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List of common misconceptions

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This list of common or popular misconceptions describes documented ideas and beliefs which are fallacious, misleading, or otherwise flawed; however, these ideas have been repeated as though they are true.

History

The Americas

  • Christopher Columbus's efforts to obtain support for his voyages were not hampered by a European belief in a flat Earth. Sailors and navigators of the time knew that the Earth is spherical, but (correctly) disagreed with Columbus' estimate of the distance to India, which was approximately 1/6th of the actual distance. If the Americas did not exist, and had Columbus continued to India (even putting aside the threat of mutiny he was under), he would have run out of supplies before reaching it at the rate he was traveling. Without the ability to determine longitude at sea, he could not have corrected his error. This problem remained unsolved until the 18th century, when the lunar distance method emerged in parallel with efforts by inventor John Harrison to create the first marine chronometers. The intellectual class had known[1] that the Earth was spherical since the works of the Greek philosophers Plato and Aristotle.[2] Eratosthenes made a very good estimate of the Earth's diameter in the third century BC.[3][4] (See also: Myth of the Flat Earth)
  • Contrary to the popular image of the Pilgrim Fathers, the early settlers of the Plymouth Colony in present-day Plymouth, Massachusetts, did not dress in black, wear buckles, or wear black steeple hats. According to Plimoth Plantation historian James W. Baker, this image was formed in the 19th century when buckles were a kind of emblem of quaintness. This is also the reason illustrators gave Santa Claus buckles.[5][6][7][8]
  • George Washington did not have wooden teeth. According to a study of Washington's four known dentures by a forensic anthropologist from the University of Pittsburgh (in collaboration with the National Museum of Dentistry, itself associated with the Smithsonian Museum), the dentures were made of gold, hippopotamus ivory, lead, and human and animal teeth (including horse and donkey teeth).[9]
  • Abraham Lincoln's Emancipation Proclamation of January 1863 did not immediately free all American slaves.[10] The Proclamation pertained only to areas within rebelling states that were not under Union control. Since those states did not recognize the power of the federal government, most slaves were not immediately freed as a direct result of the Proclamation. Regions in the South that were under Confederate control when the Proclamation was issued ignored its dictum, so slave ownership persisted until Union troops captured further Southern territory. Immediately affected regions were Tennessee, southern Louisiana, and parts of Virginia.[11] It was only with the adoption of the Thirteenth Amendment in 1865 that slavery was officially abolished in all of the United States.
  • It is a common misconception among Americans that the signing of the Declaration of Independence occurred on July 4, 1776. The final language of the document was approved by the Second Continental Congress on that date, it was printed and distributed on July 4 and 5,[12] but the actual signing occurred on August 2, 1776.[13]
  • The Americas does not consist solely of the United States of America.

Europe

Napoleon on the Bellerophon, a painting by Charles Lock Eastlake depicting Napoleon Bonaparte, who was taller than his nickname, The Little Corporal, suggests
  • In ancient Rome, there was no wide-spread practice of self-induced vomiting after meals,[citation needed] and Romans did not build rooms called vomitoria in which to purge themselves after a meal.[14] Vomitoria were tunnels underneath the seats of a stadium, through which crowds entered and exited.[15]
  • There is no evidence that Vikings wore horns on their helmets.[16][17]
  • There is no evidence that Iron maidens were invented in the Middle Ages or even used for torture, despite being shown so in some media, but instead were pieced together in the 18th century from several artifacts found in museums in order to create spectacular objects intended for (commercial) exhibition.[18]
  • Marie Antoinette did not actually use the phrase “let them eat cake” when she heard that the French peasantry was starving due to a dearth of bread. The phrase was first published in Rousseau’s “Confessions” when Marie was only 10 years old and most scholars believe that Rousseau coined it himself, or that it was said by Maria-Theresa, the wife of Louis XIV. Even Rousseau (or Maria-Theresa) did not use the exact words but actually “Qu'ils mangent de la brioche” (“Let them eat brioche [a rich type of bread]”). Marie Antoinette was a very unpopular ruler and many people therefore attribute the phrase “let them eat cake” to her, in keeping with her reputation as being hard-hearted and disconnected from her subjects.[19]
  • Napoleon Bonaparte (pictured) was not especially short,[20] and did not have a Napoleon complex. After his death in 1821, the French emperor’s height was recorded as 5 feet 2 inches in French feet. This corresponds to 5 feet 6.5 inches in modern international feet, or 1.686 metres.[21][22] There are competing explanations for why he was nicknamed le Petit Caporal (The Little Corporal),[23] but few modern scholars believe it referred to his physical stature. Another explanation is that Napoleon was often seen with his Imperial Guard, which contributed to the perception of him being short because the Imperial Guards were above average height.[citation needed]
  • Italian dictator Benito Mussolini did not “make the trains run on time”. Much of the repair work had been performed before Mussolini and the Fascists came to power in 1922. Accounts from the era also suggest that the Italian railways’ legendary adherence to timetables was more myth than reality.[24] Mussolini's trains were subject to frequent labour disruptions due to his conflict with labour unions.
  • During the German Invasion of Poland in 1939, there is no evidence of Polish Cavalry mounting a brave but futile charge against German tanks using lances and sabres. This seems to have its origins in German propaganda efforts following the Charge at Krojanty in which a Polish cavalry brigade surprised German infantry in the open and charged with sabres until driven off by armoured cars. While Polish cavalry still carried the sabre for such opportunities, they were trained to fight as highly mobile, dismounted infantry and issued with light anti-tank weapons.[25]
  • During World War II, King Christian X of Denmark did not thwart Nazi attempts to identify Jews by wearing a yellow star himself. Jews in Denmark were never forced to wear the Star of David. The Danes did help most Jews flee the country before the end of the war.[26][27]

Timekeeping

  • A belief that decades/centuries/millennia begin not on the year ending in 0, but rather on the subsequent year ending in 1 (e.g., "The current millennium didn't really begin on January 1, 2000, but rather on January 1, 2001") -- based on an assumption that there was no year 0 -- are founded in an incomplete understanding of historical calculation. The currently dominant system of numbering years, known as the "Anno Domini" or "Common Era" system, was proposed by Dionysius Exiguus in 525 for application to the Julian Calendar (and later was applied to the Gregorian Calendar).[28] For this reason, all year numbers prior to 525 are the result of calculation rather than historical record. Two systems of calculation exist in parallel: The Historical System, which holds that 1 AD/CE was preceded by 1 BC/BCE, and the Astronomical System, which incorporates a year 0, and thus has 1 AD/CE preceded by 0.[29] With scholarly works in which precision is important in BC/BCE years, it is necessary for the researcher to identify which system of calculation is being used. The Astronomical System (with a year 0) is reflected in ISO 8601, the standard published by the International Organization for Standardization that covers representation of dates and times.[30]

United States politics

  • Sarah Palin never said "I can see Russia from my house." Palin actually said "They're our next-door neighbors, and you can actually see Russia from land here in Alaska, from an island in Alaska." The "I can see Russia from my house" quote was said by Tina Fey, portraying Palin on Saturday Night Live.[32]
  • John F. Kennedy's words "Ich bin ein Berliner" are standard German for "I am a Berliner".[33][34] An urban legend has it that due to his use of the indefinite article ein, Berliner is translated as jam doughnut, and that the population of Berlin was amused by the supposed mistake.[citation needed] The word Berliner is not commonly used in Berlin to refer to the Berliner Pfannkuchen; they are simply called Pfannkuchen.[35] In other parts of Germany, though, the term "Berliner" actually also is used for the product in question, so there is a grain of truth in the myth, but of course no Berliner assumed a mistake in the quote. Also, Kennedy did not use the first person pronoun as referring to himself individually, the context of the German sentence in Kennedy's speech being "Today, in the world of freedom, the proudest boast is 'Ich bin ein Berliner!'"

Law

  • Entrapment law in the United States does not require police officers to identify themselves as police in the case of a sting or other undercover work.[36] The law is specifically concerned with enticing people to commit crimes they would not have considered in the normal course of events.[37]
  • A Gallup survey reported in November 2010, "Two-thirds of Americans say there is more crime in the United States, and 49% say there is more crime in their local area, than a year ago. This reflects Americans' general tendency to see crime rates as increasing rather than decreasing, even as government statistics note a continued drop in crime rates."[38]
  • It is frequently rumored that the expression "rule of thumb", which is used to indicate a technique for generating a quick estimate, was originally coined from a law allowing a man to beat his wife with a stick, provided it was not thicker than the width of his thumb.[39] This misconception was broadly printed in papers and media such as The Washington Post (1989), CNN (1993), and Time Magazine (1983).[40] In actuality, domestic abuse against women has always been illegal in the United States, and in Britain since the 1700s.[citation needed]

Cooking

  • Searing meat does not "seal in" moisture, and in fact may actually cause meat to lose moisture. Generally, meat is seared to create a brown crust with a rich flavor via the Maillard reaction.[41][42]
  • Mussels that do not open when cooked may still be fully cooked and safe to eat.[43]
  • Some cooks believe that food items cooked with wine or liquor will be non-alcoholic, because alcohol's low boiling point causes it to evaporate quickly when heated. However, a study found that much of the alcohol remains – 25% after 1 hour of baking or simmering, and 10% after 2 hours.[44]
  • Sushi does not mean "raw fish", and not all sushi includes raw fish.[45][46] The term sushi actually comes from the rice used, sumeshi, which is gently folded with rice vinegar, salt, and sugar dressing.[47] The rice is traditionally topped by raw fish, cooked seafood, fish roe, egg, and/or vegetables such as cucumber, daikon radish, and avocado. The related Japanese term, sashimi, is closer in definition to "raw fish", but still not quite accurate: Sashimi can also refer to any uncooked meat or vegetable, and usually refers more to the dish's presentation than to its ingredients. The dish comprised of sushi rice and other fillings wrapped in seaweed is called makizushi, and includes both "long rolls" and "hand rolls".
  • While putting metal in a microwave oven can damage the magnetron[citation needed] by causing an impedance mismatch, it depends on the shape and size of the metal and the time it is in the microwave. Electrical arcing may also occur on pieces of metal that are not smooth, or have points (e.g. a fork). Even without arcing, metal objects may become hot enough to damage food, fingers, or the interior of the microwave oven. Distributed metallic surfaces that are designed for microwave use can be used in a microwave with no danger; examples include the metalized surfaces used in browning sleeves and pizza-cooking platforms.[48]

Science

Astronomy

A satellite image of a section of the Great Wall of China, running diagonally from lower left to upper right (not to be confused with the much more prominent river running from upper left to lower right). The region pictured is 12 x 12 km (7.5 x 7.5 miles).
  • There is no deity that orders, governs, manages, controls, administers or otherwise participates in the functioning of any aspect of the universe.
  • The discovery of the spherical shape of the Earth does not date to the modern era or to the Middle Ages. It was well known throughout the Hellenistic period. See Myth of the Flat Earth.
  • It is commonly claimed that the Great Wall of China is the only man-made object visible from the Moon.[49] This is false. None of the Apollo astronauts reported seeing any man-made object from the Moon, and even earth-orbiting astronauts can barely see it. The misconception is believed to have been popularized by Richard Halliburton decades before the first moon landing. Shuttle astronaut Jay Apt has been quoted as saying "...the Great Wall is almost invisible from only 180 miles up."[50]
  • Black holes, unlike their common image, do not act as "cosmic vacuum cleaners" any more than other stars.[51] The collapse of a star into a black hole is an explosive process, which means, according to Mass–energy equivalence, that the resulting black hole would be of lower mass than its parent object, and actually have a weaker gravitational pull.[52] The source of the confusion comes from the fact that a black hole is much smaller and orders of magnitude more dense than a star, causing its gravitational pull to be much stronger closer to its surface. But, as an example, were the Sun to be replaced by a black hole of the same mass, the orbits of all the planets surrounding it would be unaffected.
  • When a meteor lands on Earth (after which it is termed a meteorite), it is not usually hot. In fact, many are found with frost on them. A meteoroid's great speed during entry is enough to melt or vaporize its outermost layer, but any molten material will be quickly blown off (ablated), and the interior of the meteoroid does not have time to heat up because the hot rocks are poor conductors of heat.[53] Also, atmospheric drag can slow small meteoroids to terminal velocity by the time they hit the ground, giving the surface time to cool down.[54][page needed]
  • It is a common misconception that seasons are caused by the Earth being closer to the Sun in the summer than in the winter. In fact, the Earth is actually farther from the Sun when it is summer in the Northern Hemisphere. Seasons are the result of the Earth being tilted on its axis by 23.5 degrees. As the Earth orbits the Sun, different parts of the world receive different amounts of direct sunlight. When an area of the Earth's surface is oriented perpendicular to the incoming sunlight, it will receive more radiation than it will when it is oriented at an angle to the incoming sunlight. In July, the Northern Hemisphere is tilted towards the Sun giving longer days and more direct sunlight; in January, it is tilted away. The seasons are reversed in the Southern Hemisphere, which is tilted towards the Sun in January and away from the Sun in July. In tropical areas of the world, there is no noticeable change in the amount of sunlight.[55][56]
    Further information: Effect of sun angle on climate
  • It is not easier to balance an egg on its end on the first day of spring.[57] In fact, the ease or difficulty of balancing an egg is the same 365 days a year. This myth is said to originate with the egg of Li Chun, an ancient Chinese folk belief that it is easier to balance an egg on Li Chun, the first day of spring in the Chinese calendar. In Chinese Li means setup/erect, Chun spring/egg. Setup spring is a Chinese solar term, literally interpreted as erecting an egg for fun. It was introduced to the western world in a Life article in 1945, and popularized once again by self-titled "urban shaman" Donna Henes, who has hosted an annual egg-balancing ceremony in New York City since the mid-1970s.[58][59][60]

Human body and health

See also: Misconceptions about HIV and AIDS
An incorrect map of the tongue showing zones which taste bitter (1), sour (2), salty (3) and sweet (4). In reality, all zones can sense all tastes.
  • Different tastes can be detected on all parts of the tongue by taste buds,[61] with slightly increased sensitivities in different locations depending on the person, contrary to the popular belief that specific tastes only correspond to specific mapped sites on the tongue.[62] The original tongue map was based on a mistranslation of a 1901 German thesis[63] by Boring (an eminent psychologist at Harvard). In addition, there are not 4 but 5 primary tastes. In addition to bitter, sour, salty, and sweet, humans have taste receptors for umami, which is a savory or meaty taste.[64][65][66]
  • People do not use only ten percent of their brains. While it is true that a small minority of neurons in the brain are actively firing at any one time, the inactive neurons are important too.[67][68] This myth has been commonplace in American culture at least as far back as the start of the 20th century, and was attributed to William James, who apparently used the expression metaphorically.[69] Some findings of brain science (such as the high ratio of glial cells to neurons) have been mistakenly read as providing support for the myth.[69]
  • There is no single theory that satisfactorily explains myopia—in particular, studies show that so-called eyestrain from close reading and computer games can lead to myopia, but the underlying physiologic mechanism is poorly understood. There is also no evidence that reading in dim light or sitting close to a television causes vision to deteriorate.[70][71]
  • Shaving does not cause terminal hair to grow back thicker or coarser or darker. This belief is due to the fact that hair that has never been cut has a tapered end, whereas, after cutting, there is no taper. Thus, it appears thicker, and feels coarser due to the sharper, unworn edges. The fact that shorter hairs are "harder" (less flexible) than longer hairs also contributes to this effect.[72] Hair can also appear darker after it grows back because hair that has never been cut is often lighter due to sun exposure. However, if vellus hair (peach fuzz) is removed after the onset of puberty, darker and thicker terminal hair may grow in its place.
  • Hair and fingernails do not continue to grow after a person dies. Rather, the skin dries and shrinks away from the bases of hairs and nails, giving the appearance of growth.[73]
  • Although there are hair care products which are marketed as being able to repair split ends and damaged hair, there is no such cure. A good conditioner might prevent damage from occurring in the first place, but the only way to get rid of split ends after they appear is by a haircut.[74][75][76]
  • Sugar does not cause hyperactivity in children.[77] Double-blind trials have shown no difference in behavior between children given sugar-full or sugar-free diets, even in studies specifically looking at children with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder or those considered "sensitive" to sugar. The difference in behaviour proved to be psychological.[78]
  • Prolonged exposure to cold weather such as rain or winter conditions does not increase the likelihood of catching a cold.[79] Although common colds are seasonal, with more occurring during winter, experiments so far have failed to produce evidence that short-term exposure to cold weather or direct chilling increases susceptibility to infection, implying that the seasonal variation is instead due to a change in behaviours such as increased time spent indoors close to others.[80][81][82][83] Viruses spread more easily when humidity is low which is the case during wintertime.[84] A lowering of body temperature can, however, reduce the body's resistance to an infection that is already present, and cause temporary sneezing and runny nose.[85]
    Further information: Hypothermia
  • It is a common misconception that those suffering from flu or cold congestion should avoid dairy because it may increase mucus production. Drinking milk and/or consuming other dairy products does not increase mucus production. [86][87]
  • It is a common misconception that sleepwalkers should not be awakened. While it is true that a person may be confused or disoriented for a short time after awakening, sleepwalkers may injure themselves if they trip over objects or lose their balance while sleepwalking. Such injuries are common among sleepwalkers.[88][89]
  • In South Korea, it is commonly believed that sleeping in a closed room with an electric fan running can be fatal in the summer. According to the Korean government, "In some cases, a fan turned on too long can cause death from suffocation, hypothermia, or fire from overheating." The Korea Consumer Protection Board issued a consumer safety alert recommending that electric fans be set on timers, direction changed and doors left open. Belief in fan death is common even among knowledgeable medical professionals in Korea. According to Yeon Dong-su, dean of Kwandong University's medical school, "If it is completely sealed, then in the current of an electric fan, the temperature can drop low enough to cause a person to die of hypothermia."[90][91][92][93] Although an air conditioner transfers heat from the air and cools it, a fan moves air to increase the evaporation of sweat. Due to energy losses, a fan will slowly heat a room.
  • Warts on human skin are caused by viruses that are unique to humans (human papillomavirus). Humans cannot catch warts from toads or other animals; the bumps on a toad are not warts.[94]
  • A popular myth regarding human sexuality is that men think about sex every seven seconds. In reality, there is no scientific way of measuring such a thing and, as far as researchers can tell, this statistic greatly exaggerates the frequency of sexual thoughts.[95][96][97]
  • Although it is commonly believed that most body heat is lost through a person's head, heat loss through the head is not more significant than other parts of the body when naked.[98][99] This myth may be a faulty generalization of situations in which it is true, like when wearing clothes and no protective head-wear. For example, it has been shown that hats effectively prevent hypothermia in infants.[100]
  • A person who is drowning does not wave and call for help, as in fictional depictions of drowning. Except in rare circumstances, a person who is drowning is physiologically unable to vocalize or wave for help, due to submersion of the mouth, water in the airway, and instincts that cause the drowning victim to press or crawl at the water with their hands.[101]
  • Mental abilities are not absolutely separated into the left and right cerebral hemispheres of the brain.[102] Some mental functions such as speech and language (cf. Broca's area, Wernicke's area) tend to activate one hemisphere of the brain more than the other, in some kinds of tasks. If one hemisphere is damaged at a very early age, however, these functions can often be recovered in part or even in full by the other hemisphere. Other abilities such as motor control, memory, and general reasoning are served equally by the two hemispheres.[103]
  • Until very recently medical experts believed that humans were born with all of the brain cells they would ever have.[104] However, we now know that new neurons can be created in the postnatal brain. Researchers have observed adult neurogenesis in avians,[105] primates,[106][107] and humans. Adult humans retain multipotent (see cell potency) neural stem cells in the subventricular of the lateral ventricles and subgranular zones of the dentate gyrus.[108][109] Both of these zones are allocortical, possessing fewer than six layers. Some studies have suggested that post-natal neurogenesis also occurs in the neocortex,[110][111][112] an idea that is disputed.[113] Neurological changes, including from learning, can occur without neurogenesis through development of white matter, a neurological tissue that facilitates connections between neurons.
    Further information: Long-term potentiation
  • Humans have more than five senses. Although definitions vary, the actual number ranges from 9 to more than 20. In addition to sight, smell, taste, touch, and hearing, which were the senses identified by Aristotle, humans can sense balance and acceleration (equilibrioception), pain (nociception), body and limb position (proprioception or kinesthetic sense), and relative temperature (thermoception).[114] Other senses sometimes identified are the sense of time, itching, pressure, hunger, thirst, fullness of the stomach, need to urinate, need to defecate, and blood carbon dioxide levels.[115][116]
  • It is not nutritionally necessary to combine multiple sources of vegetable protein in a single meal in order to metabolize a "complete" protein in a vegetarian diet. Unless a person's diet was heavily dependent on only fruit, only tubers, or only junk food, he or she would be virtually certain of getting enough protein if he or she were eating enough calories.[117]
  • Alcohol does not in fact make one warmer.[118][119][120] The reason why alcoholic drinks create the sensation of warmth is that they cause blood vessels to dilate and stimulate nerve endings near the surface of the skin with an influx of warm blood. This actually results in making the core body temperature lower, as it allows for easier heat exchange with the cold external environment.[121]
  • Vaccines do not cause autism.[122] Current scientific evidence does not support the hypothesis of causation for more-common disorders such as autism.[123][124] There is, however, significant biological evidence showing that mutations in the genes related to Glutathione are found to be significantly more common in people with autism. [125][126][127][128][129][130][131]

Biology

  • The claim[132] that a duck's quack does not echo is false, although the echo may be difficult to hear for humans under some circumstances.[133]
  • The notion that goldfish have a memory of only three seconds is false.[134][135][136]
  • Lemmings do not engage in mass suicidal dives off cliffs when migrating. They will, however, occasionally, and unintentionally fall off cliffs when venturing into unknown territory, with no knowledge of the boundaries of the environment. The misconception is due largely to the Disney film White Wilderness, which shot many of the migration scenes (also staged by using multiple shots of different groups of lemmings) on a large, snow-covered turntable in a studio. Photographers later pushed the lemmings off a cliff.[137]
  • Bats are not blind. While most bat species do use echolocation to augment their vision, all bats have eyes and are capable of sight.[138][139][140]
  • It's a common myth that an earthworm becomes two worms when cut in half. This is not correct. When an earthworm is bisected, only the front half of the worm (where the mouth is located) can survive, while the other half dies.[141] On the other hand, species of the planaria family of flatworms actually do become two new planaria when bisected or split down the middle.[142]
  • According to urban myth, the daddy longlegs spider (Pholcus phalangioides) is the most venomous spider in the world, but the shape of their mandibles leaves them unable to bite humans, rendering them harmless to our species. In reality, they can indeed pierce human skin, though the tiny amount of venom they carry causes only a mild burning sensation for a few seconds.[143] In addition, there is also confusion regarding the use of the name daddy longlegs, because harvestmen (order Opiliones, which are not spiders) and crane flies (which are insects) are also known as daddy longlegs, and share (also incorrectly) the myth of being venomous.[144][145]
  • Ostriches do not bury their heads in the sand. This tale originates from the fact that the male ostrich will dig a large hole (up to 6 to 8 feet wide and 2 to 3 feet deep) in the sand for the eggs. Predators cannot see the eggs across the countryside which gives the nest a bit of protection. The female and male take turns sitting on the eggs and, because of the indention in the ground, usually just blend into the horizon. All birds turn their eggs (with their beak) several times a day during the incubation period. From a distance it may appear as though the bird has its head in the sand.[146]
  • The flight mechanism and aerodynamics of the bumblebee (as well as other insects) are actually quite well understood, in spite of the urban legend that calculations show that they should not be able to fly. In the 1930s a German scientist, using flawed techniques, indeed postulated that bumblebees theoretically should not be able to fly,[147] although he later retracted the suggestion. However the theory became generalized to the false notion that "scientists think that bumblebees should not be able to fly."
  • Sharks can actually suffer from cancer. The myth that sharks do not get cancer was spread by the 1992 book Sharks Don't Get Cancer by I. William Lane and used to sell extracts of shark cartilage as cancer prevention treatments. Reports of carcinomas in sharks exist, and current data do not allow any speculation about the incidence of tumors in these fishes.[148]

Evolution

Further information: Objections to evolution and Introduction to evolution
  • The word theory in the theory of evolution does not imply doubt from mainstream science regarding its validity; the concepts of theory and hypothesis have specific meanings in a scientific context. While theory in colloquial usage may denote a hunch or conjecture, a scientific theory is a set of principles that explains observable phenomena in natural terms.[149][150] Evolution is a theory in the same sense as germ theory, gravitation, or plate tectonics.[151]
    See also: Objections to evolution § Status as a theory
  • Evolution does not claim humans evolved from monkeys,[152] chimpanzees[153] or any other modern-day primates. Instead, fossil evidence has shown that humans and monkeys share a common ancestor that lived about 40 million years ago.[154] This common ancestor diverged into separate lineages, one evolving into so-called New World monkeys and the other into Old World monkeys and apes.[155] Humans are included in the Hominidae family of apes, which also includes chimpanzees, gorillas, and orangutans. Similarly, the common ancestor of humans and chimpanzees, which lived between 5 and 8 million years ago, evolved into two lineages, one eventually becoming modern humans and the other splitting again into chimpanzees and bonobos.[152] Thus, one cannot consider any present-day monkeys or apes as reflecting how humans "used to look" or behave. All extant animal groups have evolved over the same amount of time.
  • Evolution is not a progression from inferior to superior organisms, and it also does not necessarily require an increase in complexity.
    Further information: Evolution of complexity
    A population can evolve to become simpler, having a smaller genome, but devolution is a misnomer.[156][157]
  • It is a common misconception, even among adults, that humans and dinosaurs (in the ordinary sense of the term) coexisted. According to the California Academy of Sciences, around 41% of U.S. adults mistakenly believe they co-existed.[158] The last of the dinosaurs died around 65 million years ago, after the Cretaceous–Tertiary extinction event, whereas the earliest Homo genus (humans) evolved between 2.3 and 2.4 million years ago.

Physics

  • Contrary to the common myth,[159] the Coriolis effect does not determine the direction that water rotates in a bathtub drain or a flushing toilet. Generally speaking, the Coriolis effect is only significant at large scales, such as in weather systems or oceanic currents.[160] In addition, most toilets inject water into the bowl at an angle, causing a spin too fast to be significantly affected by the Coriolis effect.[161]
  • Gyroscopic forces are not required for a rider to balance a bicycle.[162][163][164][165] Although gyroscopic forces are a factor, the stability of a bicycle is determined primarily by inertia,[166] steering geometry, and the rider's ability to counteract tilting by steering.
An illustration of the equal transit-time fallacy.
  • It is not true that air takes the same time to travel above and below an aircraft's wing.[167] This misconception, illustrated at right, is widespread among textbooks and non-technical reference books, and even appears in pilot training materials. In fact the air moving over the top of an airfoil generating lift is always moving much faster than the equal transit theory would imply,[168] as described in the incorrect and correct explanations of lift force.
  • The idea that lightning never strikes the same place twice is one of the oldest and most well-known superstitions about lightning. There is no reason that lightning would not be able to strike the same place twice; if there is a thunderstorm in a given area, then objects and places which are more prominent or conductive (and therefore minimize distance) are more likely to be struck. For instance, lightning strikes the Empire State Building in New York City about 100 times per year.[169][170]
  • In atoms, electrons do not travel in elliptical paths around the nucleus like planets around the sun in the solar system. Their locations in the atom are described by atomic orbitals.

Chemistry

  • Glass is not a high-viscosity liquid at room temperature: it is an amorphous solid, although it does have some chemical properties normally associated with liquids. Panes of stained glass windows often have thicker glass at the bottom than at the top, and this has been cited as an example of the slow flow of glass over centuries. However, this unevenness is due to the window manufacturing processes used in earlier eras, which produced glass panes that were unevenly thick at the time of their installation. Normally the thick end of glass would be installed at the bottom of the frame, but it is also common to find old windows where the thicker end has been installed to the sides or the top. In fact, the lead frames of the windows are less viscous than the panes, and if glass was indeed a slow moving liquid, the panes would warp at a higher degree.[171][172]
  • Air is mostly nitrogen, not oxygen. Dry air contains roughly (by volume) 78% nitrogen, 21% oxygen, 0.93% argon, 0.038% carbon dioxide, and small amounts of other gases. Air also contains a variable amount of water vapor, on average around 1%.[173]
  • Pure oxygen does not explode.[174] Since air contains 5 times less oxygen, things that burn in air will burn faster and hotter in pure oxygen. Things that burn will "flare", but not explode. Oxygen gas by itself will not burn nor explode. A compressed container of oxygen can burst violently, but that can happen for any compressed gas.

Scientific method

  • Though science refers to a set of methods used to develop an accurate body of knowledge, there is no single, strict experimentation process that is definitive to the scientific method or used by all scientists.[175] The rigid hypothesis→experiment→conclusion model of science is an important part of many fields, particularly basic sciences like physics and chemistry, but is not the only way to perform genuine science. Many sciences do not fit well into this mold, such as the observational sciences of astronomy or paleontology, or the abstract science of mathematics; and much important scientific work has come from curiosity and unguided exploration, for example, the discovery of cosmic microwave background radiation, or the development of the atomic force microscope.[175][176]

Sports

  • Abner Doubleday did not invent baseball.[177][178]
    Further information: Origins of baseball § The Abner Doubleday myth
  • The World Series is not named after the New York World newspaper.[179]
  • Bulls are not enraged by the color red, used in capes by professional matadors. Cattle are red-green color-blind. It is not the color of the cape that angers the bull, but rather the movement of the fabric that irritates the bull and incites it to charge.[180][181]
  • The black belt in martial arts is actually a recent invention from the 1880s, originally created for judo, and does not necessarily indicate expert level or mastery. It indicates competency of all of the basic martial arts techniques of that discipline. There are, however, varying degrees of black belt that eventually lead to master or grandmaster.[182]

Religion

Book of Genesis

  • The forbidden fruit mentioned in the Book of Genesis is commonly assumed to be an apple,[183] and is widely depicted as such in Western art, although the Bible does not identify what type of fruit it is. The original Hebrew texts mention only tree. Early Latin translations use the word mali, which can be taken to mean both "evil" and "apple". German and French artists commonly depict the fruit as an apple from the 12th century onwards, and John Milton's Areopagitica from 1644 explicitly mentions the fruit as an apple.[184] Jewish scholars suggested that the fruit could have been a grape, a fig, wheat, or etrog.[185][186][187] Likewise, the Quran speaks only of a forbidden "tree" and does not identify the fruit.

Buddhism

  • The historical Buddha was not obese. The "chubby Buddha" or "laughing Buddha" is a tenth century Chinese folk hero by the name of Budai. In some schools of Chinese Buddhism, Budai was thought to be the Maitreya Buddha or second coming of the historical Buddha, Siddhārtha Gautama. Gautama was an ascetic who taught the middle path which advocates avoiding the extremes of indulgence and abstinence. Thus in traditional Buddhism, an obese Buddha would be a contradiction in terms.[188]
  • The Buddha is not a god. In early Buddhism, Siddhārtha Gautama possessed no salvific properties and strongly encouraged "self-reliance, self discipline and individual striving."[189] However, in later developments of Mahāyāna Buddhism, notably in the Pure Land (Jìngtǔ) school of Chinese Buddhism, the Amitābha Buddha was thought to be a savior. Through faith in the Amitābha Buddha, one could be reborn in the western Pure Land. Although in Pure Land Buddhism the Buddha is considered a savior, he is still not considered a god in the common understanding of the term.[190]

Christianity

  • The Immaculate Conception is not synonymous with the virgin birth of Jesus, nor is it a supposed belief in the virgin birth of Mary, his mother. Rather, the Immaculate Conception is the Roman Catholic belief that Mary was not subject to original sin from the first moment of her existence, when she was conceived.[191] The concept of the virgin birth, on the other hand, is the belief that Mary miraculously conceived Jesus while remaining a virgin.[192]
  • Nowhere in the Bible does it say exactly three magi came to visit the baby Jesus, nor that they were kings or rode on camels. It has traditionally been assumed there were three magi because three gifts are described, and artistic depictions of the nativity after about the year 900 almost always depict three magi.[193] Additionally, the wise men in the actual biblical narrative did not visit on the day Jesus was born, but they saw Jesus as a child, in a house as many as two years afterward (Matthew 2:11).[194][195]
  • Contrary to popular belief, there is no evidence that Jesus was born on December 25.[196] The Bible never claims a date of December 25, but may imply a date closer to September.[196] The date may have initially been chosen to correspond with either the day exactly nine months after Christians believe Jesus to have been conceived,[197] the date of the Roman winter solstice,[198] or one of various ancient winter festivals.[197][199]
  • The Bible does not say Jesus fell to his knees under the weight or strain of carrying the cross and therefore the cross had to be carried by another. It has been assumed that Simon of Cyrene was told by soldiers to carry Jesus' cross because of Jesus being unable to continue due to weariness and exhaustion. Three of the four gospels (the synoptic gospels) give an account of Simon of Cyrene being forced to carry Jesus' cross by soldiers (Matthew 27:32, Mark 15:21, Luke 23:26). None of the accounts mention Jesus falling to his knees or being unable to carry the cross himself.

Islam

  • A fatwā is a non-binding legal opinion issued by an Islamic scholar under Islamic law. The popular misconception[200][201] that the word means a death sentence probably stems from the fatwā issued by Ayatollah Ruhollah Khomeini of Iran in 1989 regarding the author Salman Rushdie, who he stated had earned a death sentence for blasphemy. This event led to fatwās gaining widespread media attention in the West.[202]
  • The word "jihad" does not always mean "holy war"; literally, the word in Arabic means "struggle". While there is such a thing as "jihad bil saif", or jihad "by the sword",[203] many modern Islamic scholars usually say that it implies an effort or struggle of a spiritual kind.[204][205][206]

Judaism

  • Orthodox Jews do not have sex through a hole in a sheet, as portrayed in various films and tv programs such as Curb Your Enthusiasm and A Price Above Rubies[207]. In fact, according to Rabbi Shmuley Boteach, "Jewish law does not allow any articles of clothing to be worn during lovemaking", and using a sheet in this way could be considered a violation of that law[208].

Technology

Inventions

Transportation

  • The United States Interstate Highway System was not designed with airplane landings in mind. A common urban legend states that one out of every five (or ten) miles of highway must be straight and flat to allow emergency (or military) airplane landings, but this is not the case.[219][220] However, several parts of the German and later the Swiss Autobahn system were indeed designed to be auxiliary military air strips, both during World War II and the Cold War.[221] Additionally, the Swedish Air Force built landing strips into their highway system starting in the 1950s with some expansion continuing into the 1990s.[222] Poland also contains highway strips for landing and takeoff, as do Finland, Singapore and Bulgaria.[citation needed]
  • Toilet waste is never intentionally dumped overboard from an aircraft. All waste is collected in tanks which are emptied on the ground by special toilet waste vehicles. A vacuum is used to allow the toilet to be flushed with less water and because plumbing cannot rely on gravity alone in an aircraft in motion.[223][224] The infamous blue ice is caused by accidental leakages from the waste tank. Passenger trains, on the other hand, have historically flushed onto the tracks; however modern trains usually have retention tanks on board the train.

See also

Further reading

  • Diefendorf, David (2007). Amazing... But False!: Hundreds of "Facts" You Thought Were True, But Aren't. Sterling. ISBN 9781402737916.
  • Green, Joey (2005). Contrary to Popular Belief: More than 250 False Facts Revealed. Broadway. ISBN 978-0767919920.
  • Johnsen, Ferris (1994). The Encyclopedia of Popular Misconceptions: The Ultimate Debunker's Guide to Widely Accepted Fallacies. Carol Publishing Group. ISBN 9780806515564.
  • Kruszelnicki, Karl (2006). Great Mythconceptions: The Science Behind the Myths. Andrews McMeel Publishing. ISBN 9780740753640. {{cite book}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
  • Lloyd, John (2006). The Book of General Ignorance. Harmony Books. ISBN 9780307394910. {{cite book}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
  • Lloyd, John (2010). The Second Book Of General Ignorance. Faber and Faber. ISBN 9780571268655. {{cite book}}: Check |isbn= value: checksum (help); Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
  • O'Conner, Patricia T.; Kellerman, Stewart (2009). Origins of the Specious: Myths and Misconceptions of the English Language. New York: Random House. ISBN 9781400066605.
  • Tuleja, Tad (1999). Fabulous Fallacies: More Than 300 Popular Beliefs That Are Not True. Galahad Books. ISBN 978-1578660650.
  • Varasdi, J. Allen (1996). Myth Information: More Than 590 Popular Misconceptions, Fallacies, and Misbeliefs Explained!. Ballantine Books. ISBN 978-0345410498.

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  192. ^ The BBC article errs in its statement of the virgin birth it says "Mary gave birth to Jesus while remaining a virgin" which, as stated, is part of the doctrine of Perpetual Virginity. The correct formulation is "that Mary miraculously conceived Jesus while remaining a virgin" as stated in the Wikipedia article on the virgin birth of Jesus retrieved on 5 Jan 2011
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  206. ^ "Western definition of "jihad" must be corrected -- Italian expert". Kuwait News Agency (KUNA).
  207. ^ "Hole in Sheet Sex". Retrieved January 6 2011. {{cite web}}: Check date values in: |accessdate= (help)
  208. ^ "Holy Sex and Holy Walls". Retrieved January 6 2011. {{cite web}}: Check date values in: |accessdate= (help)
  209. ^ Jan. 5, 1943: George Washington Carver Bites the Dust He Enriched | This Day In Tech | Wired.com
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  216. ^ Who Invented Radio?
  217. ^ Who invented radio?
  218. ^ [1]
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