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Whaling in Norway

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Norwegian Minke Whale Quotas (blue line, 1994–2006) and Catches (red line, 1946–2005) in Numbers (from official Norwegian statistics).

Whaling in Norway involves the hunting of the Minke whale for the purpose of using the whale meat for human consumption, generally in Northern Norway. This hunting has occurred since the early 20th Century,[1] and some still continue the practice in the modern day.[2]

History

Norwegians caught whales off the coast of Tromsø as early as the 9th or 10th century. Vikings from Norway also introduced whaling methods for driving small cetaceans, like pilot whales, into fjords in Iceland. However, the Norse sagas, and other ancient documents, provide few details on Norwegian whaling. The sagas recount some disputes between families over whale carcasses but do not describe any organized whale fishery in Norway.[3]

Spear-drift whaling was practiced in the North Atlantic as early as the 12th century. In open boats, hunters would strike a whale, using a marked spear, with the intent of later locating the beached carcass to claim a rightful share.[4]

Spitsbergen

From the early 17th century through the 18th century, Basque whalers hunted as far north as Spitsbergen and Bear Island, to include participation in Dutch and English whaling expeditions there. Competition between nations led to over-exploitation of whale stocks (and armed naval conflict in 1613, 1618, 1634, and 1638). By the middle of the 17th century other European nations also hunted whale in these lucrative waters.[5]

The whales were primarily hunted to render oil from the blubber for production of soap, paint, varnish, and more -- including oil for illumination. The baleen, or whalebone, was also used in products like corsets and umbrellas. On arrival at Spitsbergen, the whalers would set anchor, then construct a shore station with materials from the ship. The whales were spotted from shore, then chased and lanced repeatedly from the bow of a shallop. The whale carcass was next towed back to the shore station where the blubber was removed and boiled down. Finally, the whale oil was stored in wooden casks which were loaded onto the anchored ship.[5]

The Dutch used Jan Mayen Island as a base for whaling and also established a semi-permanent shore station which became the village of Smeerenburg. Norwegian ships were also sent to Spitsbergen during the 18th century.[6]

Modern Whaling

New techniques and technologies, developed in the mid 19th century, revolutionized the whaling industry and Norway's prominence as a whaling nation.

In 1865, Americans, Thomas Welcome Roys and C. A. Lilliendahl, tested their experimental rocket harpoon design and set up a shore station in Seydisfjördur, Iceland. However, a slump in oil prices after the American Civil War forced their endeavor into bankruptcy in 1867.[7] Norwegian, Svend Foyn, also studied the American method in Iceland.[8]

Svend Foyn, was born in Tønsberg in 1809. His father was lost at sea when he was only four. Raised by his mother, Foyn later came to be considered the 'Father of modern whaling'.[7] His own harpoon design proved to be much more effective than the American experiment.

There were many others whose ideas predated Foyn's method. In 1867, a Danish fireworks manufacturer, Gaetano Amici, patented a canon fired harpoon. An Englishman, George Welch, patented a grenade harpoon, also in 1867, very similar to Foyn's invention. In 1856, Phillip Rechten, of Bremen, Germany, together with the gunsmith Cordes, produced a double-barreled whale gun (and later claimed credit for Foyn's success) with a separate harpoon and bomb-lance. Norwegian, Jacob Nicolai Walsøe experimented with an explosive tipped projectile design. Another Norwegian, Arent Christian Dahl, also experimented with explosive harpoons from 1857-1860.[8]

In 1863, Foyn contracted the building of his first whaling ship -- a steam powered ship (also with sails) that had seven whaling canons -- the Spes et Fides (Hope and Faith). The ship was also fitted with check boards to increase the drag on harpooned whales. He also incorporated a 'compensator' or 'accumulator' from the Roys system -- a series of rollers and springs installed below deck -- to help the thick whale line, attached to the harpoon, to take up some of the shock without breaking.[7]

Svend Foyn, after years of experiments and expeditions, patented the modern whaling harpoon in 1870, and his basic design is still in use today. He perceived the failings of other methods and solved these problems in his own system. He included, with the help of H.M.T. Esmark, a grenade tip that exploded inside the whale. This harpoon design also utilized a shaft that was connected to the head with a moveable joint. His original canons were muzzle-loaded with special padding and also used a unique form of gun powder. The canons were later replaced with safer breech-loading types.[7][8]

"God had let the whale inhabit [these waters] for the benefit and blessing of mankind, and consequently I considered it my vocation to promote these fisheries." [7]


Svend Foyn

In 1864, Foyn took his first whaling ship to Finnmark but was unsuccessful and only caught a few whales. However, with the 1870 introduction of his improved harpoon design, and powered ships, larger rorquals could be chased and killed off Norway's shores with new and deadly efficiency. By the 1880s, there were twenty whaling companies operating out of Norway.[7]

Finnmark

Foyn, while enjoying a ten-year whaling monopoly (1873-1883), granted by the Norwegian government to protect the new opportunity and technology from German competitors, moved his whaling operation from Tønsberg to Vadsø. In spite of frequent disputes between the whalers and the people of Vadsø (including fishermen who blamed the whalers for poor catches), Foyn overcame oil production issues and enjoyed great success. He also established guano factories rather than let the stripped whale carcasses go to waste. Attempts to market the meat for domestic consumption were unsuccessful.[7][8]

Regardless of the monopoly, in 1876, some Norwegian citizens formed another whaling company and hunted whales from a site at the Varanger fjord (where the Germans had initially established themselves). After a court dispute, Foyn made concessions to several other whaling companies, including the first modern whaling company in Sandefjord. When the monopoly ended, Norwegian competitors multiplied, the number of whaling stations and ships doubled, and whale stocks suffered dramatically due to unrestricted catching. Fin whales and blue whales were favored targets with 1,046 fin and 148 blue killed just from 1885-86.[7][8]

Small boat whalers also hunted bottlenose whales in large numbers. By 1890, up to seventy rowing boats claimed about 3,000 of the 30ft long whales annually.[7]

Svend Foyn died in 1894 at the age of eighty-five.

Whaling Ban

In 1878, an extremely poor fishing season prompted renewed objections to whaling. A public scientific committee recommended a closed whaling season from January through May. In 1880, the Norwegian Parliament debated and adopted the proposal. A ban on whale catching, in the Varanger fjord, would take place from 1 Jan to 31 May for a period of five years starting in January, 1881. Whaling grew in economic importance to Norway but by 1883 poor fishing catches brought renewed calls for a total ban. The closed season was renewed for another 5 years, from 1886 through 1890.[9]

"In the profound conviction of the destructive effect of whaling on the fisheries along the coast of Finnmark, and seriously concerned for the future of themselves and the District, several hundred fishermen appeal to the Government to give the proposal for a Whale Protection Act its full support." [9]

Fishermen stepped up their pressure on the government after more dismal catches in 1886 and 1887. However, an excellent catch in 1889 did not deter their opposition. Whaling companies used the 1889 success as an opportunity to condemn all restrictions on the industry. The closed season was again extended for another five years to 1896.[9]

The conflict between whalers and fishermen had become a significant political issue by the 1900 election. Varanger fishing, where whaling was most intense, from 1901-3, went even worse for the economic hardship of fishermen. As the disputes shifted into a class struggle, Russian competition and agitation shaped the official response. Politicians were also increasingly concerned about losing the votes of so many fishermen. Then, in June of 1903, fishermen destroyed a whaling station. A bill was passed before the end of the year banning all whaling in Norway's three northernmost counties for a period of 10 years, beginning February 1, 1904.[9]

Iceland

In 1883, whaling expanded from Norwegian waters to Iceland as unrestricted catching depleted whale stocks off the coast of Norway.[10] Svend Foyn made several attempts to profit from whaling in Iceland but was ultimately unsuccessful. In reaction to demands that Norwegians working in Iceland should become naturalized Icelandic (Danish) subjects, Foyn sold his shares to company partners and abandoned his plans for whaling in Iceland. The major shareholder, Thomas Amlie of Oslo, assumed the role of expedition manager and enjoyed great success. As a result, competing companies transferred their operations to Iceland. At the age of 82, Amlie was lost at sea with one of his whaling ships and all 32 hands in a violent 1897 storm. Amlie is considered the father of modern whaling in Iceland.[11]

Between 1883 and 1915 ten (mostly Norwegian) whaling companies were founded and operated 14 shore stations on the east and west coasts of Iceland. One of the most successful companies, managed by Hans Ellefsen of Vestfold, in its best year produced 1/4 of all of the whale oil in Iceland. He also used whale carcasses stripped of their blubber as raw material for a guano factory. However, in response to the decline of whale stocks, Ellefsen moved his operation to South Africa in 1911.[11][12]

Faroe Islands

In 1894, Hans Albert Grøn of Sandefjord established the first whaling station in the Faroe Islands at Strømnæs. There his whaling company was able to take advantage of the migrating blue, fin, and sei whales that passed by the Faroes each year.[13][7]

Unlike Iceland and northern Norway, where fishermen opposed the industry, the Faroese embraced whaling and enjoyed the new source of cheap whale meat. However, the Danish government insisted by law that whaling must be reserved for Danish citizens or companies in which Danes were significant shareholders. In 1901, Grøn established another station and a Danish-Norwegian company which operated from a base near Torshavn.[13]

Peder Bogen founded A/S Suderø, originally in Sandefjord, as another Danish-Norwegian venture in 1901. In 1908 he built a guano factory and used the product to endure seasons with poor yields or low whale oil prices. However, competition continued to increase and as many as six shore stations operated from 1906-11. After production peaked in 1909, Grøn left the Faroes in 1911 only to lose several ships at sea, including a floating factory. Grøn returned for successful 1914-15 seasons but was unable to make a significant catch in 1916. From 1917-20, World War One interrupted whaling in the Norwegian Sea, and it was hoped that whale stocks had recovered in that time. However, whale oil prices had dropped in autumn of 1920 along with the possibility of profitable whaling. Regardless, one Norwegian company continued to operate in the Faroes until the 1930s.[13]

Shetland Islands

In 1903, Peder Bogen of Sandefjord and Christian Nielsen of Larvik, brought their whaling companies to the Shetland Islands. At first, the whalers were welcomed by local herring fishermen whose nets were often damaged by whales. However, after the first season of whaling, and poor herring catches, the fishermen turned against the whalers. The fishermen believed the offal and blood from whale carcasses attracted sharks and frightened the herring. In 1904, an official committee was unable to determine any link between whaling and herring stocks. Although catches had suffered for years, fishermen insisted on blaming the whalers and protests led to many new restrictions. After the WWI stoppage, in 1920, renewed objections to whaling persuaded the Norwegian companies to leave.[14]

Commercial Whaling

Recently, the Norwegian whaling industry has met increasing difficulties because of falling demand and weak recruitment. Norwegian anti-whaling groups seem to prefer to hold a low profile and watch over the slow death of the industry, instead of raising their voice and polarising the debate.[15]

In the last decade or two, some Norwegian scientists, veterinarians and technicians have made many contributions to the improvement of whale killing technologies, methods, and regulations, which have led to more humane outcomes for hunted whales (such as improvements in time to death and instantaneous death rate).[16][17]

Current practice

Only Minke whaling is permitted, from a population of 107,000 animals in the North East Atlantic and is argued by proponents and government officials to be sustainable.[18] Still, it has been frequently criticized by the international community, environmentalists and animal rights groups as Norway, along with Iceland and Japan, is one of few countries that still allows whaling.

Norway registered an objection to the International Whaling Commission (IWC) commercial whaling moratorium, and is thus not bound by it.[19] In 1993, Norway resumed a commercial catch, following a period of five years where a small catch was made under scientific permit. Norwegian Minke whale catches have fluctuated between 218 animals in 1995 and 646 in 2003.

During the decade immediately prior to the moratorium, Norway caught around 2,000 Minke whales per year. The North Atlantic hunt is divided into five areas and usually lasts from early May to late August. Norway has exported a limited amount of whale meat to the Faroes and Iceland. It has been attempting to export to Japan for several years and this was realized in 2009.[20]

In May 2004, the Norwegian Parliament passed a resolution to considerably increase the number of Minkes hunted each year. The Ministry of Fisheries also initiated a satellite tracking programme of various whale species to monitor migration patterns and diving behaviour. The tagging research program has been under way since 1999.[21]

Since 2006, when the Norwegian whaling quota was increased by 30%, Norwegian whalers have been allowed to hunt a quota of 1,052 Minke whales a year. Since the 1993 hunt resumption the Norwegian quota has rarely been fully met.[18]

Year Quota Catch
1994 319 280
1995 232 218
1996 425 388
1997 580 503
1998 671 625
1999 753 591
2000 655 487
2001 549 550
2002 671 634
2003 711 646
2004 670 541
2005 797 639
2006 1052 546
2007 1052 592
2008 885 484

Controversy

Opposition

Animal rights, environmental and anti-whaling groups have commented that given Norway's economic position it is paradoxical that this is one of a very small number of countries actively engaged in, and favouring the continuation of, commercial whaling. This is despite the argued negligible contribution that whaling makes to the economy, and despite opposition from around the world.[22]

According to documents released by WikiLeaks, US president Barack Obama, who promised to oppose whaling during his presidential campaign, used diplomatic channels to put pressure on Norway during his visit for the conferment of the 2009 Nobel Peace Prize.[23]

Support

Pro-whaling people have commented that it is a violation of sovereign rights to impose anti-whaling regulations on an independent state, and raise concerns about those nations' factory farming operations, which they see as considerably more harmful than whaling. Many supporters of whaling agree that its macroeconomic importance is negligible, but hold that the livelihood of individuals and small firms depend on it and that sustainable development depends on human harvesting of all non-endangered species,[24] and that it is an important part of culture in coastal areas[citation needed]. Arne Kalland argues [25] that international pressure against whaling is a form of cultural imperialism imposed on Norway. Norway's whaling today is limited to the Minke whale, which are killed using explosive penthrite grenade harpoons, which also accounts for more than 90% of the catch in Norwegian waters since the 1920s.

While not actively supporting whaling, several Norwegian environmental groups have stated that they oppose extreme measures, specifically sabotage, against the whaling industry and have clarified that they consider Norwegian whaling to be sustainable given current populations of minke whale.[26]

Although non-endangered, Minke whales are protected; their commercial whaling is illegal under the IWC global moratorium of whaling, and illegally traded Minke whale meat is banned under CITES conservation laws[citation needed]. However, because the government of Norway maintains an objection to paragraph 10(e) (the section referring to the 1986 moratorium) of the International Convention for the Regulation of Whaling (ICRW), the paragraph is not binding upon the Norwegian government, and thus the 1986 IWC global moratorium does not apply to them.[19]

References

  1. ^ http://www.greenpeace.org/international/en/campaigns/oceans/whaling/norwegian-whaling/
  2. ^ Norway, Embassy in Canada: Norwegian minke whaling
  3. ^ Ellis, Richard (1999). Men and Whales. The Lyons Press. pp. 40–41. ISBN 9781558216969.
  4. ^ Kraus, Scott D.; Rolland, Rosalind (2007). The urban whale: North Atlantic right whales at the crossroads. Harvard University Press. p. 45. ISBN 9780674023277.
  5. ^ a b Ellis, Richard (1999). Men and Whales. The Lyons Press. pp. 47–60. ISBN 9781558216969.
  6. ^ Ellis, Richard (1999). Men and Whales. The Lyons Press. pp. 62–66. ISBN 9781558216969.
  7. ^ a b c d e f g h i j Ellis, Richard (1999). Men and Whales. The Lyons Press. pp. 255–265. ISBN 9781558216969.
  8. ^ a b c d e Tonnessen, Johan; Johnsen, Arne (1982). The history of modern whaling. University of California Press. pp. 16–36. ISBN 9780520039735.
  9. ^ a b c d Tonnessen, Johan; Johnsen, Arne (1982). The history of modern whaling. University of California Press. pp. 57–67. ISBN 9780520039735.
  10. ^ Tonnessen, Johan; Johnsen, Arne (1982). The history of modern whaling. University of California Press. pp. 35 & 75. ISBN 9780520039735.
  11. ^ a b Tonnessen, Johan; Johnsen, Arne (1982). The history of modern whaling. University of California Press. pp. 75–79. ISBN 9780520039735.
  12. ^ Húsavík Whale Museum, Iceland: History of Whaling.
  13. ^ a b c Tonnessen, Johan; Johnsen, Arne (1982). The history of modern whaling. University of California Press. pp. 84–87. ISBN 9780520039735.
  14. ^ Tonnessen, Johan; Johnsen, Arne (1982). The history of modern whaling. University of California Press. pp. 88–92. ISBN 9780520039735.
  15. ^ Predicting a silent death for Norwegian whaling, article in Aftenposten, January 12, 2011.
  16. ^ http://iwcoffice.org/conservation/welfare.htm
  17. ^ http://iwcoffice.org/_documents/commission/IWC63docs/63-WKM&AWI6.pdf
  18. ^ a b Aftenposten Newspaper: Whaling quota draws fire
  19. ^ a b http://iwcoffice.org/commission/schedule.htm
  20. ^ "政府、ノルウェー鯨肉も輸入承認　20年ぶり、ミンク5・6トン". 47 NEWS (in Japanese). Japan: Kyodo News. 28 February 2009. Retrieved 2010-04-05. {{cite web}}: Unknown parameter |trans_title= ignored (|trans-title= suggested) (help)
  21. ^ "Norway. Progress report on cetacean research, January 2001 to December 2001, with statistical data for the calendar year 2001" (PDF). International Whaling Commission. Retrieved 2006-12-03.
  22. ^ "Norway set to kill more whales". World Society for the Protection of Animals. Retrieved 2006-12-04.
  23. ^ Used Obama visit to criticise Norwegian whaling, article in Aftenposten, January 12, 2011.
  24. ^ http://www.iucnredlist.org/search
  25. ^ 2009 Unveiling the Whale. Discourses on Whales and Whaling. Oxford/New York: Berghahn Books, 253 pp.
  26. ^ Sabotasje mot hvalskute i Svolvær, article in Dagsavisen, April 3, 2010.
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