Chutia Kingdom
Chutiya Kingdom | |||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 1187–1673 | |||||||||
 Coat of arms
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 The Chutiya Kingdom c. 13th century during the reign of King Gaurinarayan. | |||||||||
| Capital | |||||||||
| Common languages | Assamese language, formerly Deori language | ||||||||
| Religion | Hinduism, Shaktism[1] | ||||||||
| Government | Monarchy | ||||||||
| Monarch | |||||||||
• 1187–1210 | Birpal (first) | ||||||||
• 1522–1524 | Nityapal (last) | ||||||||
| Historical era | Medieval Assam | ||||||||
• Founded by Birpal | 1187 | ||||||||
• Expansion under Gaurinarayan | 1210–1250 | ||||||||
• Ahom-Chutiya conflict | 1513 – 17th century | ||||||||
• Siege of Sadiya | 17 April 1524 | ||||||||
• Disestablished | 1673 | ||||||||
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| Today part of | India | ||||||||
| Rulers of Chutia kingdom | |
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| Part of History of Assam | |
| Known rulers of the Chutia kingdom | |
| Nandisvara | late 14th century |
| Satyanarayana | late 14th century |
| Lakshminarayana | early 15th century |
| Durlabhnarayana | early 15th century |
| Pratyakshanarayana | mid 15th century |
| Yasanarayana | mid 15th century |
| Purandarnarayana | late 15th century |
| Dhirnarayana | unknown - 1524 |
| Chutia monarchy data | |
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| Part of a series on the |
| Culture of Assam |
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The Chutiya Kingdom (1187–1673), alternatively spelt Sutia, Chutia, Sutiya or Sadiya, was a state established by Birpal, a Chutiya chieftain in 1187 CE in the areas comprising the present-day Indian states of Assam and Arunachal Pradesh.
Birpal was one of the numerous Chutiya chieftains/ rajas who ruled present-day Upper Assam and Arunachal Pradesh. Over the years he and his successors united all the Chutiya kings of Assam and Arunachal Pradesh in the hills and plains to form the greater Chutiya kingdom after the fall of Pala dominance. It was the largest kingdom in Assam after the fall of Kamrupa and before the rise of Ahom kingdom. The kingdom absorbed the ancient Pala dynasty of Kamarupa and reigned for over 400 years in eastern Assam and Arunachal Pradesh with its capital at Sadiya and Ratnapur. Swadhyadhipati/Sadhayapuriswar is the Assamese name for the king of the Chutiyas. Sadiya was the name of the kingdom as well its capital. It became the dominant power in eastern Assam in the 12th century and remained so until the 16th century with its domain from Parshuram Kund in the east to Vishwanath[11] in the west.[12]
It controlled the present Assam districts of Lakhimpur, Dhemaji, Tinsukia, Dibrugarh, parts of Jorhat, Sibsagar, Sonitpur and East Siang, Subansiri, Lower Dibang, Lohit districts of Arunachal Pradesh.[13]
Among the Chutiya kings was Gaurinarayan (Ratnadhwajpal), son of Birpal. He brought many other Chutiya groups into his kingdom. In 1224, Ratnadhwajpal defeated another Chutiya king named Bhadrasena, the king of Swetagiri, and conquered the area between Subansiri and Sissi rivers, i.e. present-day Dhemaji district. In 1228, he went on another campaign to further expand his kingdom and subjugate the Chutiya king Nyayapal (ruling the areas between Biswanath and Subansiri,i.e. present-day Biswanath and Lakhimpur districts) and marched toward Kamatapur, where he formed an alliance with the Kamata ruler by marrying a princess. Then he marched to Dhaka, and made friends with the Gauda ruler. The hostilities with the Ahoms began when the Chutiya Kingdom expanded to the south during which the Ahom king, Sutuphaa, was killed by the Chutiya king during a friendly negotiation. This conflict triggered a number of battles between the two sides which saw the great loss of men and money. The simmering dispute often flared till 1524 when the Ahoms struck the Chutiya Kingdom at its weakest state, took Sadiya and killed the then king, Nityapal. The Ahoms established their rule by instituting the position of Sadiyakhowa Gohain, a newly constituted position of frontier-governor in charge of Sadiya. But the Chutiya had dispersed to frontier regions, and continued raids against the Ahoms. It finally ended in 1673 when they fell under the domination of the Ahoms.
History
Asura lineage
The copper plates of the Chutia kings give us a great deal of information about the lineage of the Chutiya kings. Names of as many as six kings of the royal genealogy between Satyanarayan and Dhirnarayan has been added with the help of the text from these grants. These texts inform us that Chutiya kings followed the Asura(demon) lineage. According to the Dhenukhana copper plate inscription of Satyanarayan (1392 AD), king Nandi (or Nandeswara), a great hero of many virtues, was the lord of Sadhayapura, and Daivaki, Nandi's wife, was continuously accomplishing good deeds. Satyanarayan had his origin in Daivaki's womb, 'forming part of the lineage of the enemy of the gods' (suraripu-vamsansa-bhuto), uplifting the earth of her burden.[14] Maheswar Neog interprets 'the lineage of the enemy of the gods' as the Asura dynasty. Further, it is mentioned that Nandeswar was like a lion to the infuriated elephants who were his enemies(madunmataktu vipaksha kari-kesari).[15] These references of "lion over elephant" as well as "uplifting the earth of her burden" are similar to the references of Narakasura-Varaha as mentioned in the 10th century text Kalika Purana. The reason for his asura lineage is not explicitly explained in the inscription; but the two statements that his mother is 'Daivaki' and he has 'the shape of maternal uncle (who was) given the name of Daitya' (daityanāmāttamāmāmatih) can be seen as an indirect reference to his lineage. In many Puranas, Daivaki was known as the mother of Krishna as well as the sister of Kamsa, the maternal uncle of Krishna. Kamsa was the eldest son of Ugrasena, but in fact he was the incarnation of an asura called Kalanemi. The epigraphic record of Satyanarayan, whose lineage is named in reference to his maternal uncle, is therefore significant. It may constitute evidence of matrilineality of the Sadiya-based Chutiya ruling family, or that their system was not exclusively patrilineal. The demonic ancestry of the Chutiya ruling family therefore may represent their otherness and inferiority which were imposed by migrant brahmins. It surely resonates with the genealogical claims made by the three ruling families of Kamarupa ̶ Varmans, Mlecchas and Palas. They all emphasised the maternal side of the progenitor Narakasura, born between Bhumi, the Mother Earth, and Varaha, the boar incarnation of Vishnu. Naraka was almost always called Bhauma or the son of Bhumi in the epigraphic records of the time, and rulers of Kamarupa such as Brahmapala in the early tenth century claimed to belong to avanikula or the lineage of the Earth, that is the mother of Naraka.[16]
The Asura genealogical claims of the Chutiyas changed in the course of time due to the influence of neo-Vaishnavism. The lineage of Chutiya kings, explicitly mentioned as Sura-ripu-vamsa in the Dhenukhana inscription dated 1392, is absent from the later reconstructed chronicles; instead, they are represented as the descendants of king Bhismaka, the father-in-law of Krishna. Their divine kingship is further emphasised by the birth of the first king Gaudinarayan (alias Ratnadhvajapala) whose actual father was the god Kubera. It appears to follow the birth story of Biswa Sinha, the founder of Koch state in the sixteenth century, born between Shiva and Hira. At a deeper level, however, the story of Chutiyas reveals a different facet of their royal lineage. Firstly, Rupavati, the name of the Gaurinarayan's mother, carried negative connotations in Puranic traditions: she belonged to the daityas, one of the main lineages of asuras. This is similar to the reference of the maternal uncle of king Satyanarayan, who was also named Daitya, assigning the king a demonic genealogy. Secondly, the actual father of the Chutiya king was mentioned as Kubera, known as the lord of treasure and of various semi-divine beings including gandharvas, kimnaras, yaksas, etc. His original character was rather demonic as seen in the Atharvaveda, where he was described as the chief of evil spirits. Though he gained the status of a deva in the later period, he was still associated with raksasas as the half-brother of Ravana in the Mahabharata and the Ramayana.[17]
On one hand Kubera has long been associated with demonic beings, whereas on the other hand, the king of heaven, Indra has always been renowned for his victory over demons, the enemies of gods. Interestingly, the Ahoms, who annexed the Chutiya kingdom in 1524, traced their lineage to Indra in some accounts and called themselves Swargadeo (Lord of heaven): one version associates the Ahom royal family to the union of Indra with a low caste woman due to the curse of Vasistha, and the other version refers to Vasistha's curse on Indra who caused the flooding of his offerings of worship. Given the Chutiyas' prolonged struggle with the Ahoms, choosing Kubera as the tutelary deity of their ruling family seems to have a significant meaning. It discreetly connects political reality with the timeless sphere of the gods for asserting the Chutiyas' authority against the Ahoms. The belief that Kubera is the guardian deity of the north and Indra that of the east was perhaps not an unimportant point in this symbolic configuration of regional powers. Scholars, in fact, ascribe the Chutiya chronicles to the early 19th century, written by some members of the Chutiya aristocracy as an attempt to legitimize their claim. The fact that a slightly different version of the Chutiya royal lineage (mentioning Kiratani goddess) contains no mention of Bhismaka and Kubera suggests that there must have been diverse understandings of their origins before reinventing the past in a specific direction in the early nineteenth century. No legends are made without historical context, and no mythical figures are chosen at random from the past. They are deployed selectively as we saw in the case of Bhīṣmaka (neo-Vaishnavism influence) and Kubera(retaining Asura roots). The narrators, including those of royal genealogies, were 'aware of their role in transmitting a process that has the implications of being historical and linking the past to the present. The mode of discourse was not altogether arbitrary: it has some coherence in terms of continuity and a larger than local outlook.[18]
Foundation (1189)
The founder of the Chutiya kingdom was Birpal who claimed descent from a legendary king named Bhirmukka[19][20] and reigned in 1189. He ruled over 60 clans with his capital on a hill called Swarnagiri and assumed the title of Gayapal. He was succeeded by his son Sonagiripal assuming the title of Gaurinarayan.[21]
Expansion (1224–1250)
Gaurinarayan alias Ratnadhwajpal was one of the most powerful Chutia kings. He brought under his sway the neighbouring Chutia prinicipalities of Rangalgiri, Kalgiri, the Nilgiri, the Chandragiri, the Dhavalgiri and many more. He conquered the whole northeastern region of Assam which included the areas of present-day Arunachal Pradesh and assumed the title Chatra-dhari.[22] In around 1230 AD, with a large army, he attacked and defeated another Chutiya king, Bhadrasena, ruler of the Swetagiri and placed his son as a vassel chief. In the expedition, he gained rich booty and many prisoners of war belonging to the Brahmin, Tanti, Sonari, Sutar and Kumar classes whom he settled in various parts of the kingdom. He built his capital at Ratnapur (Majuli), hence also called Ratnadhwajpal and used certain techniques to advance the agricultural system in the kingdom. The neighboring Chutiya king, Nyaya Pal surrendered with costly gifts even before he was attacked. To cement the alliance, he married the daughter of Nyayapal. He built a line of forts along the foot of the hills against inroads by the hill tribes and built large tanks and temples for his people. In Kamatapur, when Kamateswar refused his daughter for one of the Gaurinarayan sons, the king marched against him, constructing a road with forts at certain intervals. Alarmed at the energy displayed by his troops, Kamateswar agreed to give one of the princesses in marriage to the Chutia prince.[21]
These expeditions by Gaurinarayan took Chutiya Kingdom to supremacy to such an extent that after a few years the impact of his power was felt even by the Gauda ruler. The Gauda ruler, possibly Keshava Sena, made friends with Gaurinarayan who sent one of his sons to that country to be educated. Unfortunately, the Chutiya Prince died there and the corpse was sent to Gaurinarayan, who was then engaged in building a new city. He named the city as Sadiya (Sa-Corpse, Diya-Given) which later on became the capital of the Chutiya Kingdom. Extensive remains of buildings and fortifications built during the rule of the Chutiyas near about Sadiya still point to the importance of the region in the past.
Chutia-Ahom conflicts (1512–1522)
The conflict between the Chutias and Ahoms started when Suhungmung annexed the Chutiya principalities of Habung and Panbari[23] in 1512 AD.[24] The then Chutiya king Dhirnarayan decided to attack the Ahom kingdom to prevent any further expansion. So, the following year Dhirnarayan, along with an army, sailed down the Dihing river and built a stockade of banana trees (Posola-garh) on the bank of the Dikhowmukh. A selected body of soldiers was stationed at a place near the Nongkongmung lake while another unit was dispatched with the navy to Shira-ati. The Chutia generals were Manik-Chandra Borua, Borhuloi Borua and Dhela Bora while the Ahoms were led by Chao Shukhring and two Railungia Gohains. A pitched battle was fought in which a large number of soldiers were killed. The Ahoms achieved victory in the battle and took possession of Mung-khrang (Dihingmukh) and a part of trans-Namdang region. In total about 5,000 Chutia men were killed in the battle.[25] Suhungmung ordered a township to be built in the newly acquired territory.[26] After this defeat, Dhirnarayan reorganised his army and attacked the Ahom fort in Dihing-mukh in the year 1520 AD.[27] The Ahom commander Khenmung was killed and his whole garrison fled. Thus, the areas of Mung-khrang, Habung, Panbari once again came under Chutia rule.[28] But, soon Dhirnarayan died and the reign of the kingdom was passed to the son-in-law named Nitipal who was weak and inefficient in ruling.
Downfall (1522–1524)
The kingdom saw its weakest state under Nityapal, the husband of Dhirnarayan daughter Sadhani. In 1522, Dhirnarayan due to his growing age passed down his throne to Nityapal. The Chutiya nobilities and ministers resisted the decision of giving away the throne to Nityapal. Many other vassal chiefs of Lakhimpur, Majuli, Biswanath became independent and were eventually annexed by the Ahoms. In the same year, Suhungmung came near the Nongkongmung lake and sent his men to attack the Chutias in Dihingmukh. The Chutias were chased from the place. They re-organised and attacked the Ahoms at the mouth of the Nam-Jon (Sessa) river. The Borgohain took leadership in the battle and pushed the Chutias northwards from the Sessa. He sent a general named Lashatai to meet the king, in a bor-nao (boat) obtained from the Chutias.[29] By that time, Suhungmung had come to a place named Cheruakata (Majuli). Lashatai met Suhungmung, who ordered him to fight with the Chutias stationed at the mouth of Tiphao(Dibru) river.[30] The Ahom king himself collected a great army and sailed to Dibrumukh. The Chutias were defeated there and retreated. In the month of Kati (1523 AD), Phrasengmung Borgohain and general Klinglun with their whole force, proceeded to the mouth of the Dibru river and constructed a fort (Dibrugarh) there. Suhungmung returned to Charaideo and offered sacrifices to the gods. In the next month Aghun, he stationed his forces at Sessamukh. Nitipal at that time advanced from Sadiya to Rupa (Rupai) and then to Larupara(Chabua). From there, he sent his army to Dibrugarh to fight with the invaders. The Chutia generals in this battle were Toktoru, Kasitara, Chuluki Chetia and Borpatra. Suhungmung hurried to the spot with strong reinforcements and routed the Chutias. The invading army then penetrated as far as Sonari (Kakopathar), when Nitipal sent Katakis (messengers) to the Ahom king along with gifts which included gold bedstead (ku), gold stool (kha), gold earrings (khao), gold-embroidered cloth (kham-sin) and stone-cut Xorai (phra-kha-phun) in order to settle for peace. In reply, Suhungmung asked for the Chutia royal heirloom (gold cat, gold and silver umbrella, royal bedstead and scepter) along with elephants and a girl. Nitipal agreed on sending the elephants and the girl, but did not give the royal heirloom as it belonged to his ancestors. Instead, after a month, he sent other gifts like gold and silver-gilded Jaapi (Kham-Ngiu-Kup), gold ring (Khup), gold box (Khap-kham), gold bookstand (Khu-tin-kham), golden bracelets (Mao-kham), Xorai, elephants, horses, ivory-mats, knives and Panikamoli cloth and started building a fort on the banks of Lohit river. [31] The Ahom king took the knives and the building of the fort as a sign of war and attacked Sadiya during Bohag month of 1524.[32]
The sudden attack at Sadiya (Che-lung) during Bihu forced the king and queen along with some of the soldiers who survived, to flee to the Chandangiri hills situated above Sadiya. The Chutiyas attacked valiantly against the invaders from the hills. They applied gurella warfare strategies and used Faakdhenu (crossbows) and spears. The army killed hundreds of enemies. The queen Sadhani formed a female fighting squad of 120 warriors. They assisted the army by rolling big boulders onto the enemy below. The invaders were unable to do anything. That day was 21 April (7th Bohag) and was widely considered as Ujha (Drummer's) Bisu. Therefore, one of the former ministers of the Chutias whom Nitipal had removed sided with the Ahoms and suggested the Ahom commander Phrasengmung Borgohain to play the Dhol. Thus the general ordered some captives to climb up Ghila creepers and play the Bihu drum or Dhol.[33] As it was the season of Bihu, the Chutia army took it to be a sign that re-enforcements had arrived from other parts and that it was a sign of victory, thinking the Ahoms were chased out. So, thinking the drum beats to be a signal of victory they came down to the lower hills where the enemies were hiding. Another former Chutia commander named Gajraj Borua who had sided with the Ahoms showed the enemies the exact way to the location where the king was hiding.[34] The king was attacked and killed by an arrow while the queen gave her life by jumping from the hill-top.
Aftermath (1524–1525)
After killing the Chutia royals, Taochulung Kungrin and Kingchen offered the severed head of the Chutiya king to Suhungmung in Sadiya. Phrasengmung Borgohain was made the Sadiya-khowa gohain(Chao-bo-ngen) and given three thousand men along with three elephants.[35] To strenghten the rule, the Ahoms set up colonies in Sadiya as well as on the banks of the Dihing river.[36] The Ahom king then returned to Charaideo, performed the Rikkvan ceremony and ordered the heads of the Chutia royals to be buried at the base of the stairs attached to the Deoghars. A new capital was built in Bakata on the banks of Dihing river. A number of Brahmins, artisans like blacksmiths(Komar), goldsmiths(Sonari), potter(Kumar), weavers(Tanti), masons(Khanikar), carpenter (Barhoi) were deported from Sadiya to the new capital. A lot of precious articles and valuable products were recovered from the Chutia country and sent via boats through the Dihing river to the capital. These included gold dishes (Maihang), royal palanquin (Kekura-Dola), the gold throne (Hunor tinisukia hinghakhan), gold bedstead (Khat), gold kettles (Bhug-jara), gold foot-tub (Bela) gold embroidered wicker hats (Jaapi), gold spittoon(Pikdan), royal shade (Aruwan), big-drums (Doba), trumpets (Kali) gun-boats (Hiloi-chara-nao), weapons like hand-cannons (Hiloi), large cannons ( Mithahulung), Chutia bow (Faak-dhenu), Long-bow (Bor-dhenu), gunpowder (Barud), spears (Barsa) as well as cattle, elephants and horses. Upon annexing the Chutia territories, the Ahoms came in contact with hill tribes like Miris, Abors,Mishmis and Daflas. The newly acquired territories were divided among the Buragohain, Borgohain and Borpatragohain (borrowed from the Chutiya Vrihat-patra)[37], while new offices were created to administer the country more efficiently. These included Bhatialia Gohain with headquarters at Habung (Lakhimpur), Banlungia Gohain at Banlung (Dhemaji), Dihingia gohain at Dihing (Dibrugarh and northern Sibsagar) and Chaolung Shulung at Tiphao (northern Dibrugarh).[38][39]
Rebellions (1525–1673)
Although the Ahoms annexed the Chutia territories, a number of Chutiyas went to the countryside where they were still in power and continued their fight against the Ahoms to reclaim their lost territories. The conflict went on for the next 150 years until it finally ended in 1673 when the Chutiyas fell under the domination of the Ahoms and were absorbed into their state.[21]
Geography
The Chutiyas held the areas to the north of Brahmaputra from Parshuram Kund in the east to Vishwanath in the west which represents the areas of Dhemaji district, Lakhimpur district and Sonitpur district of present Assam.[40] To the north, it controlled the present Miri Hills, Abor Hills and the Mishmi Hills (Rangalgiri, Kalgiri, Nilgiri, Chandragiri, Dhavalgiri)[1] in the state of Arunachal Pradesh. To the south of the Brahmaputra, it had parts of Dibrugarh district, Sibsagar district and almost the entire Tinsukia district under its rule.[13]
Rulers (1187–1524)
| # | Years | Reign | Name | Other names |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| 1 | 1187–1210 | 23 y | Birpal | Gayapal |
| 2 | 1210–1250 | 40 y | Ratnadhwajpal | Gaurinarayan |
| 3 | 1250–1270 | 20 y | Vijayadhwajpal | Shivanarayan |
| 4 | 1270–1285 | 15 y | Vikramadhwajpal | Jagatnarayan |
| 5 | 1285–1305 | 20 y | Gauradhwajpal | Pramattanarayan |
| 6 | 1305–1325 | 20 y | Sankhadhwajpal | Harinarayan |
| 7 | 1325–1343 | 18 y | Mayuradhwajpal | Goluknarayan |
| 8 | 1343–1360 | 17 y | Jayadhwajpal | Brajnarayan |
| 9 | 1360–1380 | 20 y | Karmadhwajpal | Nandeshwar |
| 10 | 1380–1400 | 20 y | Satyanarayan | Ratnanarayan |
| 11 | 1400–1415 | 20 y | Lakshminarayan | Dharmanarayan |
| 12 | 1415–1430 | 15 y | Durlabhanarayan | |
| 13 | 1430–1445 | 15 y | Muktadharmanarayan | |
| 14 | 1445–1465 | 20 y | Pratyakshnarayan | |
| 15 | 1465–1480 | 15 y | Yakshnarayan | |
| 16 | 1480–1500 | 20 y | Purandarnarayan | |
| 17 | 1500–1522 | 22 y | Dharmadhwajpal | Dhirnarayan |
| 18 | 1522–1524 | 2 y | Nityapal | Chandranarayan/Nitai |
References
- ^ a b Prakash 2007, pp. 911–916.
- ^ Barua, Sarbeswar,Purvottar Prabandha, p. 212
- ^ Kalita, Bharat Chandra, Military activities in Medieval Assam,p.23
- ^ Saikia, Yasmin,In the Meadows of Gold, p. 190.
- ^ Dutta 1985, p. 30.
- ^ Saikia, Yasmin, In the Meadows of Gold, p. 190.
- ^ Barua, Swarnalata, Chutia Jatir Buranji, p.139.
- ^ "639 Identifier Documentation: aho – ISO 639-3". SIL International (formerly known as the Summer Institute of Linguistics). SIL International. Retrieved 29 June 2019.
Ahom [aho]
- ^ "Population by Religious Communities". Census India – 2001. Ministry of Home Affairs, Government of India. Retrieved 1 July 2019.
Census Data Finder/C Series/Population by Religious Communities
- ^ "Population by religion community – 2011". Census of India, 2011. The Registrar General & Census Commissioner, India. Archived from the original on 25 August 2015.
2011census/C-01/DDW00C-01 MDDS.XLS
- ^ Prakash 2007, pp. 913.
- ^ Acharya, N. N. (1966). The History of Medieval Assam. p. 232.
- ^ a b Gogoi, Punyadhar (2006). War Weapons in Medieval Assam. Concept Publishing. pp. 20–21.
- ^ Neog, Prāchya-śāsanāvalī, text, p. 94: the Dhenukhana copper plate inscription, ll. 10-12
- ^ Neog, Lights on a Ruling Dynasty of Arunachal Pradesh, p. 212.
- ^ Jae-Eun Shin,Descending from Demons, Ascending to Kshatriyas: Genealogical Claims and Political Process in Pre-modern Northeast India, the Chutiyas and the Dimasas,p.5-7
- ^ Jae-Eun Shin,Descending from Demons, Ascending to Kshatriyas: Genealogical Claims and Political Process in Pre-modern Northeast India, the Chutiyas and the Dimasas,p.11-12
- ^ Jae-Eun Shin,Descending from Demons, Ascending to Kshatriyas: Genealogical Claims and Political Process in Pre-modern Northeast India, the Chutiyas and the Dimasas,p. 13
- ^ The Deodhai Buranji mentions Birpal to be a descendant of Bhirmukka. It also reads "Sadiya Korjaku-Desha Chutika-Bansha Bhirmukka".
- ^ Bhuyan,Surjya Kumar,Deodhai Buranji, 1932, p.134
- ^ a b c Prakash 2007, pp. 267.
- ^ Bhuyan,Surjya Kumar,Deodhai Buranji, 1932, p.135
- ^ Some Buranjis like PAB and DAB mention Panbari to be a part of Habung
- ^ A Chutia chief named Vrihat-patra referred to as Habung-adhipati is mentioned in the copper plate of Dharmarayan dated to 1428 AD.
- ^ Assam Buranji(SM), p.9
- ^ Deodhai Assam Buranji, p.15-16
- ^ Purani Assam Buranji, p.40
- ^ The copper plate inscription of land grant found in Dhakuakhana(formerly Habung) indicates that king Dhirnarayan donated 4000 bighas of land in the year 1522 AD to Brahmins
- ^ Deodhai Assam Buranji, p.17
- ^ Purani Assam Buranji,p.40
- ^ Barua,G.C.Ahom Buranji,p.56
- ^ Wade, J.P,An Account of Assam, p. 24
- ^ Bhuyan, S.K.Deodhai Buranji, p.200
- ^ Mahanta, Sukumar. Assam Buranji. D.H.A.S., 1945, p. 10.
- ^ The History of Medieval Assam,p.88
- ^ Gait, Edward,A history of Assam,p.86
- ^ Guha, A. The Ahom Political System, p.20
- ^ Gait, Edward, A history of Assam, p.8
- ^ Barua,G.C.Ahom Buranji, p.59, 61
- ^ Datta, S (1985). Mataks and their Kingdom (PDF). p. 28. Retrieved 28 June 2019.
- ^ Neog, Maheswar,LIGHT ON A RULING DYNASTY OF ARUNACHAL PRADESH IN THE FOURTEENTH AND FIFTEENTH CENTURIES, p.817
- ^ Barua, S.L. Chutiya Jatir Buranji. 2004, p. 107.
Bibliography
- Baruah, S L (1986), A Comprehensive History of Assam, Munshiram Manoharlal
- Prakash, Col. Ved (2007), Encyclopedia of North East India, vol. 2, Atlantic Publishers & Dist.
- Pathak, Guptajit (2008), Assam's history and its graphics, Mittal Publications
- Shin, Jae-Eun (2020). "Descending from demons, ascending to kshatriyas: Genealogical claims and political process in pre-modern Northeast India, The Chutiyas and the Dimasas". The Indian Economic and Social History Review. 57 (1): 49–75. doi:10.1177/0019464619894134.
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| Ancient Assam |  | |
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| Medieval Assam | ||
| Colonial Assam | ||
| Contemporary Assam | ||
History of Chutia people of Assam | |
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