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List of genocides

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This list of genocides by death toll includes death toll estimates of all deaths that are either directly or indirectly caused by genocide.

Genocides

The United Nations Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide (CPPCG) defines genocide in part as "acts committed with intent to destroy, in whole or in part, a national, ethnical, racial or religious group". Determining what historical events constitute a genocide and which are merely criminal or inhuman behavior is not a clear-cut matter. In nearly every case where accusations of genocide have circulated, partisans of various sides have disputed the interpretation and details of the event, often to the point of promoting different versions of the facts. An accusation of genocide will almost always be controversial. Determining the number of persons killed in each genocide can be just as difficult, with political, religious and ethnic biases or prejudices often leading to downplayed or exaggerated figures. Some of accounts below may include ancillary causes of death such as malnutrition and disease, which may or may not have been intentionally inflicted.

The following list of genocides and alleged genocides should be understood in this context and not necessarily regarded as the final word on the events in question.

Lowest
estimate		 Highest
estimate		 % Event Location From To Notes
4,194,200[1] 17,000,000
[2][3]		 Holocaust Europe 1941 1945 With around 6 million Jews murdered as well as the genocide of the Romani: most estimates of Romani deaths are in the 200,000–500,000d(icks) were eaten on this day... range but some estimate more than a million.[4] A broader definition includes political and religious dissenters, 200,000 people with disabilities,[5] 2 to 3 million Soviet POWs, 5,000 Jehovah's Witnesses, 15,000 homosexuals and small numbers of mixed-race children (known as the Rhineland bastards), and millions of Polish and Soviet civilians, bringing the death toll to around 17 million.[2] See Holocaust, Porajmos, Generalplan Ost, Consequences of German Nazism
2,582,000[6][7][8] 8,000,000.[9] Holodomor (and Soviet famine of 1932–1933) Ukrainian SSR 1932 1933 Holodomor was a famine in Ukraine caused by the government of Joseph Stalin, a part of Soviet famine of 1932–1933. Holodomor is claimed by contemporary Ukrainian government to be a genocide of the Ukrainians.

As of March 2008, Ukraine and nineteen other governments[10] have recognized the actions of the Soviet government as an act of genocide. The joint statement at the United Nations in 2003 has defined the famine as the result of cruel actions and policies of the totalitarian regime that caused the deaths of millions of Ukrainians, Russians, Kazakhs and other nationalities in the USSR. On 23 October 2008 the European Parliament adopted a resolution[11] that recognized the Holodomor as a crime against humanity.[12]

On January 12, 2010, the court of appeals in Kiev opened hearings into the "fact of genocide-famine Holodomor in Ukraine in 1932–33", in May 2009 the Security Service of Ukraine had started a criminal case "in relation to the genocide in Ukraine in 1932–33".[13] In a ruling on January 13, 2010 the court found Stalin and other Bolshevik leaders guilty of genocide against the Ukrainians.[14]

2,000,000
[15]		 100,000,000
[16]		 European colonization of the Americas Americas 1492 1900 Although heavily disputed,[17] some historians such as David Stannard and Howard Zinn consider the deaths caused by disease, displacement, and conquest of Native American populations during European settlement of North and South America as constituting an act of genocide (or series of genocides). The alleged genocidal aspects of this event are entwined with loss of life caused by the lack of immunity of Native Americans to diseases carried by European settlers (see Population history of American indigenous peoples).[18][19] Some estimates indicate case fatality rates of 80–90% in Native American populations during smallpox epidemics.[20] According to Noble David Cook, "There were too few Spaniards to have killed the millions who were reported to have died in the first century after Old and New World contact."[21] Stafford Poole wrote: "There are other terms to describe what happened in the Western Hemisphere, but genocide is not one of them. It is a good propaganda term in an age where slogans and shouting have replaced reflection and learning ..."[22] The Bureau of Indian Affairs admitted to committing "ethnic cleansing" in 2000 [23]
1,000,000 3,000,000 Nigerian Civil War Nigeria 1967 1970 Since the independence of Nigeria in 1960 the 3 ethnic groups, the Hausa, Yoruba, and Igbo, had always been fighting over control in the political realm. The Igbos seemed to have control over most of Nigeria's politics until the assassination of the then Igbo president Johnson Aguiyi-Ironsi by Hausa general Yakubu Gowon. With this the Igbos seceded from Nigeria and created the Republic of Biafra. The Igbos had the upper hand until late 1967 when food supplies were cut off. By mid-1968 50% of Igbos were starving and thousands more were being slaughtered by Hausa and Yoruba soldiers. In 1970 the Igbos surrendered to the Nigerians and by then anywhere from 1 to 3 million Igbos had either starved or been killed.
1,000,000[24] 3,000,000[24] Cambodian Genocide Cambodia 1975 1979 As of September 2010, no one has been found guilty of participating in this genocide, but on 16 September 2010 Nuon Chea, second in command of the Khmer Rouge and its most senior surviving member, was indicted on charges of war crimes and crimes against humanity. He will face Cambodian and United Nations appointed foreign judges at the special genocide tribunal.[25][26]
500,000[27] 1,000,000[27] Rwandan genocide Rwanda 1994 1994 Hutu killed unarmed men, women and children. Some 50 perpetrators of the genocide have been found guilty by the International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda, but most others have not been charged due to no witness accounts. Another 120,000 were arrested by Rwanda; of these, 60,000 were tried and convicted in the gacaca court system. Genocidaires who fled into Zaire (Democratic Republic of the Congo) were used as a justification when Rwanda and Uganda invaded Zaire (First and Second Congo Wars).
500,000[28] 3,000,000[29] Expulsion of Germans after World War II Europe 1945 1950

With at least 12 million[30][31][32] Germans directly involved, it was the largest movement or transfer of any single ethnic population in modern history[31] and largest among the post-war expulsions in Central and Eastern Europe (which displaced more than twenty million people in total).[30] The events have been usually classified as population transfer,[33] or as ethnic cleansing.[34] Martin Shaw (2007) and W.D. Rubinstein (2004) describe the expulsions as genocide.[35] Felix Ermacora writing in 1991, (in line with a minority of legal scholars) considered ethnic cleansing to be genocide[36][37] and stated that the expulsion of the Sudeten Germans was genocide.[38]

480,000[39] 600,000[39] 80% of 600,000 Zungharian Oirats Massacres in Zunghar Khanate Western Mongolia, Kazakhstan, northern Kyrgyzstan, southern Siberia 1755 1758 Qianlong emperor moved the remaining Zunghar people to the mainland and ordered the generals to kill all the men in Barkol or Suzhou, and divided their wives and children to Qing soldiers.[40][41] In an account of the war, Wei Yuan wrote that about 40% of the Zunghar households were killed by smallpox, 20% fled to Russia or the Kazakh Khanate, and 30% were killed by the army, leaving no yurts in an area of several thousands of li except those of the surrendered.[39][42][43] Clarke wrote 80%, or between 480,000 and 600,000 people, were killed between 1755 and 1758 in what "amounted to the complete destruction of not only the Zunghar state but of the Zunghars as a people."[39][44] Historian Peter Perdue has shown that the decimation of the Dzungars was the result of an explicit policy of extermination launched by Qianlong.[39] Although this "deliberate use of massacre" has been largely ignored by modern scholars,[39] Mark Levene, a historian whose recent research interests focus on genocide, has stated that the extermination of the Dzungars was "arguably the eighteenth century genocide par excellence."[45]
400,000 1,500,000[46] Circassian Genocide Circassia 1817 1864 Although there is no legal continuity between the Russian Empire and the modern Russian Federation, and the concept of genocide was only adopted in international law in the 20th century, on 5 July 2005 the Circassian Congress, an organization that unites representatives of the various Circassian peoples in the Russian Federation, called on Moscow first to acknowledge and then to apologize for Tsarist policies that Circassians say constituted a genocide. Their appeal pointed out that "according to the official tsarist documents more than 400,000 Circassians were killed, 497,000 were forced to flee abroad to Turkey, and only 80,000 were left alive in their native area." Other sources give much higher numbers, totaling 1 million- 1.5 million deported and/or killed.[46] See also: Circassian Genocide
1,500,000[47] 1,500,000[48] Armenian Genocide Anatolia 1915 1923 Usually called the First Genocide of the 20th century. Despite recognition by some twenty one countries as a genocide, Turkey disputes genocide by the Ottoman Empire.
300,000[49] 500,000[49] Decossackization Don River area, Soviet Union 1919 1920 In the Russian Civil War that followed the October Revolution, the Cossacks found themselves on both sides of the conflict. Many officers and experienced Cossacks fought for the White Army, and some for the Red Army. Following the defeat of the White Army, a policy of Decossackization (Raskazachivaniye) took place on the surviving Cossacks and their homelands since they were viewed as a potential threat to the new regime. This mostly involved dividing their territory amongst other divisions and giving it to new autonomous republics of minorities, and then actively encouraging settlement of these territories with those peoples. This was especially true for the Terek Cossacks land. According to Michael Kort, "During 1919 and 1920, out of a population of approximately 3 million, the Bolshevik regime killed or deported an estimated 300,000 to 500,000 Cossacks".[49]
275,000[50] 750,000[50] Assyrian genocide Anatolia 1915 1918 Disputed by Turkey, but considered a genocide.
270,000[51] 655,000[52] Ustashe genocides of Serbs, Jews, Roma and Croats Croatia 1941 1945 Genocide during period of Independent State of Croatia, with official policy of extermination similar to that of Nazi Germany. See also The Holocaust in Croatia.
200,000[53] 1,000,000[53] Greek genocide Anatolia 1915 1918 Disputed by Turkey, but considered a genocide.
178,258[54] 400,000[55] Darfur conflict Sudan 2003 2010 See International response to the Darfur conflict
100,000[56] 200,000[57] Massacres of Maya peoples Guatemala 1962 1996 Massacres of Maya during Guatemala Civil War was a genocide according to the Historical Clarification Commission.[58][59]
60,000 200,000 Volhynia massacre Poland 1943 1944 Massacre of Poles by Ukrainian formations OUN, UPA and SS Galizien in eastern Polish territories Volhynia and Eastern Lesser Poland (now Ukraine)
50,000[60] 200,000[61] Al-Anfal Campaign Iraq 1986 1989 Ba'athist Iraq destroys over 2,000 villages and commits genocide on their Kurdish population.[62]
50,000[63] 100,000[63] Massacres of Hutus Burundi 1972 1972 Tutsi government massacres of Hutu, part of the Burundi genocide
40,000 300,000 Nanking Massacre Nanking 1937 1938 Mass murder and mass rape committed by Japanese troops against Nanking (current official spelling: Nanjing) during the Second Sino-Japanese War. During this period, tens of thousands if not hundreds of thousands of Chinese civilians and disarmed combatants were murdered by soldiers of the Imperial Japanese Army. Widespread rape and looting also occurred.
26,000[64] 3,000,000[64] 1971 Bangladesh atrocities East Pakistan (now Bangladesh) 1971 1971 Massacres, killings, rape, arson and systematic elimination of religious minorities (particularly Hindus), political dissidents and the members of the liberation forces of Bangladesh were conducted by the Pakistan Army with support from paramilitary militias—the Razakars, Al-Badr and Al-Shams—formed by the radical Islamist Jamaat-e-Islami party.
24,000[65] 75,000[66] Herero and Namaqua genocide Namibia 1904 1908 Generally accepted. See also Imperial Germany
20,000[67] 80,000[68] Dictatorship and political repression in Equatorial Guinea Equatorial Guinea 1969 1979 Francisco Macías Nguema led a brutal dictatorship in his country, most notably against the minority of Bubi. It is estimated that his regime killed at least 20,000 people, while around 100,000 (one third of the population) fled the country.[67] On a trial, Nguema was found guilty of genocide and crimes against humanity. He was executed in 1979.[69]
13,160[70] 70,000[71] Dersim Massacre Dersim, Turkey 1937 1938 Tens of thousands of Kurds were killed and thousands more forced into exile, depopulating the province.
8,000[72] 8,500[73] Srebrenica massacre Srebrenica, Bosnia 1995 1995 A genocidal massacre according to the ICTY. The Srebrenica massacre is the most recent genocide committed in Europe. On 31 March 2010, the Serbian Parliament passed a resolution condemning the Srebrenica massacre and apologizing to the families of Srebrenica for the deaths of Bosniaks.[74] See also: War in Bosnia and Herzegovina, Bosnian genocide.
2,000[75] 70,000[76] Persecution of Falun Gong China 1999 ongoing A campaign by the Chinese government against the Falun Gong spiritual practice.[77] It is estimated that since 1999, at least 2,000 Falun Gong adherents have died as a result of the suppression.[75] Some courts[78][79][80] and observers have likened the crackdown to genocide.[81][82]

See also

References

  1. ^ Reitlinger, The Final Solution (1953) cited by White
  2. ^ a b Donald L. Niewyk (2000). The Columbia Guide to the Holocaust. Columbia University Press. p. 45. ISBN 978-0-231-11200-0. {{cite book}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
  3. ^ [1],[2]
  4. ^ cited in Re. Holocaust Victim Assets Litigation (Swiss Banks) Special Master's Proposals, September 11, 2000.
  5. ^ Horst von Buttlar: Forscher öffnen Inventar des Schreckens at Spiegel Online (1 October 2003) (German)
  6. ^ Jacques Vallin, France Mesle, Serguei Adamets, Serhii Pyrozhkov, A New Estimate of Ukrainian Population Losses during the Crises of the 1930s and 1940s, Population Studies, Vol. 56, No. 3. (Nov. 2002), pp. 249–264
  7. ^ France Meslé, Gilles Pison, Jacques Vallin France-Ukraine: Demographic Twins Separated by History, Population and societies, N°413, juin 2005
  8. ^ France Meslé (2003). Mortalité et causes de décès en Ukraine au XXe siècle: la crise sanitaire dans les pays de l'ex-URSS. Ined. ISBN 978-2-7332-0152-7. {{cite book}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
  9. ^ – "The famine of 1932–33", Encyclopædia Britannica. Quote: "The Great Famine (Holodomor) of 1932–33—a man-made demographic catastrophe unprecedented in peacetime. Of the estimated six to eight million people who died in the Soviet Union, about four to five million were Ukrainians... Its deliberate nature is underscored by the fact that no physical basis for famine existed in Ukraine... Soviet authorities set requisition quotas for Ukraine at an impossibly high level. Brigades of special agents were dispatched to Ukraine to assist in procurement, and homes were routinely searched and foodstuffs confiscated... The rural population was left with insufficient food to feed itself."
  10. ^ sources differ on interpreting various statements from different branches of different governments as to whether they amount to the official recognition of the famine as genocide by the country. For example, after the statement issued by the Latvian Sejm on March 13, 2008, the total number of countries is given as 19 (according to Ukrainian BBC: "Латвія визнала Голодомор ґеноцидом"), 16 (according to Korrespondent, Russian edition: "После продолжительных дебатов Сейм Латвии признал Голодомор геноцидом украинцев"), "more than 10" (according to Korrespondent, Ukrainian edition: "Латвія визнала Голодомор 1932–33 рр. геноцидом українців")
  11. ^ European Parliament resolution on the commemoration of the Holodomor, the Ukraine artificial famine (1932–1933)
  12. ^ European Parliament recognises Ukrainian famine of 1930s as crime against humanity (Press Release 23-10-2008)
  13. ^ Holodomor court hearings begin in Ukraine, Kyiv Post (January 12, 2010)
  14. ^ Yushchenko brings Stalin to court over genocide, RT (January 14, 2010)
  15. ^ Rummel, R.J. Death by Government, Chapter 3: Pre-Twentieth Century Democide
  16. ^ Stannard, David E. (1993). American Holocaust: The Conquest of the New World. New York & Oxford: Oxford University Press. p. 11. ISBN 978-0-19-508557-0. In the 1940s and 1950s conventional wisdom held that the population of the entire hemisphere in 1492 was little more than 8,000,000—with fewer than 1,000,000 people living in the region north of present-day Mexico. Today, few serious students of the subject would put the hemispheric figure at less than 75,000,000 to 100,000,000 (with approximately 8,000,000 to 12,000,000 north of Mexico).
  17. ^ Cook, Noble David (1998). Born to die: disease and New World Conquest, 1492–1650. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
  18. ^ The Story of... Smallpox
  19. ^ Koplow, David A. (2003). "Smallpox The Fight to Eradicate a Global Scourge". University of California Press. Retrieved 2009-02-22.
  20. ^ Arthur C. Aufderheide (1998-05-13). The Cambridge Encyclopedia of Human Paleopathology. Cambridge University Press. p. 205. ISBN 978-0-521-55203-5. {{cite book}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
  21. ^ Cook, Noble David (1998). Born to die: disease and New World Conquest, 1492–1650. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. p. 9.
  22. ^ Stafford Poole, quoted in Royal, p. 63.
  23. ^ excerpted from: Lindsay Glauner, The Need for Accountability and Reparation: 1830-1976 the United States Government's Role in the Promotion, Implementation, and Execution of the Crime of Genocide Against Native Americans , 51 DePaul Law Review 911-961, 911-917 (Spring 2002)(349 Footnotes), http://academic.udayton.edu/race/06hrights/GeoRegions/NorthAmerica/UnitedStates02.htm
  24. ^ a b Heuveline, Patrick (2001). "The Demographic Analysis of Mortality in Cambodia." In Forced Migration and Mortality, eds. Holly E. Reed and Charles B. Keely. Washington, D.C.: National Academy Press.
  25. ^ Staff, Senior Khmer Rouge leader charged, BBC 19 September 2007
  26. ^ Seth Mydans, Khmer Rouge Leaders Indicted
  27. ^ a b See, e.g., Rwanda: How the genocide happened, BBC, April 1, 2004, which gives an estimate of 800,000, and OAU sets inquiry into Rwanda genocide[dead link], Africa Recovery, Vol. 12 1#1 (August 1998), page 4, which estimates the number at between 500,000 and 1,000,000. 7 out of 10 Tutsis were killed.
  28. ^ Christoph Bergner, Secretary of State in Germany's Bureau for Inner Affairs, Deutschlandfunk, November 29, 2006,[3]
  29. ^ Hermann Kinder (1978). The Anchor atlas of world history. Anchor Books. p. 221. {{cite book}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
  30. ^ a b Jürgen Weber (2004). Germany, 1945–1990: A Parallel History. p. 2. ISBN 978-963-9241-70-1.
  31. ^ a b Arie Marcelo Kacowicz, Pawel Lutomski, Population resettlement in international conflicts: a comparative study, Lexington Books, 2007, p.100, ISBN 073911607: "...largest movement of European people in modern history" [4]
  32. ^ Peter H. Schuck (2001-12-01). Paths to Inclusion: The Integration of Migrants in the United States and Germany. p. 156. ISBN 978-1-57181-092-2. {{cite book}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
  33. ^ *Expelling the Germans: British Opinion and Post-1945 Population Transfer in Context, Matthew Frank Oxford University Press, 2008
    • Europe and German unification,
    Renata Fritsch-Bournazel page 77, Berg Publishers 1992
  34. ^ *Osmańczyk, Edmund Jan (2003). Encyclopedia of the United Nations and international agreements. Routledge. p. 656. ISBN 0-415-93924-0.
  35. ^
  36. ^ European Court of Human Rights[dead link] – Jorgic v. Germany Judgment[dead link], July 12, 2007. § 47
  37. ^ Jescheck, Hans-Heinrich (1995). Encyclopedia of Public International Law. Martinus Nijhoff Publishers. ISBN 978-90-04-14280-0.
  38. ^ Ermacora, Felix (1991). "Gutachten Ermacora 1991" (PDF).
  39. ^ a b c d e f Peter C Perdue (2005). China Marches West: The Qing Conquest of Central Eurasia. Harvard University Press. ISBN 978-0-674-01684-2.
  40. ^ 大清高宗純皇帝實錄, 乾隆二十四年
  41. ^ 平定準噶爾方略
  42. ^ Wei Yuan, 聖武記 Military history of the Qing Dynasty, vol.4. “計數十萬戶中，先痘死者十之四，繼竄入俄羅斯哈薩克者十之二，卒殲於大兵者十之三。除婦孺充賞外，至今惟來降受屯之厄鲁特若干戶，編設佐領昂吉，此外數千里間，無瓦剌一氊帳。”
  43. ^ Lattimore, Owen (1950). Pivot of Asia; Sinkiang and the inner Asian frontiers of China and Russia. Little, Brown. p. 126.
  44. ^ Michael Edmund Clarke, In the Eye of Power (doctoral thesis), Brisbane 2004, p37[dead link]
  45. ^ A. Dirk Moses (2008). Empire, Colony, Genocide: Conquest, Occupation, and Subaltern Resistance in World History. Berghahn Books. ISBN 978-1-84545-452-4.
  46. ^ a b "145th Anniversary of the Circassian Genocide and the Sochi Olympics Issue". Reuters. 22 May 2009. Retrieved 28 November 2009.
  47. ^ Kamuran Gürün: Ermeni Soykirmi. 3rd Volume, Ankara 1985, p. 227
  48. ^ French in Armenia 'massacre' row BBC
  49. ^ a b c Michael Kort (2001). The Soviet Colossus: History and Aftermath. East Gate Book. p. 133. ISBN 978-0-7656-0396-8.
  50. ^ a b Assyrian Genocide; Lexicorient
  51. ^ Death Tolls:Yugoslavia"Lowest estimate for Serbs killed by Ustasha: 215,000. For Jews: 26,000. For Gypsies: 20,000. For Croats killed by Ustasha: 10,000. A total of 270,000"
  52. ^ Twentieth Century Atlas – Death Tolls
  53. ^ a b Henry Morgenthau, Ambassador Morgenthau's Story, Doubleday, Page & Company, Garden City, New York, 1919.
  54. ^ "Patterns of mortality rates in Darfur conflict". The Lancet. January 2010. Retrieved 2010-03-24.
  55. ^ Debate over Darfur death toll intensifies
  56. ^ Larry Rohter (1995-08-23). "Death Squads in Guatemala: Even the Elite Are Not Safe". New York Times. Retrieved 2010-07-16.
  57. ^ Clinton: Support for Guatemala Was Wrong, Charles Babington, Thursday, March 11, 1999; Page A1The Washington Post
  58. ^ Press conference by members of the Guatemala Historical Clarification Commission, United Nations website, 1 March 1999
  59. ^ Staff. Guatemala 'genocide' probe blames state. BBC. 25 February 1999. Retrieved from http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/americas/286402.stm.
  60. ^ Edward Wong Hussein Charged With Genocide in 50,000 Deaths The New York Times. Published: April 5, 2006. Accessdate: 2 August 2010.
  61. ^ William Ochsenwald (2003-06-04). The Middle East: A History. McGraw-Hill Humanities/Social Sciences/Languages. p. 659. ISBN 978-0-07-244233-5. {{cite book}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
  62. ^ David McDowall (2004-05-14). A Modern History of the Kurds: Third Edition. I. B. Tauris. p. 359. ISBN 978-1-85043-416-0.
  63. ^ a b Samantha Power (2003-05-01). "A Problem from Hell": America and the Age of Genocide. Harper Perennial. p. 82. ISBN 978-0-06-054164-4.
  64. ^ a b While the official Pakistani government report estimated that the Pakistani army was responsible for 26,000 killings in total, other sources have proposed various estimates ranging between 200,000 and 3 million. Indian Professor Sarmila Bose recently expressed the view that a truly impartial study has never been done, while Bangladeshi ambassador Shamsher M. Chowdhury has suggested that a joint Pakistan-Bangladeshi commission be formed to properly investigate the event.
    Chowdury, Bose comments – Dawn Newspapers Online.
    Hamoodur Rahman Commission Report, chapter 2, paragraph 33 (official 1974 Pakistani report).
    Death Tolls for the Major Wars and Atrocities of the 20th Century: Bangladesh – Matthew White's website
    Virtual Bangladesh: History: The Bangali Genocide, 1971'
  65. ^ Walter Nuhn (1989). Sturm über Südwest. ISBN 3-7637-5852-6.
  66. ^ According to the 1985 United Nations' Whitaker Report, some 65,000 Herero (80 percent of the total Herero population), and 10,000 Nama (50% of the total Nama population) were killed between 1904 and 1907
  67. ^ a b Kevin Shillington (2005). Encyclopedia of African History. CRC Press. p. 486. ISBN 978-1-57958-245-6.
  68. ^ plotter faces life in Africa's most notorious jail[dead link]
  69. ^ Alejandro Artucio. The Trial of Macias in Equatorial Guinea. International Commission of Jurists. pp. 20–27.
  70. ^ "Resmi raporlarda Dersim katliamı: 13 bin kişi öldürüldü", Radikal, November 19, 2009. Template:Tr icon
  71. ^ http://www.pen-kurd.org/almani/haydar/Dersim-PresseerklC3A4rungEnglish.pdf
  72. ^ Who, What, Why: How will Mladic's fitness for trial be assessed?
  73. ^ While the ICJ found that "genocidal acts" had been carried out throughout the war, the court was able to definitely establish genocidal intent in only one case, the Srebrenica massacre: Serbia found guilty of failure to prevent and punish genocide, Sense Agency 26 Feb 2007, accessed 29 August 2007
  74. ^ "Serbian MPs offer apology for Srebrenica massacre". BBC News. 2010-03-31. Retrieved 2010-03-31.
  75. ^ a b Andrew Jacobs. 'China Still Presses Crusade Against Falun Gong', New York Times, 27 April 2009.
  76. ^ Ethan Gutmann. The China Conundrum. inFocus, Winter 2010, Volume IV: Number 4
  77. ^ Thomas Lum (25 May 2006). "CRS Report for Congress: China and Falun Gong" (PDF). Congressional Research Service.
  78. ^ Reuters, "Argentine judge asks China arrests over Falun Gong", 22 Dec 2009.
  79. ^ Genocide Prevention Network, 'Spanish Court Indicts Chinese Leaders for Persecution of Falun Gong'.
  80. ^ La Audiencia pide interrogar al ex presidente chino Jiang por genocidio, Nov 14, 2009
  81. ^ Samuel Totten and Paul Robert Bartrop "Dictionary of Genocide." (Greewood publishing group: 2008), p 69
  82. ^ The Standard. 'Rights lawyers look to UN over plight of Falun Gong', 21 Sept 2005.
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