Authorship of the Bible
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The various books of the Jewish and Christian Bibles were the work of many persons over many centuries. Very few of them are the work of the individuals whose names have been attached to them by tradition (the major exception being a number of the letters of Paul in the New Testament), and the majority have been heavily edited to the point where their original form and history of composition are today uncertain.
Jewish Bible
Torah
The first division of the Jewish Bible is the Torah, translated into English as "Instruction" or "Law", frequently called the Pentateuch ("five scrolls"), its Greek name, by modern Christian scholars. It is the group of five books made up of Genesis, Exodus, Leviticus, Numbers and Deuteronomy and stands first in all versions of the Christian Old Testament.
According to Rabbinic tradition the five books of the Torah were written by Moses, with the exception of the last eight verses of Deuteronomy which describe his death.[1] Today, the majority of scholars agree that the Pentateuch does not have a single author, and that its composition took place over centuries.[2]
Genesis, Exodus, Leviticus and Numbers
From the late 19th century there was a general consensus around the documentary hypothesis, which suggests that the first four books (Genesis, Exodus, Leviticus, Numbers) were created c.450 BCE by combining four originally independent sources, known as the Jahwist, or J (about 900 BCE), the Elohist, or E (about 800 BCE), the Deuteronomist, or D, (about 600 BCE), and the Priestly source, or P (about 500 BC).[3] This general agreement began to break down in the late 1970s, and today there are many theories but no consensus, or even a majority viewpoint.[4] Variations of the documentary hypothesis remain popular especially in America and Israel, and the identification of distinctive Deuteronomistic and Priestly theologies and vocabularies remains widespread, but they are used to form new approaches suggesting that the books were combined gradually over time by the slow accumulation of "fragments" of text, or that a basic text was "supplemented" by later authors/editors.[5] At the same time there has been a tendency to bring the origins of the Pentateuch further forward in time, and the most recent proposals place it in 5th century Judah under the Persian empire.[6]
Deuteronomy
Deuteronomy is often treated separately from Genesis, Exodus, Leviticus and Numbers. Its place in the documentary hypothesis is anomalous, as it, unlike the other four, consists of a single "source". The process of its formation probably took several hundred years, from the 8th century to the 6th,[7] and its authors have been variously identified as prophetic circles (because the concerns of Deuteronomy mirror those of the prophets, especially Hosea), Levitical priestly circles (because it stresses the role of the Levites), and wisdom and scribal circles (because it esteems wisdom, and because the treaty-form in which it is written would be best known to scribes).[8] According to the theory of the Deuteronomistic history proposed by Martin Noth and widely accepted, Deuteronomy was a product of the court of Josiah (late 7th century) before being used as the introduction to a comprehensive history of Israel written in the early part of the 6th century; later still it was detached from the history and used to round off the Pentateuch.[9]
Prophets
Former prophets
The Former Prophets (Nevi'im Rishonim [נביאים ראשונים]), make up the first part of the second division of the Hebrew bible, the Nevi'im, which translates as "Prophets". In Christian bibles the Book of Ruth, which belongs in the final section of the Hebrew bible, is inserted between Judges and Samuel.
According to Jewish tradition dating from at least the 2nd century CE, the Book of Joshua was by Joshua, the Book of Judges and the Books of Samuel were by the prophet Samuel (with some passages by the prophets Gad and Nathan), while the two Books of Kings were by Jeremiah.[10] Since 1943 most scholars have accepted Martin Noth's argument that Deuteronomy, Joshua, Judges, Samuel and Kings make up a single work, the so-called "Deuteronomistic history."[11] Noth believed that the history was the work of a single author writing in Babylon during the Exile (586-539 BCE). This author/editor took as his starting point the book of Deuteronomy, which had already been composed during the reign of Josiah (last quarter of the 7th century), selecting, editing and composing to produce a coherent work.[12] Frank Moore Cross later proposed that an earlier version of the history was composed in Jerusalem in Josiah's time; this first version, Dtr1, was then revised and expanded to create Noth's second edition, or Dtr2. Still later scholars have discovered further layers and further author-editors.[13] In the 1990s some scholars began to question the existence of a Deuteronomistic history[14] and the question of the origin of these books continues to be debated.[15]
Latter prophets
Isaiah
Modern scholars divide the Book of Isaiah into three parts, each with a different origin:[16] "First Isaiah", chapters 1-39, containing the words of the historical 8th century prophet Isaiah and later expansions by his disciples;[17] "Deutero-Isaiah" (chapters 40-55), by an anonymous Jewish author in Babylon near the end of the Babylonian captivity;[16]: 418 and "Trito-Isaiah" (chapters 56-66), by anonymous disciples of Deutero-Isaiah in Jerusalem immediately after the return from Babylon[16]: 444 (although some scholars suggest that chapters 55-66 were written by Deutero-Isaiah after the fall of Babylon.)[18] This orderly sequence of pre-exilic, exilic and post-exilic material is somewhat misleading, as significant editing has clearly taken place in all three parts.[19]
Jeremiah
Jeremiah lived in the late 7th and early 6th centuries. The Book of Jeremiah presents Baruch ben Neriah as the prophet's companion who writes his words on several occasions, and there has accordingly been much speculation that Baruch could have composed an early edition of the book.[20] In the early 20th century Sigmund Mowinckel identified three types of material in the book, Jeremiah 1-25 (Type A) being the words of Jeremiah himself, the biographic prose material (Type B) by an admirer writing c.580-480 BCE, and the remainder (Type C) from later periods.[21] There has been considerable debate over Mowinckel's ideas, notably the extent of the Jeremiah material and the role of Baruch, who may have been the author of the Type B material.[21] It is generally agreed that the book has strong connections with the Deuteronomistic layers from the Former Prophets, recapitulating in modern terms the traditional idea that Jeremiah wrote both his own book and the Books of Kings.[22]
Ezekiel
The Book of Ezekiel describes itself as the words of the Ezekiel ben-Buzi, a priest living in exile in the city of Babylon between 593 and 571 BCE.[23] The various manuscripts, however, differ markedly from each other, and it is clear that the book has been subjected to extensive editing.[24] While Ezekiel himself may have been responsible for some of this revision, there is general agreement that the book as we have it today is the product of a highly-educated priestly circle that owed allegiance to the historical Ezekiel and was closely associated with the Temple.[25]
Book of the Twelve (Christian Minor Prophets)
The Minor Prophets are one book in the Hebrew Bible, and many (though not all) modern scholars agree that the Book of the Twelve underwent a process of editing which resulted in a coherent collection.[26] This process is believed to have reached its final form in the Persian period (538 BCE–332 BCE), although there is disagreement over whether this was early or late.[27] For the individual books, scholars usually assume that there exists an original core of prophetic tradition which can be attributed to the figure after whom the book is named.[28] The noteworthy exception is the Book of Jonah, an anonymous work containing no prophetic oracles, probably composed in the Hellenistic period (332 BCE–167 BCE).[29]
Writings
Psalms
While a number of the Psalms bear carry headings which seem to identify their authors, these are probably the result of the need to find a significant identification in tradition.[30] The individual psalms come from widely different periods: "some ... presuppose a reigning king and an established cult in the Temple; others clearly presuppose and mention the events of the Exile."[31]
Job
The unknown author of the Book of Job is unlikely to have written earlier than the 6th century BCE, and the cumulative evidence suggests a post-Exilic date.[32] It contains some 1,000 lines, of which about 750 form the original core.[33]
Proverbs
The Book of Proverbs consists of several collections taken from various sources.[34] Verses 10:1-22-16 are probably the oldest section, with chapters 1-9 being composed as a prologue - there is some question whether this happened before or after the Exile (587 BCE). The remaining collections are probably later, with the book reaching its final form around the 3rd century BCE.[35]
Ruth
The Talmud refers to Samuel as the author of Ruth, but this conflicts with several details inside the book.[36] It has been proposed - although it cannot be proved - that the anonymous author was a woman, or if a man then one who took women's issues seriously.[37] The book is largely a unity, although the genealogy of David appears to be a later addition.[38]
Song of Songs (Song of Solomon)
The Song of Songs was traditionally attributed to Solomon, but modern scholars date it around the 3rd century BCE.[39] Scholars still debate whether it is a single unified work (and therefore from a single author), or more in the nature of an anthology.[40]
Qoheleth/Ecclesiastes
The Book of Ecclesiastes is usually dated to the mid-3rd century BCE. A provenance in Jerusalem is considered likely. The book's claim of Solomon as author is a literary fiction; the author also identifies himself as "Qoheleth", a word of obscure meaning which critics have understood variously as a personal name, a nom de plume, an acronym, and a function; a final self-identification is as "shepherd", a title usually implying royalty.[41]
Lamentations
Lamentations is assigned by tradition to the Prophet Jeremiah; linguistic and theological evidence point to its origin as a distinct book in the 3rd or 2nd century BCE, with the contents having their origin in special mourning observances in Exilic and post-Exilic Jewish communities.[42]
Esther
The Book of Esther was composed in the late 4th or early 3rd century BCE among the Jews of the eastern diaspora. The genre of the book is the novella or short story, and it draws on the themes of wisdom literature; its sources are still unresolved.[43]
Daniel
The Book of Daniel presents itself as the work of a prophet named Daniel who lived during the 6th century BCE; the overwhelming majority of modern scholars date it to the 2nd century BCE.[44] The author, writing in the time of the Maccabees to assure his fellow-Jews that their persecution by the Syrians would come to an end and see them victorious, seems to have constructed his book around the legendary Daniel of Ezekiel, a figure ranked with Noah and Job for his wisdom and righteousness, in a literary fashion popular in his time.[45]
Ezra-Nehemiah
The Book of Ezra and the Book of Nehemiah were originally one work, Ezra-Nehemiah. H.G.M Williamson (1987) proposed three basic stages leading to the final work: (1) composition of the various lists and Persian documents, which he accepts as authentic and therefore the earliest parts of the book; (2) composition of the "Ezra memoir" and "Nehemiah memoir", about 400 BCE; and (3), composition of Ezra 1-6 as the final editor's introduction to the combined earlier texts, about 300 BCE.[46] Lester Grabbe (2003) puts the combination of the two texts Ezra and Nehemiah, with some final editing, somewhat later, in the Ptolemaic period, c.300-200 BCE.[47]
Chronicles
Chronicles is an anonymous work from Levitical circles in Jerusalem, probably composed in the late 4th century BCE.[48] Although the book is divided into two parts (1st and 2nd Chronicles), the majority of studies propose a single underlying text with lengthy later additions and amendments to underline certain interests such as the cult or the priesthood.[49]
Deuterocanonicals/Biblical Apocrypha
Additions to Daniel
The Greek text of the Book of Daniel contains additions not found in the Hebrew/Aramaic version. All are anonymous. The Prayer of Azariah (one of Daniel's companions) was probably composed around 169/8-165/4, when Antiochus IV was oppressing the Jews. The Song of the Three Holy Children (i.e., the three thrown into the furnace) may have been composed by priestly circles in Jerusalem. Susanna may have been composed around 170-130 BCE in the context of the Hellenisation struggle. Bel and the Dragon is difficult to date, but the late 6th century is possible.[50]
1 & 2 Esdras
Jerome's translation of the bible into Latin (the Vulgate) contained four books of Esdras (ie. Ezra); Jerome's 1 and 2 Esdras were eventually renamed Ezra and Nehemiah; the remaining books each moved up two places in most versions, but the numbering system remains highly confused. The present 1 Esdras takes material from the Book of Chronicles and the Book of Ezra, but ignores Nehemiah entirely; it was probably composed in the period 200-100 BCE.[51] 2 Esdras has no connection with the other Esdras books beyond taking Ezra as its central character. It was probably written soon after the destruction of the Temple by the Romans in 70 CE.
Book of Baruch
The author of the Book of Baruch is traditionally held to be Baruch the companion of Jeremiah, but this is considered unlikely. Some scholars propose that it was written during or shortly after the period of the Maccabees.[52]
1, 2, 3 & 4 Maccabees
The anonymous author of 1 Maccabees was an educated Jew and a serious historian; a date around 100 BCE is most likely.[53] 2 Maccabees is a revised and condensed version of a work by an otherwise unknown author called Jason of Cyrene, plus passages by the anonymous editor who made the condensation (called "the Epitomist"). Jason most probably wrote in the mid to late 2nd century BCE, and the Epitomist before 63 BCE.[54] 3 Maccabees concerns itself with the Jewish community in Egypt a half-century before the revolt, suggesting that the author was an Egyptian Jew, and probably a native of Alexandria. A date of c.100-75 BCE is "very probable".[55] 4 Maccabees was probably composed in the middle half of the 1st century CE, by a Jew living in Syria or Asia Minor.[56]
Letter of Jeremiah
The Letter of Jeremiah is not by Jeremiah, the author apparently appropriated the name of the prophet to lend authority to his composition. Nor is it by Jeremiah's secretary Baruch, although it appears as the last chapter of Baruch in the Catholic bible and the KJV. Internal evidence points to a date around 317 BCE, with the author possibly a Jew in Palestine addressing Jews of the diaspora.[57]
Prayer of Manassas
The Prayer of Manasseh presents itself as a prayer from the wicked, but now penitent, king Manasseh (or Manassas) from his exile in Babylon. The actual author is unknown, and the date of composition is probably the 2nd or 1st centuries BCE.[58]
Wisdom of Sirach (Ecclesiasticus) and Wisdom of Solomon
Ecclesiasticus names its author as Jesus ben Sirach. He was probably a scribe, offering instruction to the youth of Jerusalem. His grandson's preface to the Greek translation helps date the work to the first quarter of the 2nd century BCE, probably between 196 BCE and the beginning of the oppression of the Jews by Antiochus IV, who reigned 175-164 BCE.[59] The Wisdom of Solomon is unlikely to be earlier than the 2nd century BCE, and probably dates from 100-50 BCE. Its self-attribution to Solomon was questioned even in the medieval period, and it shows affinities with the Egyptian Jewish community and with Pharisee teachings.[60]
Additions to Esther
The Book of Esther itself was composed probably around 400 BCE by Jews living in the eastern provinces of the Persian empire and reached its final form by the 2nd century BCE; concerns over the legitimacy of certain passages in the Hebrew text led to the identification of the additions to Esther in the Greek translation of Esther of the late 2nd or early 1st century BCE.[61]
Tobit
Tobit is set in the 8th century BCE and is named after its central character, a pious Jew in exile. The generally recognised date of composition is the early 2nd century BCE.[62]
Judith
The Book of Judith is set in Israel in the time of Nebuchadrezzar, king of Assyria. It has strong Persian elements, which suggests a 4th century BCE date; it also has strong parallels with the Hasmonean period, which suggests a 2nd century date. It is typically labeled Pharisaic, but an origin in Sadducee circles has also been suggested.[63]
Additional Psalms
The canonical Psalms contains 150 entries. Psalm 151 is found in most Greek translations, and the Hebrew version was found among the Dead Sea Scrolls.[64] Psalms 152–155 are part of the Syriac Peshitta Bible, some of which were found at Qumran.
New Testament
Gospels and Acts
Strictly speaking, each gospel (and Acts) is anonymous, meaning that none of them name an author.[65] The Gospel of John is somewhat of an exception, although the author simply refers to himself as "the disciple Jesus loved" and claims to be a member of Jesus' inner circle.[66]
There is general agreement among scholars that the Synoptic Gospels, (Matthew, Mark and Luke) show a high level of cross-reference which indicates that their authors relied on a shared body of sources. The usual explanation, the Two-source hypothesis, is that Mark was written first and that the authors of Matthew and Luke relied on Mark and the hypothetical Q document. Scholars agree that the Gospel of John was written last, using a different tradition and body of testimony. In addition, most scholars agree that the author of Luke also wrote the Acts of the Apostles, making these two halves of a single work, Luke-Acts.[67][68][69][70][71]
Mark
According to tradition the gospel records the teachings of the apostle Peter, compiled in Rome by his interpreter, Mark the Evangelist.[72] The gospel, however, appears to rely on several underlying sources, varying in form and in theology, and which tells against the tradition that the gospel was based on Peter's preaching.[73] Various elements within the gospel, including the importance of the authority of Peter and the broadness of the basic theology, suggest that the author wrote in Syria or Palestine for a non-Jewish Christian community which had earlier absorbed the influence of pre-Pauline beliefs and then developed them further independent of Paul.[74]
Matthew
Early Christian tradition held that the Gospel of Matthew was written in "Hebrew" (Aramaic, the language of Judea) by the apostle Matthew, the tax-collector and disciple of Jesus,[75] but according to the majority of modern scholars it is unlikely that this Gospel was written by an eyewitness.[76] Modern scholars interpret the tradition to mean that Papias, its source, writing about 125-150 CE, believed that Matthew had made a collection of the sayings of Jesus.[77] Papias's description does not correspond well with what is known of the gospel: it was most probably written in Greek, not Aramaic or Hebrew, it depends on the Greek Gospels of Mark and on the hypothetical Q document, and it is not a collection of sayings.[78] Although the identity of the author is unknown, the internal evidence of the Gospel suggests that he was an ethnic Jewish male scribe from a Hellenised city, possibly Antioch in Syria,[79] and that he wrote between 70 and 100 CE[80] using a variety of oral traditions and written sources about Jesus.[81]
Luke and Acts
Some scholars[82][83] uphold the traditional claim that Luke the Evangelist, an associate of St. Paul who was probably not an eyewitness to Jesus' ministry, wrote the Gospel of Luke and Acts of the Apostles. Others point out that Acts contradicts Paul's own letters and denies him the important title of apostle, suggesting that the author was no companion of Paul's.[84]
Most scholars date the Gospel of Luke to c 80-90,[85][86] although some argue for a date c. 60-65.[87]
The Gospel of Luke and the Acts of the Apostles were both written by the same author.[88] The most direct evidence comes from the prefaces of each book. Both prefaces were addressed to Theophilus, and Acts of the Apostles (1:1-2) says in reference to the Gospel of Luke, "In my former book, Theophilus, I wrote about all that Jesus began to do and teach until the day He was taken up to heaven, after giving instructions through the Holy Spirit to the apostles He had chosen." (NIV) Furthermore, there are linguistic and theological similarities between the two works, suggesting that they have a common author.[89][90] Both books also contain common interests.[91] The book of Acts has been most commonly dated to the second half of the first century[92][93][94][95]
John
In the majority viewpoint, it is unlikely that John the Apostle wrote the Gospel of John.[96][97] Rather than a plain account of Jesus' ministry, the gospel is a deeply meditated representation of Jesus' character and teachings, making direct apostolic authorship unlikely.[98] Opinion, however, is widely divided on this issue and there is no widespread consensus.[99][100]
Most scholars date the Gospel of John to c. 80–95.[65][101]
Epistles
Pauline epistles
The Romans, First Corinthians & Second Corinthians, Galatians, Philippians, 1 Thessalonians, and Philemon are almost universally accepted as the work of Paul. The superscripts to all except Romans and Galatians identify these letters as coming from Paul and at least one other person, a practice which was not usual in letters of the period, and it is not clear what role these other persons had in the composition of these letters.[102]
The remaining six letters are disputed. There is some support for the Pauline authorship of the three "Deutero-Pauline Epistles," Ephesians, Colossians, and 2 Thessalonians. The three Pastoral epistles, First and Second Timothy and Titus, are widely regarded as pseudepigrapha,[103] but although not by Paul they may have come from the same author.[102]
Epistle to the Hebrews
In the 4th century Saint Jerome and Augustine of Hippo supported Paul's authorship of the Epistle to the Hebrews, and the Church included it as the fourteenth letter of Paul until the Reformation. Nevertheless, other early church leaders, such as Eusebius, doubted that Paul had written it. Pauline authorship is now generally rejected, and the real author is unknown.[104]
General epistles
The traditional authors are: Peter the apostle (First and Second Peter); the author of the Gospel of John (First, Second and Third John), writing in advanced age; "Jude, a servant of Jesus Christ and a brother of James" (Epistle of Jude); and James the Just, "a servant of God and of the Lord Jesus Christ" (James). In fact 1 John is anonymous, and 2 and 3 John identify their author only as "the Elder." Most scholars today regard 2 Peter as pseudonymous, and many hold the same opinion of James, 1 Peter and Jude.[102]
Revelation
The author of the Book of Revelation identifies himself as "John" and states that he was on Patmos when he received his first vision. As a result he is sometimes referred to as John of Patmos. The name "John" suggests that he was a Christian of Jewish descent, and although he never explicitly identifies himself as a prophet it is likely that he belonged to a group of Christian prophets and was known as such to members of the churches in Asia Minor. Since the 2nd century the author has been identified with one of the Twelve Apostles of Jesus. This is commonly linked with an assumption that the same author wrote the Gospel of John. Others, however, have argued that the author could have been John the Elder of Ephesus, a view which depends on whether a tradition cited by Eusebius was referring to someone other than the apostle. The precise identity of "John" therefore remains unknown.[105]
See also
- Authorship of the Johannine works
- Authorship of the Petrine epistles
- Books of the Bible
- Dating the Bible
Bibliography
- Hebrew Bible/Old Testament
- Perdue, Leo G., (ed) "The Blackwell companion to the Hebrew Bible" (Blackwell Publishing, 2001)
- Oxford Bible Commentary (ed. John Barton, John Muddiman, Oxford University Press, 2001)
- Eerdmans Commentary on the Bible (ed. James D. G. Dunn, John William Rogerson, Eerdmans, 2003)
- Mercer Dictionary of the Bible (Mercer University Press, 1991)
- William David Davies, Steven T. Katz, Louis Finkelstein, "The Cambridge History of Judaism: The late Roman-Rabbinic period" (Cambridge University Press, 2006)
- Brueggemann, Walter, "Reverberations of faith: a theological handbook of Old Testament themes" (Westminster John Knox, 2002)
- Graham, M.P, and McKenzie, Steven L., "The Hebrew Bible today: an introduction to critical issues" (Westminster John Knox Press, 1998)
- Mays, James Luther, Petersen, David L., Richards, Kent Harold, "Old Testament Interpretation" (T&T Clark, 1995)
- Pentateuch
- Deuteronomistic history
- de Moor, Johannes Cornelis, and Van Rooy, H. F. (eds), "Past, present, future: the Deuteronomistic history and the prophets" (Brill, 2000)
- Albertz, Rainer (ed) "Israel in exile: the history and literature of the sixth century B.C.E." (Society of Biblical Literature, 2003)
- Romer, Thomas, "The Future of the Deuteronomistic History" (Leuven University Press, 2000)
- Marttila, Marko, "Collective reinterpretation in the Psalms" (Mohr Siebeck, 2006)
- Prophets and writings
- Miller, Patrick D. and Peter W. Flint, (eds) "The book of Psalms: composition and reception" (Brill, 2005)
- Blenkinsopp, Joseph, "A history of prophecy in Israel" (Westminster John Knox, 1996)
- Clemets, R.E., "Jeremiah" (John Knox Press, 1988)
- Allen, Leslie C., "Jeremiah: a commentary" (Westminster John Knox Press, 2008)
- Sweeney, Marvin, "The Twelve Prophets" vol.1 (Liturgical Press, 2000)
- Sweeney, Marvin, "The Twelve Prophets" vol.2 (Liturgical Press, 2000)
- New Testament
- Burkett, Delbert Royce, "An introduction to the New Testament and the origins of Christianity" (Cambridge University Press, 2002)
- Aune, David E., (ed) "The Blackwell companion to the New Testament" (Blackwell Publishing, 2010)
- Mitchell, Margaret Mary, and Young, Frances Margaret , "Cambridge History of Christianity: Origins to Constantine" (Cambridge University Press, 2006)
Notes
- ^ Jacobs, Louis, "The Jewish religion: a companion" (Oxford University Press, 1995) p.375
- ^ McDermott, John J., "Reading the Pentateuch: a historical introduction" (Pauline Press, 2002)p.21. Books.google.com.au. Retrieved 3 October 2010.
- ^ Gordon Wenham, Pentateuchal Studies Today, in Themelios 22.1 (October 1996): 3-13.
- ^ Van Seters, John, "The Pentateuch: a social-science commentary" T&T Clark, 2004) p.74. Books.google.com.au. Retrieved 3 October 2010.
- ^ Van Seters, John, "The Pentateuch: a social-science commentary" T&T Clark, 2004) pp.74-79. Books.google.com.au. Retrieved 3 October 2010.
- ^ Ska, Jean-Louis, "Introduction to reading the Pentateuch" (Eisenbrauns, 2006) pp.217 ff.
- ^ Miller, Patrick D., "Deuteronomy" (John Knox Press, 1990) pp.2-3
- ^ Miller, Patrick D., "Deuteronomy" (John Knox Press, 1990) pp.5-8
- ^ Van Seters, John, "The Pentateuch: a social-science commentary" T&T Clark, 2004) p.93. Books.google.com.au. Retrieved 3 October 2010.
- ^ Graham, M.P, and McKenzie, Steven L., "The Hebrew Bible today: an introduction to critical issues" (Westminster John Knox Press, 1998) p.57
- ^ Knoppers, Gary, and McConville, J. Gordon, (eds), "Reconsidering Israel and Judah: recent studies on the Deuteronomistic history" (Eisenbrauns, 2000)
- ^ Garry Knoppers, Is There a Future for the Deuteronomistic History?, in Romer, Thomas, "The Future of the Deuteronomistic History" (Leuven University Press, 2000), p.119
- ^ Eynikel, Erik, "The reform of King Josiah and the composition of the Deuteronomistic history" (Brill, 1996) pp.14ff
- ^ Eynikel, Erik, "The reform of King Josiah and the composition of the Deuteronomistic history" (Brill, 1996) p.14ff
- ^ Romer, Thomas, "The Future of the Deuteronomistic History" (Leuven University Press, 2000) pp.120ff
- ^ a b c Boadt, Lawrence (1984). Reading the Old Testament: An Introduction. ISBN 9780809126316.
- ^ "Introduction to the Book of Isaiah". United States Conference of Catholic Bishops. Retrieved 29 April 2007.
- ^ Kugel, p. 561
- ^ Blenkinsopp, Joseph, "A history of prophecy in Israel" (Westminster John Knox, 1996) p.183
- ^ Graham, M.P, and McKenzie, Steven L., "The Hebrew Bible today: an introduction to critical issues" (Westminster John Knox Press, 1998) p.83
- ^ a b Mangano, Mark, (ed) "Old Testament Introduction" (College Press, 2005) p.471
- ^ Graham, M.P, and McKenzie, Steven L., "The Hebrew Bible today: an introduction to critical issues" (Westminster John Knox Press, 1998) p.85
- ^ Joseph Blenkinsopp, "A History of Prophecy in Israel" (Westminster John Knox Press, 1996) p.167
- ^ Joseph Blenkinsopp, "A History of Prophecy in Israel" (Westminster John Knox Press, 1996) p.166
- ^ Joseph Blenkinsopp, "A History of Prophecy in Israel" (Westminster John Knox Press, 1996) pp.167-168
- ^ Redditt, Paul L., and Schart , Aaron (eds) "Thematic threads in the Book of the Twelve" (Walter de Gruyter, 2003) pp.1-3
- ^ Redditt, Paul L., and Schart , Aaron (eds) "Thematic threads in the Book of the Twelve" (Walter de Gruyter, 2003) p.9
- ^ Floyd, Michael H., "Minor prophets, Part 2" (Eerdmans) p.9
- ^ Dell, Katharine M., Reinventing the Wheel: The Shaping of the Book of Jonah, in John Barton, David James Reimer, "After the exile: essays in honour of Rex Mason" (Mercer University Press) pp.86-89
- ^ Mays, James Luther, "Psalms" (Westminster John Knox Press, 1995) p.12
- ^ Henry Wansbrough, "The Prayers of the Psalter" ("written for the seventh annual course for monks and nuns during the Easter Vacation at St Benet’s Hall, Oxford, at the instigation of the Union of Monastic Superiors and in particular of Sister Zoe, the Prioress of Turvey")
- ^ Habel, Norman C., "The Book of Job: A Commentary" (Westminster John Knox Press, 1985) pp.40-43
- ^ Whybray, Norman, "Wisdom: the collected articles of Norman Whybray" (Ashgate Publishing, 2005) p.181
- ^ Crenshaw, James L., "Old Testament wisdom: an introduction" (Westminster John Knox Press, 2010) p.66
- ^ Snell, Daniel C., "Twice-told Proverbs and the composition of the book of Proverbs" (Eisenbrauns, 1993) p.8
- ^ Hubbard, Robert L. "Book of Ruth" (Eerdmans, 1989) p.23
- ^ Brenner, Athalya and Fontaine, Carole R. (1999). The Feminist Companion to the Bible. Sheffield Academic Press. p. 34. ISBN 9781850759782. Retrieved 30 December 2007.
{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) - ^ Korpel, Marjo, "The structure of the book of Ruth" (Uitgeverij Van Gorcum, 2001) p.224
- ^ Bloch, Ariel, and Bloch, Chana, "The Song of songs: a new translation with an introduction and commentary" pp.21-27
- ^ J. Cheryl Exum, "Song of songs: a commentary" (Westminster John Knox Press, 2005) pp.33-37
- ^ Crenshaw, James L., "Old Testament wisdom: an introduction" (Westminster John Knox Press, 2010) pp.144-145
- ^ Gerstenberger, Erhard, "Psalms, Part 2, and Lamentations" (Eerdmans, 2001) pp.467-468
- ^ Eerdmans Commentary on the Bible (ed. James D. G. Dunn, John William Rogerson, Eerdmans, 2003) p.329-330
- ^ James C. VanderKam, Peter Flint, "The Meaning of the Dead Sea Scrolls" (Continuum International Publishing Group, 2002) p.137
- ^ Shemaryahu Talmon, Daniel, in Robert Alter, Frank Kermode, "The Literary Guide to the Bible" (Harvard University Press, 1990), p.345
- ^ Throntveit, Mark A., "Ezra-Nehemiah" (John Knox Press, 1992) pp.9-10
- ^ Lester Grabbe, Ezra, in Eerdmans Commentary on the Bible (ed. James D. G. Dunn, John William Rogerson, Eerdmans, 2003) pp.313-4
- ^ M. Patrick Graham, The "Chronicler's History": Ezra-Nehemiah, 1-2 Chronicles in Graham, M.P, and McKenzie, Steven L., "The Hebrew Bible today: an introduction to critical issues" (Westminster John Knox Press, 1998) p.210
- ^ H.P. Mathys, 1 and 2 Chonicles, in Oxford Bible Commentary (ed. John Barton, John Muddiman, Oxford University Press, 2001) p.267
- ^ Eerdmans Commentary on the Bible (ed. James D. G. Dunn, John William Rogerson, Eerdmans, 2003) pp.803-806
- ^ Daniell Smith-Christopher, Ezra-Nehemiah in Oxford Bible Commentary (ed. John Barton, John Muddiman, Oxford University Press, 2001) p.308
- ^ P. P. Saydon, "Baruch" by revised by T. Hanlon, in A New Catholic Commentary on Holy Scripture, ed. Reginald C. Fuller, Thomas Nelson, Inc. Publishers, 1953, 1975, §504h.
- ^ Eerdmans Commentary on the Bible (ed. James D. G. Dunn, John William Rogerson, Eerdmans, 2003)pp.807-808
- ^ Eerdmans Commentary on the Bible (ed. James D. G. Dunn, John William Rogerson, Eerdmans, 2003) pp.831-832
- ^ Eerdmans Commentary on the Bible (ed. James D. G. Dunn, John William Rogerson, Eerdmans, 2003) p.866
- ^ Eerdmans Commentary on the Bible (ed. James D. G. Dunn, John William Rogerson, Eerdmans, 2003) p.888
- ^ Mercer Dictionary of the Bible (Mercer University Press, 1991) p.438
- ^ Mercer Dictionary of the Bible (Mercer University Press, 1991) p.544
- ^ Oxford Bible Commentary (ed. John Barton, John Muddiman, Oxford University Press, 2001) p.667
- ^ Oxford Bible Commentary (ed. John Barton, John Muddiman, Oxford University Press, 2001) pp.650-653
- ^ Oxford Bible Commentary (ed. John Barton, John Muddiman, Oxford University Press, 2001) p.325
- ^ Oxford Bible Commentary (ed. John Barton, John Muddiman, Oxford University Press, 2001) p.627
- ^ Mercer Dictionary of the Bible (Mercer University Press, 1991) p.482
- ^ Soggin, J. Alberto, "Introduction to the Old Testament" (Westminster John Knox) p.424
- ^ a b Harris, Stephen L., Understanding the Bible. Palo Alto: Mayfield. 1985.
- ^ Harris, Stephen L., Understanding the Bible. Palo Alto: Mayfield. 1985. "John" p. 302-310
- ^ Peter, Kirby (2001–2007). "Early Christian Writings: Gospel of Mark". Retrieved 15 January 2008.
{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: date format (link) - ^ Achtemeier, Paul J. (1991-). "The Gospel of Mark". The Anchor Bible Dictonary. Vol. 4. New York, New York: Doubleday. p. 545. ISBN 0385193629.
{{cite encyclopedia}}:|access-date=requires|url=(help); Check date values in:|year=(help); Cite has empty unknown parameter:|coauthors=(help) - ^ M.G. Easton, Easton's Bible Dictionary (Oak Harbor, WA: Logos Research Systems, Inc., 1996, c1897), "Luke, Gospel According To"
- ^ Meier, John P. (1991). A Marginal Jew. Vol. 2. New York, New York: Doubleday. pp. 955–6. ISBN 0385469934.
{{cite book}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter:|coauthors=(help) - ^ Helms, Randel (1997). Who Wrote the Gospels?. Altadena, California: Millennium Press. p. 8. ISBN 0965504727.
{{cite book}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter:|coauthors=(help) - ^ Jens Schroter, Gospel of Mark, in Aune, David E., (ed) "The Blackwell companion to the New Testament" (Blackwell Publishing, 2010), p.277-8
- ^ Theissen, Gerd and Annette Merz. The historical Jesus: a comprehensive guide. Fortress Press. 1998. translated from German (1996 edition). p. 24-27.
- ^ Jens Schroter, Gospel of Mark, in Aune, p.278
- ^ Dennis C. Duling, Gospel of Matthew, in Aune, David E., (ed) "The Blackwell companion to the New Testament" (Blackwell Publishing, 2010), p. 298
- ^ "Matthew, Gospel acc. to St." Cross, F. L., ed. The Oxford dictionary of the Christian church. New York: Oxford University Press. 2005
- ^ Dennis C. Duling, Gospel of Matthew, in Aune, David E., (ed) "The Blackwell companion to the New Testament" (Blackwell Publishing, 2010), pp. 301-302
- ^ Dennis C. Duling, Gospel of Matthew, in Aune, David E., (ed) "The Blackwell companion to the New Testament" (Blackwell Publishing, 2010), p.302
- ^ Dennis C. Duling, Gospel of Matthew, in Aune, David E., (ed) "The Blackwell companion to the New Testament" (Blackwell Publishing, 2010), pp. 302-303.
- ^ Ehrman 2004, p. 110 and Harris 1985 both specify a range c. 80-85; Gundry 1982, Hagner 1993, and Blomberg 1992 argue for a date before 70.
- ^ Dennis C. Duling, Gospel of Matthew, in Aune, David E., (ed) "The Blackwell companion to the New Testament" (Blackwell Publishing, 2010), p.296
- ^ The tradition "has been widely accepted." "Luke, Gospel of." Cross, F. L., ed. The Oxford dictionary of the Christian church. New York: Oxford University Press. 2005
- ^ The tradition is "occasionally put forward." Theissen, Gerd and Annette Merz. The historical Jesus: a comprehensive guide. Fortress Press. 1998. translated from German (1996 edition). p. 32.
- ^ The author was "certainly not a companion of Paul." Theissen, Gerd and Annette Merz. The historical Jesus: a comprehensive guide. Fortress Press. 1998. translated from German (1996 edition). p. 32.
- ^ Brown, Raymond E. (1997). Introduction to the New Testament. New York: Anchor Bible. p. 226. ISBN 0-385-24767-2.
- ^ Meier, John P., A Marginal Jew: Rethinking the Historical Jesus. Doubleday, 1991, v. 1, pp. 43
- ^ "Introduction to the New Testament", chapter on Luke, by D. Carson and D. Moo, Zondervan Books (2005)
- ^ Horrell, DG, An Introduction to the study of Paul, T&T Clark, 2006, 2nd Ed.,p.7; cf. W. L. Knox, The Acts of the Apostles (1948), p. 2-15 for detailed arguments that still stand.
- ^ on linguistics, see A. Kenny, A stylometric Study of the New Testament (1986).
- ^ Udo Schnelle. The History and Theology of the New Testament Writings, p. 259.
- ^ F. F. Bruce, The Acts of the Apostles (1952), p2.
- ^ "The Dating of the New Testament". bethinking.org (HTML). Retrieved 5 July 2007.
- ^ Guthrie, Donald. "Nine". New Testament Introduction (third ed.). Downer's Grove, IL: InterVarsity Press. pp. 340–345. ISBN 0-87784-953-6.
{{cite book}}: Unknown parameter|origmonth=ignored (help) - ^ The suggested traces can be found at Ignatius and Polycarp. The resemblance of Acts 13:22 and First Clement 18:1, in features not found in Psalms 89:20 quoted by each, can hardly be accidental; the date of Ignatius depends on later synchronisms with Trajan, which are disputable.
- ^ Guthrie, Donald. "Nine". New Testament Introduction (third ed.). Downer's Grove, IL: InterVarsity Press. pp. 347–348. ISBN 0-87784-953-6.
{{cite book}}: Unknown parameter|origmonth=ignored (help) - ^ "To most modern scholars direct apostolic authorship has therefore seemed unlikely." "John, Gospel of." Cross, F. L., ed. The Oxford dictionary of the Christian church. New York: Oxford University Press. 2005
- ^ Gospel According to John, Encyclopædia Britannica
- ^ "John, Gospel of." Cross, F. L., ed. The Oxford dictionary of the Christian church. New York: Oxford University Press. 2005
- ^ Brown, Raymond E. (1997). Introduction to the New Testament. New York: Anchor Bible. p. 164. ISBN 0-385-24767-2.
- ^ Kirby, Peter. "Gospel of Mark" earlychristianwritings.com'.' Retrieved January 30, 2010.
- ^ Bruce, F.F. The New Testament Documents: Are they Reliable? p.7
- ^ a b c Eerdmans Commentary on the Bible (ed. James D. G. Dunn, John William Rogerson, Eerdmans, 2003) p.1274
- ^ Ehrman 2004:385
- ^ Fonck, Leopold. "Epistle to the Hebrews." The Catholic Encyclopedia. Vol. 7. New York: Robert Appleton Company, 1910. Web: 30 Dec. 2009.
- ^ "Eerdmans commentary on the Bible", James D. G. Dunn, John William Rogerson (eds) p.1535