Jump to content

ALS

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

This is an old revision of this page, as edited by 193.175.73.201 (talk) at 08:52, 13 November 2013 (→‎Feeding and nutrition). The present address (URL) is a permanent link to this revision, which may differ significantly from the current revision.

"ALS" redirects here. For other uses, see ALS (disambiguation).
"Motor neurone disease" redirects here. For a broader group of diseases that affect motor neurons, see Motor neuron disease.

ALS
SpecialtyNeurology Edit this on Wikidata

Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS) – also referred to as motor neurone disease (MND) in most Commonwealth countries, and as Lou Gehrig's disease in the United States – is a debilitating disease with varied etiology characterized by rapidly progressive weakness, muscle atrophy and fasciculations, muscle spasticity, difficulty speaking (dysarthria), difficulty swallowing (dysphagia), and difficulty breathing (dyspnea). ALS is the most common of the five motor neuron diseases.

Signs and symptoms

The disorder causes muscle weakness and atrophy throughout the body due to the degeneration of the upper and lower motor neurons. Unable to function, the muscles weaken and atrophy. Individuals affected by the disorder may ultimately lose the ability to initiate and control all voluntary movement, although bladder and bowel sphincters and the muscles responsible for eye movement are usually, but not always, spared until the terminal stages of the disease.[1]

Cognitive function is generally spared for most patients, although some (about 5%) also have frontotemporal dementia.[2] A higher proportion of patients (30–50%) also have more subtle cognitive changes which may go unnoticed, but are revealed by detailed neuropsychological testing. Sensory nerves and the autonomic nervous system are generally unaffected, meaning the majority of people with ALS will maintain hearing, sight, touch, smell, and taste.

Initial symptoms

The earliest symptoms of ALS are typically obvious weakness and/or muscle atrophy. Other presenting symptoms include muscle fasciculation (twitching), cramping, or stiffness of affected muscles; muscle weakness affecting an arm or a leg; and/or slurred and nasal speech. The parts of the body affected by early symptoms of ALS depend on which motor neurons in the body are damaged first. About 75% of people contracting the disease experience "limb onset" ALS, i.e., first symptoms in the arms or legs. Patients with the leg onset form may experience awkwardness when walking or running or notice that they are tripping or stumbling, often with a "dropped foot" which drags gently along the ground. Arm-onset patients may experience difficulty with tasks requiring manual dexterity such as buttoning a shirt, writing, or turning a key in a lock. Occasionally, the symptoms remain confined to one limb for a long period of time or for the whole length of the illness; this is known as monomelic amyotrophy.

About 25% of cases are "bulbar onset" ALS. These patients first notice difficulty speaking clearly or swallowing. Speech may become slurred, nasal in character, or quieter. Other symptoms include difficulty swallowing and loss of tongue mobility. A smaller proportion of patients experience "respiratory onset" ALS, where the intercostal muscles that support breathing are affected first. A small proportion of patients may also present with what appears to be frontotemporal dementia, but later progresses to include more typical ALS symptoms.

Over time, patients experience increasing difficulty moving, swallowing (dysphagia), and speaking or forming words (dysarthria). Symptoms of upper motor neuron involvement include tight and stiff muscles (spasticity) and exaggerated reflexes (hyperreflexia) including an overactive gag reflex. An abnormal reflex commonly called Babinski's sign also indicates upper motor neuron damage. Symptoms of lower motor neuron degeneration include muscle weakness and atrophy, muscle cramps, and fleeting twitches of muscles that can be seen under the skin (fasciculations). Around 15–45% of patients experience pseudobulbar affect, also known as "emotional lability", which consists of uncontrollable laughter, crying or smiling, attributable to degeneration of bulbar upper motor neurons resulting in exaggeration of motor expressions of emotion[citation needed]. To be diagnosed with ALS, patients must have signs and symptoms of both upper and lower motor neuron damage that cannot be attributed to other causes.

Disease progression and spread

Although the order and rate of symptoms varies from person to person, eventually most patients are not able to walk or use their hands and arms. They also lose the ability to speak and swallow their food, whilst most end on a portable ventilator, called BPAP. The rate of progression can be measured using an outcome measure called the "ALS Functional Rating Scale Revised (ALSFRS-R)", a 12-item instrument administered as a clinical interview or patient-reported questionnaire that produces a score between 48 (normal function) and 0 (severe disability). Though there is a high degree of variability and a small percentage of patients have much slower disease, on average, patients lose about 0.9 FRS point per month. A study amongst clinicians showed that they rated a 20% change in the slope of the ALSFRS-R would be clinically meaningful.[3] Regardless of the part of the body first affected by the disease, muscle weakness and atrophy spread to other parts of the body as the disease progresses. In limb-onset ALS, symptoms usually spread from the affected limb to the opposite limb before affecting a new body region, whereas in bulbar-onset ALS symptoms typically spread to the arms before the legs.

Disease progression tends to be slower in patients who are younger than 40 at onset,[4] have disease restricted primarily to one limb, and those with primarily upper motor neuron symptoms.[5] Conversely, progression is faster and prognosis poorer in patients with bulbar-onset disease, respiratory-onset disease, and frontotemporal dementia.[5]

Late stage disease symptoms

Difficulty in chewing and swallowing makes eating very difficult and increases the risk of choking or of aspirating food into the lungs. In later stages of the disease, aspiration pneumonia can develop, and maintaining a healthy weight can become a significant problem that may require the insertion of a feeding tube. As the diaphragm and intercostal muscles of the rib cage that support breathing weaken, measures of lung function such as vital capacity and inspiratory pressure diminish. In respiratory onset ALS, this may occur before significant limb weakness is apparent. External ventilation machines that use the ventilation mode of bilevel positive airway pressure (BPAP) are frequently used to support breathing, initially at night, and later during the daytime as well. The use of BPAP (more often referred to as non-invasive ventilation, NIV) is only a temporary remedy, however, and it is recommended that long before BPAP stops being effective, patients should decide whether to have a tracheotomy and long term mechanical ventilation. At this point, some patients choose palliative hospice care. Most people with ALS die of respiratory failure or pneumonia.

Although respiratory support can ease problems with breathing and prolong survival, it does not affect the progression of ALS. Most people with ALS die from respiratory failure, usually within three to five years from the onset of symptoms. The median survival time from onset to death is around 39 months, and only 4% survive longer than 10 years.[6] Physicist Stephen Hawking has lived with the disease for more than 50 years, though he is an unusual case.[7]

Cause

Genetic factors

There is a known hereditary factor in familial ALS (FALS), where the condition is known to run in families. A defect on chromosome 21, which codes for superoxide dismutase, is associated with approximately 20% of familial cases of ALS, or about 2% of ALS cases overall.[8][9][10] This mutation is believed to be transmitted in an autosomal dominant manner, and has over a hundred different forms of mutation. The most common ALS-causing SOD1 mutation in North American patients is A4V, characterized by an exceptionally rapid progression from onset to death. The most common mutation found in Scandinavian countries, D90A, is more slowly progressive than typical ALS and patients with this form of the disease survive for an average of 11 years.[11]

In 2011, a genetic abnormality known as a hexanucleotide repeat was found in a region called C9orf72, which is associated with ALS combined with frontotemporal dementia ALS-FTD,[12] and accounts for some 6% of cases of ALS among white Europeans.[13] The high degree of mutations found in patients that appeared to have "sporadic" disease, (i.e., without a family history) suggests that genetics may play a more significant role than previously thought and that environmental exposures may be less relevant.

To date, a number of genetic mutations have been associated with various types of ALS. The currently known associations are as follows:

Type OMIM Gene Locus Remarks
ALS1 Template:OMIM2 SOD1 21q22.1 The most common form of familial ALS
ALS2 Template:OMIM2 ALS2 2q33.1
ALS3 Template:OMIM2 ? 18q21
ALS4 Template:OMIM2 SETX 9q34.13
ALS5 Template:OMIM2 ? 15q15.1–q21.1 Juvenile onset
ALS6 Template:OMIM2 FUS 16p11.2
ALS7 Template:OMIM2 ? 20p13
ALS8 Template:OMIM2 VAPB 20q13.3
ALS9 Template:OMIM2 ANG 14q11.2
ALS10 Template:OMIM2 TARDBP 1p36.2
ALS11 Template:OMIM2 FIG4 6q21
ALS12 Template:OMIM2 OPTN 10p13
ALS13 Template:OMIM2 ATXN2 12q24.12
ALS14 Template:OMIM2 VCP 9p13.3 recent new study shows strong link in ALS mechanism [14][15]
ALS15 Template:OMIM2 UBQLN2 Xp11.23–p11.1 Described in one family[16]
ALS16 Template:OMIM2 SIGMAR1 9p13.3 Juvenile onset, very rare, described only in one family[17]
ALS17 Template:OMIM2 CHMP2B 3p11 Very rare, reported only in a handful of patients
ALS18 Template:OMIM2 PFN1 17p13.3 Very rare, described only in a handful of Chinese families[18]
ALS-FTD Template:OMIM2 C9orf72 9p21.2 Accounts for around 6% of ALS cases among white Europeans

SOD1

The precise cause of ALS is still not known, though a first important step toward determining the cause came in 1993 when scientists discovered that mutations in the gene that produces the Cu/Zn superoxide dismutase (SOD1) enzyme were associated with some cases (approximately 20%) of familial ALS. This enzyme is a powerful antioxidant that protects the body from damage caused by superoxide, a toxic free radical generated in the mitochondria. Free radicals are highly reactive molecules produced by cells during normal metabolism. Free radicals can accumulate and cause damage to both mitochondrial and nuclear DNA and proteins within cells. To date, over 110 different mutations in SOD1 have been linked with the disease, some of which have a very long clinical course (e.g. H46R), while others, such as A4V, being exceptionally aggressive. Evidence suggests that failure of defenses against oxidative stress up-regulates programmed cell death (apoptosis), among many other possible consequences. Although it is not yet clear how the SOD1 gene mutation leads to motor neuron degeneration, researchers have theorized that an accumulation of free radicals may result from the faulty functioning of this gene. Current research, however, indicates that motor neuron death is not likely a result of lost or compromised dismutase activity, suggesting mutant SOD1 induces toxicity in some other way (a gain of function).[19][20]

Studies involving transgenic mice have yielded several theories about the role of SOD1 in mutant SOD1 familial amyotrophic lateral sclerosis. Mice lacking the SOD1 gene entirely do not customarily develop ALS, although they do exhibit an acceleration of age-related muscle atrophy (sarcopenia) and a shortened lifespan (see article on superoxide dismutase). This indicates that the toxic properties of the mutant SOD1 are a result of a gain in function rather than a loss of normal function. In addition, aggregation of proteins has been found to be a common pathological feature of both familial and sporadic ALS (see article on proteopathy). Interestingly, in mutant SOD1 mice (most commonly, the G93A mutant), aggregates (misfolded protein accumulations) of mutant SOD1 were found only in diseased tissues, and greater amounts were detected during motor neuron degeneration.[21] It is speculated that aggregate accumulation of mutant SOD1 plays a role in disrupting cellular functions by damaging mitochondria, proteasomes, protein folding chaperones, or other proteins.[22] Any such disruption, if proven, would lend significant credibility to the theory that aggregates are involved in mutant SOD1 toxicity. Critics have noted that in humans, SOD1 mutations cause only 2% or so of overall cases and the etiological mechanisms may be distinct from those responsible for the sporadic form of the disease. To date, the ALS-SOD1 mice remain the best model of the disease for preclinical studies but it is hoped that more useful models will be developed.

Other factors

Where no family history of the disease is present – i.e., in around 90% of cases – there is no known cause for ALS. Potential causes for which there is inconclusive evidence includes head trauma, military service, and participation in contact sports. More recently, some research has suggested that there may be a link between ALS and food contaminated by blue-green algae.[23]

Studies also have focused on the role of glutamate in motor neuron degeneration. Glutamate is one of the chemical messengers or neurotransmitters in the brain. Scientists have found that, compared to healthy people, ALS patients have higher levels of glutamate in the serum and spinal fluid.[9] Riluzole is currently the only FDA approved drug for ALS and targets glutamate transporters. It only has a modest effect on survival, however, suggesting that excess glutamate is not the sole cause of the disease.

Certain studies suggested a link between sporadic ALS, specifically in athletes, and a diet enriched with branched-chain amino acids. BCAAs, a common dietary supplement among athletes, cause cell hyper-excitability resembling that usually observed in ALS patients. The proposed underlying mechanism is that cell hyper-excitability results in increased calcium absorption by the cell and thus brings about cell death, specifically of neuronal cells which have particularly low calcium buffering capabilities.[24][25]

According to Medical News Today, "A group of investigators from the University of British Columbia and the Vancouver Coastal Health Research Institute have discovered a crucial link between prions and the neurodegenerative disease ALS" [26]

Many other potential causes, including chemical exposure, electromagnetic field exposure, occupation, physical trauma, and electric shock, have been investigated but without consistent findings.[27]

Pathophysiology

The defining feature of ALS is the death of both upper and lower motor neurons in the motor cortex of the brain, the brain stem, and the spinal cord. Prior to their destruction, motor neurons develop proteinaceous inclusions in their cell bodies and axons. This may be partly due to defects in protein degradation.[28] These inclusions often contain ubiquitin, and generally incorporate one of the ALS-associated proteins: SOD1, TAR DNA binding protein (TDP-43, or TARDBP), or FUS.

Diagnosis

No test can provide a definite diagnosis of ALS, although the presence of upper and lower motor neuron signs in a single limb is strongly suggestive. Instead, the diagnosis of ALS is primarily based on the symptoms and signs the physician observes in the patient and a series of tests to rule out other diseases.[29] Physicians obtain the patient's full medical history and usually conduct a neurologic examination at regular intervals to assess whether symptoms such as muscle weakness, atrophy of muscles, hyperreflexia, and spasticity are getting progressively worse.

MRI (axial FLAIR) demonstrates increased T2 signal within the posterior part of the internal capsule, consistent with the clinical diagnosis of ALS.

Because symptoms of ALS can be similar to those of a wide variety of other, more treatable diseases or disorders, appropriate tests must be conducted to exclude the possibility of other conditions. One of these tests is electromyography (EMG), a special recording technique that detects electrical activity in muscles. Certain EMG findings can support the diagnosis of ALS. Another common test measures nerve conduction velocity (NCV). Specific abnormalities in the NCV results may suggest, for example, that the patient has a form of peripheral neuropathy (damage to peripheral nerves) or myopathy (muscle disease) rather than ALS. The physician may order magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), a noninvasive procedure that uses a magnetic field and radio waves to take detailed images of the brain and spinal cord. Although these MRI scans are often normal in patients with ALS, they can reveal evidence of other problems that may be causing the symptoms, such as a spinal cord tumor, multiple sclerosis, a herniated disk in the neck, syringomyelia, or cervical spondylosis.

Based on the patient's symptoms and findings from the examination and from these tests, the physician may order tests on blood and urine samples to eliminate the possibility of other diseases as well as routine laboratory tests. In some cases, for example, if a physician suspects that the patient may have a myopathy rather than ALS, a muscle biopsy may be performed.

Infectious diseases such as human immunodeficiency virus (HIV), human T-cell leukaemia virus (HTLV), Lyme disease,[30] syphilis[31] and tick-borne encephalitis[32] viruses can in some cases cause ALS-like symptoms. Neurological disorders such as multiple sclerosis, post-polio syndrome, multifocal motor neuropathy, CIDP, spinal muscular atrophy and spinal and bulbar muscular atrophy (SBMA)can also mimic certain facets of the disease and should be considered by physicians attempting to make a diagnosis.

ALS must be differentiated from the "ALS mimic syndromes" which are unrelated disorders that may have a similar presentation and clinical features to ALS or its variants.[33] Because of the prognosis carried by this diagnosis and the variety of diseases or disorders that can resemble ALS in the early stages of the disease, patients should always obtain a specialist neurological opinion, so that alternative diagnoses are clinically ruled out.

However, most cases of ALS are readily diagnosed and the error rate of diagnosis in large ALS clinics is less than 10%.[34][35] In one study, 190 patients who met the MND / ALS diagnostic criteria, complemented with laboratory research in compliance with both research protocols and regular monitoring. Thirty of these patients (16%) had their diagnosis completely changed, during the clinical observation development period.[36] In the same study, three patients had a false negative diagnoses, myasthenia gravis (MG), an auto-immune disease. MG can mimic ALS and other neurological disorders leading to a delay in diagnosis and treatment. MG is eminently treatable; ALS is not.[37] Myasthenic syndrome, also known as Lambert-Eaton syndrome (LES), can mimic ALS and its initial presentation can be similar to that of MG.[38][39]

Current research focuses on abnormalities of neuronal cell metabolism involving glutamate and the role of potential neurotoxins and neurotrophic factors.[40]

Treatment

Slowing progression

Riluzole (Rilutek) is the only treatment that has been found to improve survival but only to a modest extent.[41] It lengthens survival by several months, and may have a greater survival benefit for those with a bulbar onset. It also extends the time before a person needs ventilation support. Riluzole does not reverse the damage already done to motor neurons, and people taking it must be monitored for liver damage (occurring in ~10% of people taking the drug).[42] It is approved by Food and Drug Administration (FDA) and recommended by the National Institute for Clinical Excellence (NICE).

Disease management

Other treatments for ALS are designed to relieve symptoms and improve the quality of life for patients. This supportive care is best provided by multidisciplinary teams of health care professionals working with patients and caregivers to keep patients as mobile and comfortable as possible.

Pharmaceutical treatments

Medical professionals can prescribe medications to help reduce fatigue, ease muscle cramps, control spasticity, and reduce excess saliva and phlegm. Drugs also are available to help patients with pain, depression, sleep disturbances, dysphagia, and constipation. Baclofen and diazepam are often prescribed to control the spasticity caused by ALS, and trihexyphenidyl or amitriptyline may be prescribed when ALS patients begin having trouble swallowing their saliva.[1]

Physical, occupational and speech therapy

Physical therapists and occupational therapists play a large role in rehabilitation for individuals with ALS. Specifically, physical and occupational therapists can set goals and promote benefits for individuals with ALS by delaying loss of strength, maintaining endurance, limiting pain, preventing complications, and promoting functional independence.[43]

Occupational therapy and special equipment such as assistive technology can also enhance patients' independence and safety throughout the course of ALS. Gentle, low-impact aerobic exercise such as performing activities of daily living (ADL's), walking, swimming, and stationary bicycling can strengthen unaffected muscles, improve cardiovascular health, and help patients fight fatigue and depression. Range of motion and stretching exercises can help prevent painful spasticity and shortening (contracture) of muscles. Physical and occupational therapists can recommend exercises that provide these benefits without overworking muscles. They can suggest devices such as ramps, braces, walkers, bathroom equipment (shower chairs, toilet risers, etc.) and wheelchairs that help patients remain mobile. Occupational therapists can provide or recommend equipment and adaptations to enable people to retain as much safety and independence in activities of daily living as possible.

ALS patients who have difficulty speaking may benefit from working with a speech-language pathologist. These health professionals can teach patients adaptive strategies such as techniques to help them speak louder and more clearly. As ALS progresses, speech-language pathologists can recommend the use of augmentative and alternative communication such as voice amplifiers, speech-generating devices (or voice output communication devices) and/or low tech communication techniques such as alphabet boards or yes/no signals.

Feeding and nutrition

Patients and caregivers can learn from speech-language pathologists and nutritionists how to plan and prepare numerous small meals throughout the day that provide enough calories, fiber, and fluid and how to avoid foods that are difficult to swallow. Patients may begin using suction devices to remove excess fluids or saliva and prevent choking. Occupational therapists can assist with recommendations for adaptive equipment to ease the physical task of self-feeding and/or make food choice recommendations that are more conducive to their unique deficits and abilities. When patients can no longer get enough nourishment from eating, doctors may advise inserting a feeding tube into the stomach. The use of a feeding tube also reduces the risk of choking and pneumonia that can result from inhaling liquids into the lungs. The tube is not painful and does not prevent patients from eating food orally if they wish.

Researchers have stated that ALS patients have a chronically deficient intake of energy and severe loss of appetite[44][unreliable medical source?] and recommended augmentation of energy intake.[45] Both animal[46] and human research[45][unreliable medical source?][47][unreliable medical source?] suggest that ALS patients should be encouraged to consume as many calories as possible and not to restrict their calorie intake.

Breathing support

When the muscles that assist in breathing weaken, use of ventilatory assistance (intermittent positive pressure ventilation (IPPV), bilevel positive airway pressure (BIPAP), or biphasic cuirass ventilation (BCV)) may be used to aid breathing. Such devices artificially inflate the patient's lungs from various external sources that are applied directly to the face or body. When muscles are no longer able to maintain oxygen and carbon dioxide levels, these devices may be used full-time. BCV has the added advantage of being able to assist in clearing secretions by using high-frequency oscillations followed by several positive expiratory breaths.[48] Patients may eventually consider forms of mechanical ventilation (respirators) in which a machine inflates and deflates the lungs. To be effective, this may require a tube that passes from the nose or mouth to the windpipe (trachea) and for long-term use, an operation such as a tracheotomy, in which a plastic breathing tube is inserted directly in the patient's windpipe through an opening in the neck.

Patients and their families should consider several factors when deciding whether and when to use one of these options. Ventilation devices differ in their effect on the patient's quality of life and in cost. Although ventilation support can ease problems with breathing and prolong survival, it does not affect the progression of ALS. Patients need to be fully informed about these considerations and the long-term effects of life without movement before they make decisions about ventilation support. Some patients under long-term tracheotomy intermittent positive pressure ventilation with deflated cuffs or cuffless tracheotomy tubes (leak ventilation) are able to speak, provided their bulbar muscles are strong enough. This technique preserves speech in some patients with long-term mechanical ventilation. Other patients may be able to utilize a speaking valve such as a Passey-Muir Speaking Valve with the assistance and guidance of a speech-language pathologist.

Palliative care

Social workers and home care and hospice nurses help patients, families, and caregivers with the medical, emotional, and financial challenges of coping with ALS, particularly during the final stages of the disease. Social workers provide support such as assistance in obtaining financial aid, arranging durable power of attorney, preparing a living will, and finding support groups for patients and caregivers. Home nurses are available not only to provide medical care but also to teach caregivers about tasks such as maintaining respirators, giving feedings, and moving patients to avoid painful skin problems and contractures. Home hospice nurses work in consultation with physicians to ensure proper medication, pain control, and other care affecting the quality of life of patients who wish to remain at home. The home hospice team can also counsel patients and caregivers about end-of-life issues.

Epidemiology

ALS is one of the most common neuromuscular diseases worldwide, and people of all races and ethnic backgrounds are affected. One or two out of 100,000 people develop ALS each year.[49] ALS most commonly strikes people between 40 and 60 years of age, but younger and older people can also develop the disease. Men are affected slightly more often than women.

Although the incidence of ALS is thought to be regionally uniform, there are three regions in the West Pacific where there has in the past been an elevated occurrence of ALS. This seems to be declining in recent decades. The largest is the area of Guam inhabited by the Chamorro people, who have historically had a high incidence (as much as 143 cases per 100,000 people per year) of a condition called Lytico-Bodig disease which is a combination of symptoms similar to ALS, parkinsonism, and dementia. Lytico-Bodig disease has been linked to the consumption of cycad seeds and in particular, the chemical found in cycad seeds, β-methylamino-L-alanine (BMAA).[50] Studies in this field were awarded with the Nobel prize for Dr Gajdusek, Daniel Carleton in 1976 [51] Two more areas of increased incidence are West Papua and the Kii Peninsula of Japan.[52][53]

Although there have been reports of several "clusters" including three American football players from the San Francisco 49ers, more than fifty football players in Italy,[54] three football-playing friends in the south of England,[55] and reports of conjugal (husband and wife) cases in the south of France,[56][57][58][59][60] these are statistically plausible chance events[citation needed]. Although many authors consider ALS to be caused by a combination of genetic and environmental risk factors, so far the latter have not been firmly identified, other than a higher risk with increasing age.

Etymology

Amyotrophic comes from the Greek language: A- means "no", myo refers to "muscle", and trophic means "nourishment"; amyotrophic therefore means "no muscle nourishment," which describes the characteristic atrophication of the sufferer's disused muscle tissue. Lateral identifies the areas in a person's spinal cord where portions of the nerve cells that are affected are located. As this area degenerates it leads to scarring or hardening ("sclerosis") in the region.

History

Timeline
Year Event
1824 Charles Bell writes a report about ALS.[61]
1850 English scientist Augustus Waller describes the appearance of shriveled nerve fibers
1869 French doctor Jean-Martin Charcot first describes ALS in scientific literature[62]
1881 "Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis" is translated into English and published in a three-volume edition of Lectures on the Diseases of the Nervous System
1939 ALS becomes a cause célèbre in the United States when baseball legend Lou Gehrig's career—and, two years later, his life—is ended by the disease. He gives his farewell speech on 4 July 1939.[63]
1950s ALS epidemic occurs among the Chamorro people on Guam
1991 Researchers link chromosome 21 to FALS (Familial ALS)
1993 SOD1 gene on chromosome 21 found to play a role in some cases of FALS
1996 Rilutek becomes the first FDA-approved drug for ALS
1998 The El Escorial criteria is developed as the standard for classifying ALS patient in clinical research
1999 The revised ALS Functional Rating Scale (ALSFRS-R) is published and soon becomes a gold standard measure for rating decline in ALS patient in clinical research
2011 Noncoding repeat expansions in C9ORF72 are found to be a major cause of ALS and frontotemporal dementia

Clinical research

A number of clinical trials are underway globally for ALS; a comprehensive listing of trials in the US can be found at ClinicalTrials.gov.

Thalidomide and lenalidomide have shown efficacy in protecting motor neurons in transgenic (G93A) mice.[64]

Dexpramipexole (KNS-760704) was one of the largest phase III study conducted in patients so far by Biogen Idec . In January 2013, Biogen Idec announced that it was discontinuing its development of dexpramipexole in ALS due to lack of efficacy in a phase III study and results just published very recently in The Lancet [65]

A phase II trial on Tirasemtiv has been completed with a follow-on Phase IIb study in progress under the name "BENEFIT-ALS". Results of the first study are available here.[66] The current trial is an international, placebo-controlled, multi-center study on 680 participants. This makes it one of the largest studies to date.

A phase II trial on Ozanezumab is in progress. It is a large multi-site international research project sponsored by GSK.

A phase II trial on talampanel was completed by Teva Pharmaceutical Industries in April 2010, however it was found to be negative for treatment viability.[67]

A phase II clinical trial is being conducted by BrainStorm Cell Therapeutics at the Hadassah Medical Center in Israel and interim results "demonstrated a tendency toward stabilization in some parameters in the ALS Functional Rating Scale."[68][69] Patients in the trial have bone marrow stem cells removed and differentiated in a clean room into cells that express neurotropic factors. The cells are injected back into the same patient via an intrathecal injection and intramuscular injections. A second phase II trial is expected to open in the United States at several institutions including the Mayo Clinic.[70]

A phase I trial using human fetal neural stem cells conducted by Neuralstem, Inc. in 2010–2012 showed "no significant disease progression" in a number of participants. A phase II trial of the technology has received FDA approval and is scheduled to commence in 2013.[71] Patients in the phase II trial will receive more injections and a higher number of cells per injection than the phase I trial. The primary endpoint of the trial is the maximum tolerated dose of transplanted cells, and the trial will take place at the University of Michigan and Emory University.[72]

See also

References

  1. ^ a b Dugdale DC, Hoch DB, Zieve D (27 August 2010). "Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis". A.D.A.M. Medical Encyclopedia.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  2. ^ Phukan J, Pender NP, Hardiman O (2007). "Cognitive impairment in amyotrophic lateral sclerosis". Lancet Neurol. 6 (11): 994–1003. doi:10.1016/S1474-4422(07)70265-X. PMID 17945153.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  3. ^ Clinical significance in the change ... [Amyotroph Lateral Scler. 2010] - PubMed - NCBI. Ncbi.nlm.nih.gov (2013-03-25). Retrieved on 2013-11-02.
  4. ^ Attention: This template ({{cite doi}}) is deprecated. To cite the publication identified by doi:10.1212/01.wnl.0000312378.94737.45, please use {{cite journal}} (if it was published in a bona fide academic journal, otherwise {{cite report}} with |doi=10.1212/01.wnl.0000312378.94737.45 instead.
  5. ^ a b Attention: This template ({{cite doi}}) is deprecated. To cite the publication identified by doi:10.1136/jnnp.2010.235952, please use {{cite journal}} (if it was published in a bona fide academic journal, otherwise {{cite report}} with |doi=10.1136/jnnp.2010.235952 instead.
  6. ^ Turner MR, Parton MJ, Shaw CE, Leigh PN, Al-Chalabi A (2003). "Prolonged survival in motor neuron disease: a descriptive study of the King's database 1990–2002". J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry. 74 (7): 995–997. doi:10.1136/jnnp.74.7.995. PMC 1738535. PMID 12810805.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  7. ^ "Stephen Hawking serves as role model for ALS patients". CNN. 20 April 2009.
  8. ^ Conwit, Robin A. (2006). "Preventing familial ALS: A clinical trial may be feasible but is an efficacy trial warranted?". Journal of the Neurological Sciences. 251 (1–2): 1–2. doi:10.1016/j.jns.2006.07.009. ISSN 0022-510X. PMID 17070848. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
  9. ^ a b Al-Chalabi, Ammar (2000). "Recent advances in amyotrophic lateral sclerosis". Current Opinion in Neurology. 13 (4): 397–405. doi:10.1097/00019052-200008000-00006. ISSN 1473-6551. PMID 10970056. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |coauthor= ignored (|author= suggested) (help); Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
  10. ^ Battistini S, Ricci C, Lotti EM, Benigni M, Gagliardi S, Zucco R, Bondavalli M, Marcello N, Ceroni M, Cereda C (2010). "Severe familial ALS with a novel exon 4 mutation (L106F) in the SOD1 gene". Journal of the Neurological Sciences. 293 (1): 112–115. doi:10.1016/j.jns.2010.03.009. PMID 20385392. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  11. ^ Anderson P.M.; et al. (1996). "Autosomal recessive adult-onset amyotrophic lateral sclerosis associated with homozygosity for Asp90Ala CuZn-superoxide dismutase mutation, A clinical and genealogical study of 36 patients". Brain. 119 (4): 1153–1172. doi:10.1093/brain/119.4.1153. PMID 8813280. {{cite journal}}: Explicit use of et al. in: |author= (help)CS1 maint: extra punctuation (link)
  12. ^ Dejesus-Hernandez, M.; et al. (2011). "Expanded GGGGCC Hexanucleotide Repeat in Noncoding Region of C9ORF72 Causes Chromosome 9p-Linked FTD and ALS" (PDF). Neuron. 72 (2): 245–56. doi:10.1016/j.neuron.2011.09.011. PMC 3202986. PMID 21944778. {{cite journal}}: Explicit use of et al. in: |author= (help)CS1 maint: extra punctuation (link)
  13. ^ Majounie E.; et al. (2012). "Frequency of the C9orf72 hexanucleotide repeat expansion in patients with amyotrophic lateral sclerosis and frontotemporal dementia: a cross-sectional study". Lancet Neurology. 11 (4): 323–330. doi:10.1016/S1474-4422(12)70043-1. PMC 3322422. PMID 22406228. {{cite journal}}: Explicit use of et al. in: |author= (help)
  14. ^ Eukaryotic stress granules are cleared by autophagy and Cdc48/VCP function, http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23791177
  15. ^ Attention: This template ({{cite doi}}) is deprecated. To cite the publication identified by doi:10.1016/j.neuron.2010.11.036, please use {{cite journal}} (if it was published in a bona fide academic journal, otherwise {{cite report}} with |doi=10.1016/j.neuron.2010.11.036 instead.
  16. ^ Attention: This template ({{cite doi}}) is deprecated. To cite the publication identified by doi:10.1038/nature10353, please use {{cite journal}} (if it was published in a bona fide academic journal, otherwise {{cite report}} with |doi=10.1038/nature10353 instead.
  17. ^ Attention: This template ({{cite doi}}) is deprecated. To cite the publication identified by doi:10.1002/ana.22534, please use {{cite journal}} (if it was published in a bona fide academic journal, otherwise {{cite report}} with |doi=10.1002/ana.22534 instead.
  18. ^ Attention: This template ({{cite doi}}) is deprecated. To cite the publication identified by doi:10.1038/nature11280, please use {{cite journal}} (if it was published in a bona fide academic journal, otherwise {{cite report}} with |doi=10.1038/nature11280 instead.
  19. ^ Reaume A, Elliott J, Hoffman E, Kowall N, Ferrante R, Siwek D, Wilcox H, Flood D, Beal M, Brown R, Scott R, Snider W (1996). "Motor neurons in Cu/Zn superoxide dismutase-deficient mice develop normally but exhibit enhanced cell death after axonal injury". Nat Genet. 13 (1): 43–7. doi:10.1038/ng0596-43. PMID 8673102.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  20. ^ Bruijn L, Houseweart M, Kato S, Anderson K, Anderson S, Ohama E, Reaume A, Scott R, Cleveland D (1998). "Aggregation and motor neuron toxicity of an ALS-linked SOD1 mutant independent from wild-type SOD1". Science. 281 (5384): 1851–4. doi:10.1126/science.281.5384.1851. PMID 9743498.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  21. ^ Furukawa Y, Fu R, Deng H, Siddique T, O'Halloran T (2006). "Disulfide cross-linked protein represents a significant fraction of ALS-associated Cu, Zn-superoxide dismutase aggregates in spinal cords of model mice". Proc Natl Acad Sci USA. 103 (18): 7148–53. doi:10.1073/pnas.0602048103. PMC 1447524. PMID 16636274.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  22. ^ Boillée S, Vande Velde C, Cleveland D (2006). "ALS: a disease of motor neurons and their nonneuronal neighbors". Neuron. 52 (1): 39–59. doi:10.1016/j.neuron.2006.09.018. PMID 17015226.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  23. ^ Motor neurone clue in blue-green algae › News in Science (ABC Science). Abc.net.au (2013-09-26). Retrieved on 2013-11-02.
  24. ^ Attention: This template ({{cite doi}}) is deprecated. To cite the publication identified by doi:10.1016/j.expneurol.2010.12.007, please use {{cite journal}} (if it was published in a bona fide academic journal, otherwise {{cite report}} with |doi=10.1016/j.expneurol.2010.12.007 instead.
  25. ^ Attention: This template ({{cite doi}}) is deprecated. To cite the publication identified by doi:10.1016/j.expneurol.2010.08.033, please use {{cite journal}} (if it was published in a bona fide academic journal, otherwise {{cite report}} with |doi=10.1016/j.expneurol.2010.08.033 instead.
  26. ^ "Crucial Link Between Prions And ALS Discovered - May Transform Treatment". Medical News Today. 22 September 2011. Retrieved 21 December 2012.
  27. ^ Sutedja NA, Fischer K, Veldink JH, van der Heijden GJ, Kromhout H, Heederik D; et al. (2009). "What we truly know about occupation as a risk factor for ALS: a critical and systematic review". Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis. 10 (5–6): 295–301. doi:10.3109/17482960802430799. PMID 19922116. {{cite journal}}: Explicit use of et al. in: |author= (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  28. ^ Deng, HX (21 August 2011). "Mutations in UBQLN2 cause dominant X-linked juvenile and adult onset ALS and ALS/dementia". Nature. 477 (7363): 211–5. doi:10.1038/nature10353. PMC 3169705. PMID 21857683. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
  29. ^ Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis: Part 1. Clinical features, pathology, and ethical issues in management - Tandan - 2004 - Annals of Neurology - Wiley Online Library. Onlinelibrary.wiley.com. Retrieved on 2013-11-02.
  30. ^ Hansel Y, Ackerl M, Stanek G. (1995). "ALS-like sequelae in chronic neuroborreliosis". Wien Med Wochenschr. 145 (7–8): 186–8. PMID 7610670.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  31. ^ el Alaoui-Faris M, Medejel A, al Zemmouri K, Yahyaoui M, Chkili T (1990). "Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis syndrome of syphilitic origin. 5 cases". Rev Neurol (Paris). 146 (1): 41–4. PMID 2408129.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  32. ^ Umanekii KG, Dekonenko EP (1983). "Structure of progressive forms of tick-borne encephalitis". Zh Nevropatol Psikhiatr Im S S Korsakova. 83 (8): 1173–9. PMID 6414202.
  33. ^ Attention: This template ({{cite pmid}}) is deprecated. To cite the publication identified by PMID 21412713, please use {{cite journal}} with |pmid=21412713 instead.
  34. ^ Eisen, A. (2002). "Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis: A review". BCMJ. 44 (7): 362–366.
  35. ^ Attention: This template ({{cite doi}}) is deprecated. To cite the publication identified by doi:10.1136/jnnp.60.2.147, please use {{cite journal}} (if it was published in a bona fide academic journal, otherwise {{cite report}} with |doi=10.1136/jnnp.60.2.147 instead.
  36. ^ Attention: This template ({{cite doi}}) is deprecated. To cite the publication identified by doi:10.1590/S0004-282X2010000600002, please use {{cite journal}} (if it was published in a bona fide academic journal, otherwise {{cite report}} with |doi=10.1590/S0004-282X2010000600002 instead.
  37. ^ Attention: This template ({{cite pmid}}) is deprecated. To cite the publication identified by PMID 22375266, please use {{cite journal}} with |pmid=22375266 instead.
  38. ^ "Lambert-Eaton Myasthenic Syndrome (LEMS)". Misc.medscape.com. Retrieved 18 April 2013.
  39. ^ "LEMS.com, Lambert-Eaton Myasthenic Syndrome: About". Lems.com. Retrieved 18 April 2013.
  40. ^ Walling, A. (1999). "Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis: Lou Gehrig's disease". American Family Physician. 59 (6): 1489–1496. PMID 10193591.
  41. ^ Carlesi, C (March 2011). "Strategies for clinical approach to neurodegeneration in Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis". Archives italiennes de biologie. 149 (1): 151–67. doi:10.4449/aib.v149i1.1267. PMID 21412722. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
  42. ^ Miller, RG (2007). Miller, Robert G (ed.). "Riluzole for amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS)/motor neuron disease (MND)". Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews (1): CD001447. doi:10.1002/14651858.CD001447.pub2. PMID 17253460. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
  43. ^ Lewis, M. & Rushanan, S. (2007). "The role of physical therapy and occupational therapy in the treatment of Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis". NeuroRehabilitation. 22 (6): 451–461. PMID 18198431.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  44. ^ Holm T, Maier A, Wicks P, Lang D, Linke P, Münch C, Steinfurth L, Meyer R, Meyer R, (2013). "Severe Loss of Appetite in Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis Patients: Online Self-Assessment Study". Interact J Med Res. 2 (1): e8. doi:10.2196/ijmr.2463. PMID 23608722. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)CS1 maint: extra punctuation (link) CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) CS1 maint: unflagged free DOI (link)
  45. ^ a b Kasarskis EJ, Berryman S, Vanderleest JG, Schneider AR, McClain CJ (1996). "Nutritional status of patients with amyotrophic lateral sclerosis: relation to the proximity of death". Am J Clin Nutr. 63 (1): 130–7. PMID 8604660. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  46. ^ Hamadeh MJ, Rodriguez MC, Kaczor JJ, Tarnopolsky MA (2005). "Caloric restriction transiently improves motor performance but hastens clinical onset of disease in the Cu/Zn-superoxide dismutase mutant G93A mouse". Muscle Nerve. 31 (2): 214–20. doi:10.1002/mus.20255. PMID 15625688. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  47. ^ Slowie LA, Paige MS, Antel JP (1983). "Nutritional considerations in the management of patients with amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS)". J Am Diet Assoc. 83 (1): 44–7. PMID 6863783. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  48. ^ Sviri S, Linton DM, Van Heerden PV (2005). "Non-invasive Mechanical Ventilation Enhances Patient Autonomy in Decision-Making Regarding Chronic Ventilation". Critical Care and Resuscitation. 7 (2): 116–118. PMID 16548804. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  49. ^ "ALS Topic Overview". Archived from the original on 1 May 2008. Retrieved 1 May 2008. {{cite web}}: Unknown parameter |deadurl= ignored (|url-status= suggested) (help)
  50. ^ Reed D, Labarthe D, Chen KM, Stallones R (1987). "A cohort study of amyotrophic lateral sclerosis and parkinsonism-dementia on Guam and Rota". Am J Epidemiol. 125 (1): 92–100. PMID 3788958. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  51. ^ D. Carleton Gajdusek - Nobel Lecture: Unconventional Viruses and the Origin and Disappearance of Kuru. Nobelprize.org (1976-12-13). Retrieved on 2013-11-02.
  52. ^ S. Kuzuhara, Y. Kokubo P3-146Marked increase of parkinsonism-dementia (P-D) phenotypes in the high incidence amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS) focus in the Kii peninsula of Japan. Alzheimer's and Dementia, Volume 2, Issue 3, Pages S417-S417
  53. ^ Spencer PS, Palmer VS, Ludolph AC (2005). "On the decline and etiology of high-incidence motor system disease in West Papua (southwest New Guinea)". Mov. Disord. 20 (Suppl 12): S119–26. doi:10.1002/mds.20552. PMID 16092101. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  54. ^ "Sla, indagini nei club. Pesticidi nel mirino". Archived from the original on 3 October 2008. Retrieved 2 October 2008. {{cite web}}: Unknown parameter |deadurl= ignored (|url-status= suggested) (help)
  55. ^ Wicks P, Abrahams S, Masi D, Hejda-Forde S, Leigh PN & Goldstein LH (2005) The Prevalence of Depression and Anxiety in MND, Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis and other Motor Neuron Disorders, Volume 6, Supplement 1, p. 147
  56. ^ Rachele MG, Mascia V, Tacconi P, Dessi N, Marrosu F (1998). "Conjugal amyotrophic lateral sclerosis: a report on a couple from Sardinia, Italy". Ital J Neurol Sci. 19 (2): 97–100. doi:10.1007/BF02427565. PMID 10935845. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  57. ^ Poloni M, Micheli A, Facchetti D, Mai R, Ceriani F (1997). "Conjugal amyotrophic lateral sclerosis: toxic clustering or change?". Ital J Neurol Sci. 18 (2): 109–12. doi:10.1007/BF01999572. PMID 9239532. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  58. ^ Camu W, Cadilhac J, Billiard M. (1994). "Conjugal amyotrophic lateral sclerosis: a report on two couples from southern France". Neurology. 44 (3 Pt 1): 547–8. doi:10.1212/WNL.44.3_Part_1.547. PMID 8145930. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  59. ^ Cornblath DR, Kurland LT, Boylan KB, Morrison L, Radhakrishnan K, Montgomery M. (1993). "Conjugal amyotrophic lateral sclerosis: report of a young married couple". Neurology. 43 (11): 2378–80. doi:10.1212/WNL.43.11.2378. PMID 8232960. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  60. ^ Corcia P, Jafari-Schluep HF, Lardillier D, Mazyad H, Giraud P, Clavelou P, Pouget J, Camu W (2003). "A clustering of conjugal amyotrophic lateral sclerosis in southeastern France". Neurol. 60 (4): 553–7. doi:10.1001/archneur.60.4.553. PMID 12707069. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  61. ^ Tyler HR, Shefner J. Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis. Handb Clin Neurol. 1991;15:169–215. Serial publication.
  62. ^ Rowland LP (2001). "How amyotrophic lateral sclerosis got its name: the clinical-pathologic genius of Jean-Martin Charcot". Arch. Neurol. 58 (3): 512–5. doi:10.1001/archneur.58.3.512. PMID 11255459. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
  63. ^ "Farewell Speech". lougehrig.com. 4 July 1939. Archived from the original on 12 April 2008. Retrieved 16 April 2008. {{cite web}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help); Unknown parameter |deadurl= ignored (|url-status= suggested) (help)
  64. ^ Kiaei, M; Petri, S; Kipiani, K; Gardian, G; Choi, DK; Chen, J; Calingasan, NY; Schafer, P; Muller, GW (1 March 2006). "Thalidomide and lenalidomide extend survival in a transgenic mouse model of amyotrophic lateral sclerosis". The Journal of Neuroscience (Original article). 26 (9): 2467–2473. doi:10.1523/JNEUROSCI.5253-05.2006. PMID 16510725.
  65. ^ Dexpramipexole versus placebo for patients with amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (EMPOWER): a randomised, double-blind, phase 3 trial http://www.thelancet.com/journals/laneur/article/PIIS1474-4422(13)70221-7/abstract?rss=yes
  66. ^ http://www.cytokinetics.com/pdf/2013-MDA_Jinsy.pdf
  67. ^ "Talampanel Trial Concluded with Negative Results". ALS Association. 17 May 2010. Retrieved 13 June 2013.
  68. ^ "BrainStorm Reports Outstanding ALS Interim Clinical Trial Results". FierceBiotech. Retrieved 12 August 2013.
  69. ^ "Autologous Cultured Mesenchymal Bone Marrow Stromal Cells Secreting Neurotrophic Factors (MSC-NTF), in Patients With Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis (ALS)". ClinicalTrials.gov. Retrieved 12 August 2013.
  70. ^ "Mayo Clinic to hold trial for BrainStorm's ALS stem cell therapy". Reuters. 18 March 2013.
  71. ^ "Stem Cell Trial Dramatically Slows ALS". Retrieved 13 June 2013.
  72. ^ "Dose Escalation and Safety Study of Human Spinal Cord Derived Neural Stem Cell Transplantation for the Treatment of Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis". ClinicalTrials.gov. Retrieved 12 August 2013.

Further reading

External links

Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=ALS&oldid=581452830"