spicy.[41] Noodles are also common. Pork is rarely used in Malaysia, because of the large Muslim population. Some celebrations have food associated with them, and mooncakes are often eaten during Mooncake Festival.[21]

Sports

Main article: Sport in Malaysia
Man in a workshop making Wau's, a purple wau with gold outlines hangs in front of him, as does an empty frame
A wau workshop

Popular sports in Malaysia include badminton, bowling, football, squash and field hockey.[46] Malaysia has smallscale traditional sports. Wau is a traditional form of kite-flying, where kites are created with intricate designs. Kite-fighting sometimes occurs, where each tries to cut the opponents kite strings.[47] Sepak takraw is a game in which a rattan ball is kept in the air without using hands.[48] Seni Silat is a traditional form of martial arts from Malaysia.[48] Other sports are dragon dancing, and dragon-boat racing. Malaysia's coastline is popular for scuba diving, sailing, and other water sports and activities.[48] Whitewater rafting and trekking are also often done.[49]

Many international sports have a great deal of popularity in Malaysia. Badminton matches in Malaysia attract thousands of spectators, and Malaysia, along with Indonesia and China, has consistently held the Thomas Cup since 1949.[50] Lawn Bowls is gaining popularity in Malaysia,[51] and the Malaysian Lawn Bowls Federation (PLBM) was registered in 1997,[52] Squash was brought to Malaysia by members of the British army, with the first competition being held in 1939. The Squash Racquets Association of Malaysia (SRAM) was created on 25 June 1972, and has had great success in Asian Squash.[53] Football is popular in Malaysia,[48] and Malaysia has proposed a Southeast Asian football league.[54] Hockey is famous in Malaysia, with the Malaysian team ranked 14th in the world as of 2010.[55] Malaysia hosted the third Hockey World Cup at the Merdeka Stadium in Kuala Lumpur, before also hosting the 10th cup.[56] Malaysia has its own Formula One track, the Sepang International Circuit. It runs for 310.408 km, and held its first Grand Prix in 2000.[57] Golf is growing in popularity with many courses being built around the country.[46]

The Federation of Malaya Olympic Council was formed in 1953, and received recognition by the IOC in 1954. It first participated in the 1956 Melbourne Olympic Games. The council was renamed the Olympic Council of Malaysia in 1964, and has participated in all but one Olympic games since its inception. The largest number of athletes ever sent to the Olympics was 57 to the 1972 Munich Olympic Games.[58] Malaysian athletes have won a total of four Olympic medals, all of which are in badminton.[59] Malaysia has competed at the Commonwealth Games since 1950 as Malaya, and 1966 as Malaysia. It has been dominant in badminton, and hosted the games in Kuala Lumpur in 1998.[60] The 1998 Commonwealth Games were the first time the torch relay went through more nations than just England and the host.[61]

Media

Main article: Media of Malaysia

Much of the Malaysian media is tied to the ruling UMNO party,[62] with its main newspaper owned by the government and political parties in the ruling coalition.[63] Major opposition parties also have their own newspapers.[64] Besides Malay newspapers, there is large circulation of English, Chinese, and Tamil dailies.[65] The media has been blamed for increasing tension between Indonesia and Malaysia, and giving Malaysians a bad image of Indonesians.[66] In addition, there is a divide between the media in the two halves of Malaysia. Peninsular based media gives low priority to news from East Malaysia, and often treats them as colonies of the Peninsula.[65] Internet access is rare outside the main urban centres,[62] and those of the lower classes have less access to non-government news sources.[63]

The regulated freedom of the press has been criticised, and it has been claimed that the government threatens journalists with reduced employment opportunities and denial of family admittance to universities.[67] The Malaysian government has previously tried to crack down on opposition papers before elections when they were unsure of their political situation.[64] In 2007, a government agency issued a directive to all private television and radio stations to refrain from broadcasting speeches made by opposition leaders,[68] a move condemned by politicians from the opposition Democratic Action Party.[69] The directive was later withdrawn.[70] Sabah, where only one tabloid is not independent of government control, has the freest press in Malaysia.[65] Legislation such as the Printing Presses and Publications Act have also been cited as curtailing freedom of expression.[67] The Malaysian government has large control over the media due to this Act, which stipulates that a media organisation must have the government's permission to operate. However, the "Bill of Guarantee of No Internet Censorship" passed in the 1990s means that internet news is uncensored.[62]

See also

References

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External links

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