Chola dynasty

The Chola dynasty (சோழர் குலம்) (IPA:['ʧuʒə]) was a Tamil dynasty that ruled primarily in Southern India until the thirteenth century CE. The dynasty originated in the fertile Kaveri valley, Urayur (near Thiruchirapalli) being their oldest capital. Karikala Chola was the most famous among the early Chola kings, while Rajaraja Chola, Rajendra Chola and Kulothunga Chola I were the famous emperors of the medieval Cholas.

The Cholas were at the height of their power during the tenth and the eleventh centuries. Under Rajaraja Chola (Rajaraja The Great) and his son Rajendra Chola, they rose as a notable military, economic and cultural power in Asia. The Chola territories stretched from the islands of Maldives in the south to as far north as the banks of the river Ganges in Bengal. Rajaraja Chola conquered peninsular South India, annexed parts of Sri Lanka and occupied the islands of Maldives. Rajendra Chola extended the Chola conquests to the Malayan archipelago by defeating the Srivijaya kingdom. He defeated Mahipala, the king of Bihar and Bengal, and to commemorate his victory he built a new capital called Gangaikonda Cholapuram (the town of Cholas who conquered the Ganges). Chola armies exacted tribute from Thailand and the Khmer kingdom of Cambodia. The power of the Cholas declined around the 14th century with the rise of the Pandyas and the Hoysala.

The Cholas have left behind a legacy that lasts in the region even in modern times. Their patronage of Tamil literature and their zeal in building temples have resulted in some great works of Tamil architecture and poetry. The Chola kings were avid builders and envisioned the temples in their kingdoms not only as places of worship, but also as centres of economic activity, benefiting their entire community. They pioneered a centralised form of government and established a disciplined bureaucracy.

Origins

An early silver coin of Uttama Chola found in Sri Lanka showing the Tiger emblem of the cholas.

There is no definite information on the origins of the Chola. Mentions in the early Sangam literature (c. 150 CE) indicate that the earliest kings of the dynasty antedated 100 CE. Parimelalagar, the annotator of the great Tamil classic Tirukkural, mentions that this could be the name of an ancient clan. The most commonly held view is that this is, like Cheras and Pandyas, the name of the ruling family or clan of immemorial antiquity. Attempts have been made to connect the word with the Sanskrit Kala (black) and with Kola, which in the early days designated the dark coloured pre-Aryan population of Southern India in general.

On the history of Cholas, as in many other subjects of Indian history, there is very little authentic written evidence available. Historians during past 150 years have gleaned a lot of knowledge on the subject from a variety of sources such as ancient Tamil Sangam literature, oral traditions, religious texts, temple and copperplate inscriptions. The main source for the available information of the early Cholas is the early Tamil literature of the Sangam Period. There are also brief notices on the Chola country and its towns, ports and commerce furnished by the Periplus of the Erythraean Sea (Periplus Maris Erythraei). Periplus is a work by an anonymous Alexandrian merchant, written in the time of Domitian (81 – 96 CE) and contains very little information of the Chola country. Writing half a century later, the geographer Ptolemy gives more detail about the Chola country, its port and its inland cities. Mahavamsa, a Buddhist text, recounts a number of conflicts between the inhabitants of Ceylon and the Tamil immigrants. Cholas are mentioned in the Pillars of Ashoka (inscribed 273 - 232 BCE) inscriptions, where they are mentioned among the kingdoms which, though not subject to Ashoka, were on friendly terms with him.

History

The history of Cholas falls naturally into four periods: the early Cholas of the Sangam literature, the interregnum between the fall of the Sangam Cholas and the rise of the medieval Cholas under Vijayalaya (c. 848 CE), the dynasty of Vijayalaya, and finally the Chalukya Chola dynasty of Kulothunga Chola I from the third quarter of the eleventh century.

Early Cholas

Main article: Early Cholas

The earliest Chola kings of whom there is tangible evidence are those mentioned in the Sangam literature. Scholars now generally agree that this literature belongs to the first few centuries CE. The internal chronology of this literature is still far from settled, and at present a connected account of the history of the period cannot be derived. The Sangam literature is full of names of the kings and the princes, and of the poets who extolled them. Despite a rich literature that depicts the life and work of these people, these cannot be worked into connected history.

The Sangam literature is also full of legends about the mythical Chola kings. The Cholas were looked upon as descended from the sun. These myths speak of the Chola king Kantaman, a supposed contemporary of the sage Agastya, whose devotion brought the river Kaveri into existence. Two names stand out prominently from among those Chola kings known from the Sangam literature: Karikala Chola and Kocengannan. There is no sure means of settling the order of succession, of fixing their relations with one another and with many other princelings of about the same period.

Interregnum

Little is known about the transition period of around three centuries from the end of the Sangam age (c. 300 CE) to that in which the Pandyas and Pallavas dominate the Tamil country. An obscure dynasty, named Kalabhras invaded the Tamil country, displaced the existing kingdoms and ruled for around three centuries. They were displaced by the Pallavas and the Pandyas in the sixth century CE. The fate of the Cholas is obscure for a further three centuries until the accession of Vijayalaya in the second quarter of the ninth century.

Epigraphy and literature provide a few faint glimpses of the transformations that came over this ancient line of kings in this long interval. What is certain however is that when the power of Cholas fell to the lowest ebb and that of the Pandyas and Pallavas rose the north and South of them, this dynasty was compelled to seek refuge and patronage under their more successful rivals. The Pallavas and Pandyas seem to have left the Cholas alone for the most part, though, possibly out of regard for their reputation, they accepted Chola princesses in marriage and employed in their service Chola princes who were willing to accept it. The Chinese pilgrim Xuanzang, who spent several months in Kanchipuram during 639 – 640 CE writes about the 'kingdom of Culi-ya'. Numerous inscriptions of Pallavas, Pandyas and Chalukya of this period mention conquering 'the Chola country'. Despite this loss in influence and power, it is unlikely that the Cholas lost total grip of the territory around Urayur, their old capital. Vijayalaya when he rose to prominence hailed from this geographical area.

Around seventh century CE, a Chola kingdom flourished in the present day Andhra Pradesh. These Telugu Cholas traced their descent to the early Sangam Cholas. Nothing definite is known however of their connection to the early Cholas. It is possible that a branch of the Tamil Cholas migrated north during the time of the Pallavas to establish a kingdom of their own, away from the dominating influences of the Pandyas and Pallavas.

Medieval Cholas

Main article: Medieval Cholas

While there is hardly any reliable information on the Cholas during the period between the early Cholas and the Vijayalaya dynasty, there is an abundance of materials from diverse sources on the Vijayalaya dynasty and the Chalukya Chola dynasty. A large number of stone inscriptions by both the Cholas themselves and by their rival kings Pandyas and Chalukyas, and copper-plate grants have been instrumental in constructing the history of Cholas of that period.

Around 850 CE, out of obscurity rose Vijayalaya, made use of an opportunity arising out of a conflict between Pandyas and Pallavas, captured Thanjavur and eventually established the imperial line of the medieval Cholas.

Chola territories during Rajendra Chola I c. 1030 CE.

The Chola dynasty was at its highest influence and power during the medieval period. Great kings such as Rajaraja Chola I and Rajendra Chola I occupied the throne and through their leadership and vision took the extent of the Chola kingdom beyond the traditional limits of a Tamil kingdom. At its peak the Chola Empire extended from the island of Sri Lanka in the south to the Godavari basin in the north. The kingdoms along the east coast of India up to the river Ganges acknowledged Chola suzernity. Chola navies invaded and conquered Srivijaya in the Malayan archipelago.

Throughout this period, the Cholas were constantly troubled by the ever resilient Sinhalas trying to overthrow the Chola occupation of Lanka, Pandya princes trying to win independence for their traditional territories, and by the growing ambitions of the Chalukyas in the western Deccan. The history of this period was one of constant warfare between the Cholas and of these antagonists. A balance of power existed between the Chalukyas and the Cholas and there was a tacit acceptance of the Tungabhadra river as the boundary between the two empires. However, the bone of contention between these two powers was the growing Chola influence in the Vengi kingdom.

Chalukya Cholas

Main article: Chalukya Cholas

Marital and political alliances between the Eastern Chalukya kings based around Vengi located on the south banks of the River Godavari began during the reign of Rajaraja following his invasion of Vengi. Rajaraja Chola's daughter married prince Vimaladitya. Rajendra Chola's daughter was also married to an Eastern Chalukya prince Rajaraja Narendra.

Virarajendra Chola's son Athirajendra Chola was assassinated in a civil disturbance in 1070 CE and Kulothunga Chola I ascended the Chola throne starting the Chalukya Chola dynasty. Kulothunga was a son of the Vengi king Rajaraja Narendra.

Chola territories during Kulothunga Chola I c. 1120 CE.

The Chalukya Chola dynasty saw very capable rulers in Kulothunga Chola I and Vikrama Chola, however the eventual decline of the Chola power practically started during this period. The Cholas lost control of the island of Lanka and were driven out by the revival of Sinhala power. Around 1118 CE they also lost the control of Vengi to Western Chalukya king Vikramaditya VI and Gangavadi (southern Mysore districts) to the growing power of Hoysala Vishnuvardhana, a Chalukya feudatory. In the Pandya territories, the lack of a controlling central administration caused a number of claimants to the Pandya throne to cause a civil war in which the Sinhalas and the Cholas were involved by proxy. During the last century of the Chola existence, a permanent Hoysala army was stationed in Kanchipuram to protect them from the growing influence of the Pandyas.

The Cholas under Rajendra Chola III were experiencing a period of continuous trouble. During the close of the 12th century CE, the growing influence of the Hoysalas replaced the declining Chalukyas as the main player in the north. The local feudatories were also growing in courage and ambition to challenge the central Chola authority. The Cholas were exposed to assaults from within and without. The Pandyas in the south had risen to the rank of a great power. Hoysalas in the west threatened the existence of the Chola empire. Rajendra tried to survive by aligning with the two powers in turn. At the close of Rajendra’s reign, the Pandyan Empire was at the height of prosperity and had taken the place of the Chola empire in the eyes of the foreign observers. There is no evidence that Rajendra was followed immediately by another Chola prince. The Chola empire was completely absorbed by the Pandyan empire.

Government and society

Main article: Chola Government

Chola country

According to Tamil tradition, the old Chola country comprised of the region that include the modern day Tiruchirapalli, and the Thanjavur districts in Tamil Nadu state. The river Kaveri and its tributaries dominate this landscape of this generally flat country which gradually slopes towards the sea. There are no major hills or valleys to mar this monotony. The unfailing river Kaveri, which was also known as Ponni (golden) river, had a special place in the culture of Cholas. The annual floods in the Kaveri marked an occasion for celebration, Adipperukku, in which the whole nation from the king down to the lowest peasant took part.

Kaverippattinam on the coast near the Kaveri delta was a major port town. Ptolemy knew of this and the other port town of Nagappattinam as the most important towns of Cholas. These two towns became seats of trade and commerce and acted as a cosmopolitan center attracting many religious faiths including Buddhism. Roman galleys also found their way in to these ports. Many Roman coins dating from the early centuries CE have been found near the Kaveri delta.

Thanjavur, Urayur and Kudanthai were the other major towns. After Rajendra Chola moved his kingdom to Gangaikonda Cholapuram, Thanjavur lost some of its prestige. The later Chola kings of the Chalukya Chola dynasty moved around their country frequently and used cities such as Chidambaram, Madurai and Kanchipuram as their regional capitals.

Nature of government

In the age of Cholas, the whole of South India was for the first time brought under the sway of a single government, and a serious attempt was made to face and solve the problems of public administration. The system of government of the Cholas was as was in the Sangam age, monarchy. But there was little in common between the primitive and somewhat tribal chieftaincy of the earlier time, and the almost Byzantine royalty or Rajaraja Chola and his successors with its numerous palaces, the pomp and circumstance associated with the royal court.

Between 980 CE, and c. 1150 CE, the Chola Empire comprised of the entire south Indian peninsula extending east to west between sea to sea, and bounded in the north by an irregular line along the river Tungabhadra and the Vengi frontier. Although Vengi had a separate political existence, it was so closely connected to the Chola Empire, for all practical purposes, the Chola dominion extended up to the banks of the Godavari river.

Extent of Chola empire c.1014 CE

Thanjavur and later Gangaikonda Cholapuram, were the imperial capitals. However both Kanchipuram and Madurai were considered as regional capitals and occasional courts were held in them.

The king was the supreme commander and a benevolent dictator. His share in the administration consisted of issuing oral commands to responsible officers when representations were made to him. A powerful bureaucracy assisted the king in the tasks of administration and in executing his orders. Due to the lack of a legislature or a legislative system in the modern sense, the fairness of king’s orders dependent on the goodness of the man and in his belief in Dharma – sense of fairness and justice.

Local government

Every village was a self-governing unit. A number of such villages constituted a Kurram or nadu or Kottram in different parts of the country. A number of Kurrams constituted a valanadu. These divisions and names underwent constant change and refinement throughout the Chola period.

Justice was mostly a local matter in the Chola Empire, where minor disputes were settled at the village level. The punishments for minor crimes were in the form of fines or a direction for the offender to donate to some charitable endowment. Even crimes such as manslaughter or murder were punished with fines. Crimes of the state such as treason were heard and decided by the king himself and the typical punishment in such cases was either execution or confiscation of property.

Foreign trade

Hindu temple complex at Prambanan in Java clearly showing Dravidian architectural influences

The Cholas excelled as well in foreign trade and maritime activity, extending their influence overseas to China and Southeast Asia. Towards the end of ninth century CE, the countries of southern India had developed extensive maritime and commercial activity. The Cholas, being in possession of parts of both the west and the east costs of the peninsular India were at the forefront of these ventures. The Tang dynasty of China, the Srivijaya empire in the Malayan archipelago under the Sailendras and the Abbasid Kalifat at Bagdad were the main trading partners.

Chinese Song Dynasty reports record that an embassy from Chulian (Chola) reached the Chinese court in the year 1077 CE and the king of the Chulien at that time was called Ti-hua-kia-lo. It is possible that these syllables denote "Deva Kulo[tunga]" (Kulothunga Chola I). This embassy was a trading venture and ended very profitable to the visitors. They returned with 81,800 strings of copper coins in return of some articles of tributes including glass articles, and spices.

A fragmentary Tamil inscription found in Sumatra mentions the name of a merchant guild Nanadesa Tisaiyayirattu Ainnutruvar (Lit. The Five Hundred from the four countries and the thousand directions) who were a merchant guild famous in the Chola country. The inscriptions is dated 1088 CE, clearly proving that there was an active overseas trade during the Chola period.

Chola society

There is not much information on the size and the density of the population during the Chola reign. The overwhelming stability in the core Chola region enabled the people to lead a very productive and contented life. There is a single recorded instance of any manner of civil disturbance during the entire period of Chola reign. There were however some reports of widespread famine caused by natural calamities.

The quality and finesse of the various inscriptions of the regime indicate a high level of literacy and education that existed in the society. The text in these inscriptions were written by court poets and engraved by talented artisans. Education in the contemporary sense was not considered important, although there is evidence to suggest that village councils did organise schools to teach the basics of reading and writing to the children. Vocational education was through hereditary training in which the father passed on his skills to his sons. Tamil was the medium of education to the masses and Sanskrit education was restricted to the Brahmins. Religious monasteries (matha or gatika) were centres of learning, which were supported by the government. The students learnt a number of subjects in these colleges.

Cultural contributions

Detail of the main vimanam (tower) of the Thanjavur Temple

Under the Cholas, the Tamil country reached new heights of excellence in art, religion and literature. In all these spheres the Chola period marked the culmination of movements that began in an earlier age, under the Pallavas. Monumental architecture in the form of majestic temples and sculpture both in stone and bronze reached the finesse never before achieved in India.

Cholas excelled in maritime activity in both the military and the mercantile fields. Their conquest of Kadaram (Kedah) and the Srivijaya and their continued commercial contacts with the Chinese Empire enabled them to influence the local cultures. Many of the surviving examples of the Hindu cultural influence found today throughout the Southeast Asia owe a large extent to the legacy of the Cholas.

Art

Main article: Chola Art

The Cholas continued the temple building traditions of the Pallava dynasty and contributed significantly to the Dravidian temple design. They built numerous temples through out their kingdom. Aditya I built a number of Siva temples along the banks of the river Kaveri. These temples were not of very big scale until the end of the tenth century CE.

Airavateswarar Temple, Darasuram c. 1200 C.E.

Temple building received great impetus from the conquests and the genius of Rajaraja Chola and his son Rajendra Chola I. The maturity and grandeur to which the Chola architecture had evolved found expression in the two temples of Tanjavur and Gangaikondacholapuram. The magnificent Siva temple of Thanjavur, completed around 1009 CE is a fitting memorial to the material achievements of the time of Rajaraja. The largest and tallest of all Indian temples of its time, it is a masterpiece constituting the high watermark of South Indian architecture.

The temple of Gangaikondcholapuram, the creation of Rajendra Chola, was evidently meant to excel its predecessor in every way. Completed around 1030 CE, only two decades after the Temple at Thanjavur and in much the same style, the greater elaboration in its appearance attests the more affluent state of the Chola Empire under Rajendra.

Chola Bronze sculpture of Parvati, 13th Century.

The Chola period is also remarkable for its sculptures and bronzes. Among the existing specimens in the various museums of the world and in the temples of South India may be seen many fine figures of Siva in various forms, Vishnu and his consort Lakshmi, Siva saints and many more. Though conforming generally to the iconographic conventions established by long tradition, the sculptor worked in great freedom in the eleventh and the twelfth centuries and the sculptures and bronzes show classic grace, grandeur and perfect taste. The best example of this can be seen in the form of Nataraja the Divine Dancer.

Literature

Main article: Chola Literature

The age of the Imperial Cholas (850 – 1200 CE) was the golden age of Tamil culture, and it was marked by the widespread practise and patronage of literature. Chola inscriptions note many works and it is a tragedy that most of them have been lost to us beyond recovery.

The revival of Hinduism from its nadir during the Kalabhras spurred the construction of numerous temples and these in turn generated Saiva and Viashnava devotional literature. Jain and Buddhist authors flourished as well although in reduced numbers compared to the past centuries. Jivaka-chintamani by Tirutakkadevar and Sulamani by Tolamoli are among notable by non-Hindu authors. The art of Tirutakkadevar is marked by all the qualities of great poetry. It is also considered as the model for Kamban for his masterpiece Ramavatharam.

Kamban flourished during the reign of Kulothunga Chola III. His Ramavatharam is the greatest epic in Tamil Literature, and although the author states that he followed Valmiki, his work is not a mere translation or even an adaptation of the Sanskrit epic. Kamban imports into his narration the colour and landscape of his own time. His description of Kosala is an idealised account of the features of the Chola country.

Jayamkondar’s masterpiece Kalingattuparani is an example of narrative poetry which keeps a clear line between history and fictitious conventions. This describes the events during Kulothunga Chola I’s war in Kalinga and depicts not only the pomp and circumstance of war, but also the gruesome details of the field. The famous Tamil poet Ottakuttan was also a contemporary of Kulothunga Chola I. Ottakuttan wrote Kulothunga Solan Ula a poem extolling the virtues of the Chola king. He also served at the courts of three of his successors.

The impulse to produce devotional religious literature continued into the Chola period and the arrangement of the Saiva canon into eleven books was the work of Nambi Andar Nambi who lived close to the end of tenth century. It is however noteworthy that comparatively few works on Vaishnavite religion were composed during the Chola period. This could be due to the apparent animosity towards the Vaishnavites by the Chaluka Chola monarchs.

Religion

In general, Cholas were the adherents of Saivism and Hinduism. Throughout their history, they were not swayed by the rise of Buddhism and Jainism as Pallava or Pandya kings were. Even from the period of early Cholas they were following some version of the classical Hindu faith. There is evidence in Purananuru for Karikala Chola’s faith in the then embryonic Vedic Hinduism in the Tamil country. Kocengannan, another early Chola, was celebrated in both Sangam literature and in the Saiva canon as a saint.

Bronze Chola Statue of Nataraja at the Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York City

Later Cholas were also staunch Saivites although there was a sense of toleration towards other sects and religions. Parantaka I and Sundara Chola endowed and built temples for both Siva and Vishnu. Rajaraja Chola I even patronised Buddhists and built a Vihara (temple) in Nagapattinam at the request of the Srivijaya Sailendra king.

During the period of Chalukya Cholas, there were instances of intolerance towards Vaishnavites and especially towards Ramanuja, the leader of the Vaishnavites. Such intolerance led to persecution and Ramanuja went into exile in the Chalukya country. He also led a popular upraising that resulted in the assassination of Athirajendra Chola. Kulothunga Chola II is reported to have removed a statue of Vishnu from the Siva temple at Chidambaram. There is ample evidence from the inscriptions that Kulothunga II was a religious fanatic who wanted to upset the camaraderie that existed between various Hindu faiths in the Chola country.

References

• Nilakanta Sastri, K.A. The CōĻas, University of Madras, Madras, 1935 (Reprinted 1984).
• Nilakanta Sastri, K.A. A History of South India, OUP, New Delhi, 1955 (Reprinted 2002).
• Nagaswamy, R. Tamil Coins - a study, 1981.
• Nagasamy R, Gangaikondacholapuram, State Department of Archaeology, Government of Tamil Nadu, 1970
• Keay, John, India A History, Harper Collins Publishers, New Delhi, 2000.
• Cholas: http://www.lotussculpture.com/bronze_sculpture_chola_empire.htm
• Extent of Chola territories : http://www.india-history.com/medival-india/chola-empire.html
• Tamil Nadu History: http://www.1upindia.com/states/tamilnadu/history.html
• Architecture of the Chola Empire : http://tamilnation.org/culture/architecture/thanjavur.htm
• Chola Bronze sculptures: http://tamilnation.org/culture/cholabronze.htm.
• UNESCO World Heritage sites constructed by the Chola Empire: http://whc.unesco.org/pg.cfm?cid=31&id_site=250
• Southeast Asian conquests: http://www.sabrizain.demon.co.uk/malaya/hindu1.htm
• Thanjavur Temple: http://www.tamilnation.org/culture/architecture/thanjavur.htm